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92-469: The Brixton Street Wetlands is an environmentally significant wetland area in the city of Perth , Western Australia. The wetlands are located in the suburb of Kenwick , in the south-east of the city not far from the foot of the Darling Scarp . The Brixton Street Wetlands occupies 126 hectares (310 acres) adjoining urban residential developments, schools and remnant semi-rural properties in an area which

184-711: A sink or a source of carbon, depending on the specific wetland. If they function as a carbon sink, they can help with climate change mitigation . However, wetlands can also be a significant source of methane emissions due to anaerobic decomposition of soaked detritus , and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide . Humans are disturbing and damaging wetlands in many ways, including oil and gas extraction , building infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock , overfishing , alteration of wetlands including dredging and draining, nutrient pollution , and water pollution . Wetlands are more threatened by environmental degradation than any other ecosystem on Earth, according to

276-604: A carbon-rich material) can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries. In industrial production, engineers typically capture carbon dioxide from emissions from power plants or factories. For example in the United States , the Executive Order 13990 (officially titled "Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle

368-402: A frequency and duration to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally included swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.' For each of these definitions and others, regardless of the purpose, hydrology is emphasized (shallow waters, water-logged soils). The soil characteristics and

460-464: A large role in carbon sequestration (high confidence) with high resilience to disturbances and additional benefits such as enhanced biodiversity." Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or subarctic regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high- albedo , snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to

552-1248: A polar climate, wetland temperatures can be as low as −50 °C (−58 °F). Peatlands in arctic and subarctic regions insulate the permafrost , thus delaying or preventing its thawing during summer, as well as inducing its formation. The amount of precipitation a wetland receives varies widely according to its area. Wetlands in Wales , Scotland , and western Ireland typically receive about 1,500 mm (59 in) per year. In some places in Southeast Asia , where heavy rains occur, they can receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in). In some drier regions, wetlands exist where as little as 180 mm (7.1 in) precipitation occurs each year. Temporal variation: Surface flow may occur in some segments, with subsurface flow in other segments. Wetlands vary widely due to local and regional differences in topography , hydrology , vegetation , and other factors, including human involvement. Other important factors include fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory , burial and salinity. When peat accumulates, bogs and fens arise. The most important factor producing wetlands

644-431: A portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper, and pallets. If all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of mass timber in low rise construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year. This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from

736-540: A portion of the overall water cycle, which also includes atmospheric water (precipitation) and groundwater . Many wetlands are directly linked to groundwater and they can be a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetlands that have permeable substrates like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables have especially important roles in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. Substrates that are porous allow water to filter down through

828-426: A positive change such as the formation of clouds . These clouds then reflect the sunlight , lowering temperatures. Planting trees in tropical climates with wet seasons has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of

920-400: A protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and storm surges is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters. Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is

1012-405: A sink to a source. With rising temperatures comes an increase in greenhouse gasses from wetlands especially locations with permafrost . When this permafrost melts it increases the available oxygen and water in the soil. Because of this, bacteria in the soil would create large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to be released into the atmosphere. The link between climate change and wetlands

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1104-422: A strong influence on wetland water chemistry, particularly in coastal wetlands and in arid and semiarid regions with large precipitation deficits. Natural salinity is regulated by interactions between ground and surface water, which may be influenced by human activity. Carbon is the major nutrient cycled within wetlands. Most nutrients, such as sulfur , phosphorus , carbon , and nitrogen are found within

1196-532: A tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that: "The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020". In Canada's boreal forests as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report says: "Secondary forest regrowth and restoration of degraded forests and non-forest ecosystems can play

1288-410: A unique kind of wetland where lush plant growth and slow decay of dead plants (under anoxic conditions) results in organic peat accumulating; bogs, fens, and mires are different names for peatlands. Variations of names for wetland systems: Some wetlands have localized names unique to a region such as the prairie potholes of North America's northern plain, pocosins , Carolina bays and baygalls of

1380-508: A wetland is "an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic and aerobic processes, which, in turn, forces the biota, particularly rooted plants, to adapt to flooding". Sometimes a precise legal definition of a wetland is required. The definition used for regulation by the United States government is: 'The term "wetlands" means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at

1472-422: A wetland system includes its plants ( flora ) and animals ( fauna ) and microbes (bacteria, fungi). The most important factor is the wetland's duration of flooding. Other important factors include fertility and salinity of the water or soils. The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands depends on the source of water, the geological material that it flows through and the nutrients discharged from organic matter in

1564-403: A wetland) affects hydro-periods (temporal fluctuations in water levels) by controlling the water balance and water storage within a wetland. Landscape characteristics control wetland hydrology and water chemistry. The O 2 and CO 2 concentrations of water depend upon temperature , atmospheric pressure and mixing with the air (from winds or water flows). Water chemistry within wetlands

1656-558: A whole. To replace these wetland ecosystem services , enormous amounts of money would need to be spent on water purification plants, dams, levees, and other hard infrastructure, and many of the services are impossible to replace. Floodplains and closed-depression wetlands can provide the functions of storage reservoirs and flood protection. The wetland system of floodplains is formed from major rivers downstream from their headwaters . "The floodplains of major rivers act as natural storage reservoirs, enabling excess water to spread out over

1748-577: A wide area, which reduces its depth and speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and rivers can slow down rainwater runoff and spring snowmelt so that it does not run straight off the land into water courses. This can help prevent sudden, damaging floods downstream." Notable river systems that produce wide floodplains include the Nile River , the Niger river inland delta, the Zambezi River flood plain,

1840-411: Is carbon sequestration . The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management

1932-521: Is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass waste. The resulting material is added to a landfill or used as a soil improver to create terra preta . Adding biochar may increase the soil-C stock for the long term and so mitigate global warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually). In the soil, the biochar carbon is unavailable for oxidation to CO 2 and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of

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2024-404: Is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural , commercial, or residential development. The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion. The mass of SOC able to be stored in these restored plots is typically greater than the previous crop, acting as a more effective carbon sink. Biochar

2116-433: Is an important carbon sink ; 14.5% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5.5% of the world's land is composed of wetlands. Not only are wetlands a great carbon sink, they have many other benefits like collecting floodwater, filtering out air and water pollutants, and creating a home for numerous birds, fish, insects, and plants. Climate change could alter wetland soil carbon storage, changing it from

2208-487: Is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture . It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Agricultural methods for carbon farming include adjusting how tillage and livestock grazing is done, using organic mulch or compost , working with biochar and terra preta , and changing the crop types. Methods used in forestry include reforestation and bamboo farming . Prairie restoration

2300-572: Is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes, and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%. This loss is due to harvesting , as plants contain carbon. When land use changes , the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, and this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate. The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing

2392-440: Is determined by the pH , salinity , nutrients, conductivity , soil composition, hardness , and the sources of water. Water chemistry varies across landscapes and climatic regions. Wetlands are generally minerotrophic (waters contain dissolved materials from soils) with the exception of ombrotrophic bogs that are fed only by water from precipitation. Because bogs receive most of their water from precipitation and humidity from

2484-433: Is disturbed the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere, and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink. Additionally, some wetlands can release non-CO 2 greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via blue carbon by wetlands can also be difficult to measure. Wetland soil

2576-412: Is hydrology, or flooding . The duration of flooding or prolonged soil saturation by groundwater determines whether the resulting wetland has aquatic, marsh or swamp vegetation . Other important factors include soil fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory , burial, and salinity. When peat from dead plants accumulates, bogs and fens develop. Wetland hydrology is associated with

2668-451: Is much lower than carbon capture from e.g. power plant emissions. CO 2 fixation into woody biomass is a natural process carried out through photosynthesis . This is a nature-based solution and methods being trialled include the use of "wood vaults" to store the wood-containing carbon under oxygen-free conditions. In 2022 a certification organization published methodologies for biomass burial. Other biomass storage proposals have included

2760-432: Is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. These processes can be accelerated for example through changes in land use and agricultural practices, called carbon farming . Artificial processes have also been devised to produce similar effects. This approach is called carbon capture and storage . It involves using technology to capture and sequester (store) CO 2 that

2852-664: Is part of the natural carbon cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere (soil), geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of Earth . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, or physical processes, and stored in long-term reservoirs. Plants, such as forests and kelp beds , absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass . However, these biological stores are considered volatile carbon sinks as long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. Events such as wildfires or disease, economic pressures, and changing political priorities can result in

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2944-422: Is produced from human activities underground or under the sea bed. Plants, such as forests and kelp beds , absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores may be temporary carbon sinks , as long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. Wildfires , disease, economic pressures, and changing political priorities may release the sequestered carbon back into

3036-515: Is rapidly urbanising. Roe Highway , a major transport artery, runs along one boundary of the wetlands, together with a parallel railway line. The wetlands contain a huge number of plant species for such a small area, some of which are rare and endangered. Over 400 plant species, comprising some 20% of the flora species of the Perth area, can be found in the wetlands. Of these, about 80 flowering plants are considered endangered and are not commonly found on

3128-459: Is still not fully known. It is also not clear how restored wetlands manage carbon while still being a contributing source of methane. However, preserving these areas would help prevent further release of carbon into the atmosphere. Despite occupying only 3% of the global land area, peatlands hold approximately 30% of the carbon in our ecosystem - twice the amount stored in the world's forests. Most peatlands are situated in high latitude areas of

3220-424: Is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources. In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation . The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s. Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as

3312-449: Is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation and sustainable forest management . Land-use changes that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include

3404-451: Is the only place in the world where both crocodiles and alligators coexist. The saltwater crocodile inhabits estuaries and mangroves. Snapping turtles also inhabit wetlands. Birds , particularly waterfowl and waders use wetlands extensively. Mammals of wetlands include numerous small and medium-sized species such as voles , bats , muskrats and platypus in addition to large herbivorous and apex predator species such as

3496-429: Is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide." Therefore, the difference between carbon sequestration and carbon capture and storage (CCS) is sometimes blurred in the media. The IPCC, however, defines CCS as "a process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from industrial sources is separated, treated and transported to a long-term storage location". Carbon sequestration

3588-488: Is used in different ways in the literature and media. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines it as "The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool". Subsequently, a pool is defined as "a reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, reside in various chemical forms for a period of time". The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines carbon sequestration as follows: "Carbon sequestration

3680-545: Is usually saturated with water". More precisely, wetlands are areas where "water covers the soil , or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season". A patch of land that develops pools of water after a rain storm would not necessarily be considered a "wetland", even though the land is wet. Wetlands have unique characteristics: they are generally distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level and on

3772-1121: The Brixton Street Swamps ), and were placed on the Register of the National Estate of the Australian Heritage Commission on 21 November 2000. Wetland Wetlands exist on every continent , except Antarctica . The water in wetlands is either freshwater , brackish or saltwater . The main types of wetland are defined based on the dominant plants and the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation such as reeds , cattails and sedges . Swamps are dominated by woody vegetation such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees). Mangrove forest are wetlands with mangroves , halophytic woody plants that have evolved to tolerate salty water . Examples of wetlands classified by

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3864-492: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from 2005. Methods exist for assessing wetland ecological health . These methods have contributed to wetland conservation by raising public awareness of the functions that wetlands can provide. Since 1971, work under an international treaty seeks to identify and protect " wetlands of international importance ." A simplified definition of wetland is "an area of land that

3956-666: The Pantanal in South America, and the Sundarbans in the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta. Wetlands contribute many ecosystem services that benefit people. These include for example water purification , stabilization of shorelines, storm protection and flood control . In addition, wetlands also process and condense carbon (in processes called carbon fixation and sequestration ), and other nutrients and water pollutants . Wetlands can act as

4048-728: The Swan Coastal Plain on which Perth is located, and the plant communities located here are in fact the last substantial wetland plant communities on the plain's claypans. Four of the species are classified as Declared Rare Flora, including Purdie's donkey orchid ( Diuris purdiei ). Fauna include frogs, snakes and insects, but the wetlands are especially important as a habitat for the rare southern brown bandicoot ( Isoodon obesulus ), often known by its Nyoongar Aboriginal name of quenda. The wetlands were entered into A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia in 1992 (recorded there as

4140-444: The atmosphere , their water usually has low mineral ionic composition. In contrast, wetlands fed by groundwater or tides have a higher concentration of dissolved nutrients and minerals. Fen peatlands receive water both from precipitation and ground water in varying amounts so their water chemistry ranges from acidic with low levels of dissolved minerals to alkaline with high accumulation of calcium and magnesium . Salinity has

4232-576: The beavers , coypu , swamp rabbit , Florida panther , jaguar , and moose . Wetlands attract many mammals due to abundant seeds, berries, and other vegetation as food for herbivores, as well as abundant populations of invertebrates, small reptiles and amphibians as prey for predators. Invertebrates of wetlands include aquatic insects such as dragonflies , aquatic bugs and beetles , midges, mosquitos , crustaceans such as crabs, crayfish, shrimps, microcrustaceans, mollusks like clams, mussels, snails and worms. Invertebrates comprise more than half of

4324-436: The girth of 70,000 trees across Africa has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one-fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, Amazonia and Asia . Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering

4416-500: The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks , meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO 2 long-term. Sustainable forest management , afforestation , reforestation are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation. An important consideration in such efforts

4508-579: The Climate Crisis") from 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. The document emphasizes the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration. It directs the Treasury Department to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms. Biological carbon sequestration (also called biosequestration )

4600-619: The Okavango River inland delta, the Kafue River flood plain, the Lake Bangweulu flood plain (Africa), Mississippi River (US), Amazon River (South America), Yangtze River (China), Danube River (Central Europe) and Murray-Darling River (Australia). Groundwater replenishment can be achieved for example by marsh , swamp , and subterranean karst and cave hydrological systems. The surface water visibly seen in wetlands only represents

4692-511: The Southeastern US, mallines of Argentina, Mediterranean seasonal ponds of Europe and California, turloughs of Ireland, billabongs of Australia, among many others. Wetlands are found throughout the world in different climates. Temperatures vary greatly depending on the location of the wetland. Many of the world's wetlands are in the temperate zones , midway between the North or South Poles and

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4784-494: The US, the best known classifications are the Cowardin classification system and the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification system. The Cowardin system includes five main types of wetlands: marine (ocean-associated), estuarine (mixed ocean- and river-associated), riverine (within river channels), lacustrine (lake-associated) and palustrine (inland nontidal habitats). Peatlands are

4876-610: The United States' commercial fish and shellfish stocks depend solely on estuaries to survive. Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders need both terrestrial and aquatic habitats in which to reproduce and feed. Because amphibians often inhabit depressional wetlands like prairie potholes and Carolina bays, the connectivity among these isolated wetlands is an important control of regional populations. While tadpoles feed on algae, adult frogs forage on insects. Frogs are sometimes used as an indicator of ecosystem health because their thin skin permits absorption of nutrients and toxins from

4968-415: The amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation. Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils. Following carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) absorption from the atmosphere, plants deposit organic matter into

5060-467: The atmosphere's carbon pool in 2019. Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions, and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber . However, only

5152-402: The atmosphere. Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by injecting it underground, or in the form of insoluble carbonate salts. The latter process is called mineral sequestration . These methods are considered non-volatile because they not only remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere but also sequester it indefinitely. This means

5244-421: The carbon already present in the soil. Terra preta , an anthropogenic , high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to charcoal , which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils ( biochar or agrichar ). Burying biomass (such as trees) directly mimics

5336-419: The carbon capture and storage approaches, carbon sequestration refers to the storage component. Artificial carbon storage technologies can be applied, such as gaseous storage in deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), and solid storage by reaction of CO 2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates . For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using

5428-410: The carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals. About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper metre and is stabilized by mineral-organic associations. Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil , crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this

5520-496: The carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertilizer, or include perennial crops in the rotation. Perennial crops have a larger below-ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content. Perennial crops reduce the need for tillage and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain >8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times

5612-419: The carbon is "locked away" for thousands to millions of years. To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following chemical or physical technologies have been proposed: ocean fertilization , artificial upwelling , basalt storage, mineralization and deep-sea sediments, and adding bases to neutralize acids. However, none have achieved large scale application so far. Large-scale seaweed farming on

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5704-482: The carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die. To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar , bioenergy with carbon capture and storage , landfill or stored by use in construction. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover, although this estimate has been criticized, and

5796-513: The conservation, management, and restoration of ecosystems such as forests, peatlands , wetlands , and grasslands , in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture. Methods and practices exist to enhance soil carbon sequestration in both agriculture and forestry . Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis . Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation . By removing

5888-412: The displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce. A meta-analysis found that mixed species plantations would increase carbon storage alongside other benefits of diversifying planted forests. Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or

5980-622: The equator. In these zones, summers are warm and winters are cold, but temperatures are not extreme. In subtropical zone wetlands, such as along the Gulf of Mexico , average temperatures might be 11 °C (52 °F). Wetlands in the tropics are subjected to much higher temperatures for a large portion of the year. Temperatures for wetlands on the Arabian Peninsula can exceed 50 °C (122 °F) and these habitats would therefore be subject to rapid evaporation. In northeastern Siberia , which has

6072-494: The following areas: According to the Ramsar Convention: The economic worth of the ecosystem services provided to society by intact, naturally functioning wetlands is frequently much greater than the perceived benefits of converting them to 'more valuable' intensive land use – particularly as the profits from unsustainable use often go to relatively few individuals or corporations, rather than being shared by society as

6164-614: The future than keeping existing forests intact. It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution ". The planting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO 2 into biomass . For this carbon sequestration process to succeed

6256-464: The interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic systems, making them inherently different from each other, yet highly dependent on both." In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty , wetlands are defined as follows: An ecological definition of

6348-462: The known animal species in wetlands, and are considered the primary food web link between plants and higher animals (such as fish and birds). Depending on a wetland's geographic and topographic location, the functions it performs can support multiple ecosystem services , values, or benefits. United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Ramsar Convention described wetlands as a whole to be of biosphere significance and societal importance in

6440-425: The latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation . Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest. Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019. Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in

6532-446: The natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be significantly delayed or prevented from being re-released into the atmosphere (by combustion, decay, etc.) from an existing carbon-rich material, by being incorporated into an enduring usage (such as in construction). Thereafter it can be passively stored or remain productively utilized over time in a variety of ways. For instance, upon harvesting, wood (as

6624-550: The natural processes that created fossil fuels . The global potential for carbon sequestration using wood burial is estimated to be 10 ± 5 GtC/yr and largest rates in tropical forests (4.2 GtC/yr), followed by temperate (3.7 GtC/yr) and boreal forests (2.1 GtC/yr). In 2008, Ning Zeng of the University of Maryland estimated 65 GtC lying on the floor of the world's forests as coarse woody material which could be buried and costs for wood burial carbon sequestration run at 50 USD/tC which

6716-464: The northern hemisphere, with most of their growth occurring since the last ice age , but they are also found in tropical regions, such as the Amazon and Congo Basin. Peatlands grow steadily over thousands of years, accumulating dead plant material – and the carbon contained within it – due to waterlogged conditions which greatly slow rates of decay. If peatlands are drained, for farmland or development,

6808-467: The other hand is a biological process and could sequester significant amounts of carbon. The potential growth of seaweed for carbon farming would see the harvested seaweed transported to the deep ocean for long-term burial. The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" on seaweed farming as a mitigation tactic. The term carbon sequestration

6900-584: The plant material stored within them decomposes rapidly, releasing stored carbon. These degraded peatlands account for 5-10% of global carbon emissions from human activities. The loss of one peatland could potentially produce more carbon than 175–500 years of methane emissions . Peatland protection and restoration are therefore important measures to mitigate carbon emissions, and also provides benefits for biodiversity, freshwater provision, and flood risk reduction. Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When soil

6992-832: The plants and animals controlled by the wetland hydrology are often additional components of the definitions. Wetlands can be tidal (inundated by tides) or non-tidal. The water in wetlands is either freshwater , brackish , saline , or alkaline . There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh , swamp , bog , and fen (bogs and fens being types of peatlands or mires ). Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types. Sub-types include mangrove forests , carrs , pocosins , floodplains , peatlands, vernal pools , sinks , and many others. The following three groups are used within Australia to classify wetland by type: Marine and coastal zone wetlands, inland wetlands and human-made wetlands. In

7084-474: The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool . It plays a crucial role in limiting climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic (also called biosequestration ) and geologic. Biologic carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process as part of the carbon cycle . Humans can enhance it through deliberate actions and use of technology. Carbon dioxide ( CO 2 )

7176-434: The rate of change." Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation. It is a good way to reduce climate change. Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as mangroves , sea grasses , and salt marshes , is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of

7268-562: The sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration - when acting as a carbon sink - helps to mitigate climate change and thus reduce harmful effects of climate change . It helps to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which is mainly carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon sequestration, when applied for climate change mitigation, can either build on enhancing naturally occurring carbon sequestration or use technology for carbon sequestration processes. Within

7360-429: The soil and underlying rock into aquifers which are the source of much of the world's drinking water . Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is high. Mangroves , coral reefs , salt marsh can help with shoreline stabilization and storm protection. Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide

7452-537: The soil of wetlands. Anaerobic and aerobic respiration in the soil influences the nutrient cycling of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the solubility of phosphorus thus contributing to the chemical variations in its water. Wetlands with low pH and saline conductivity may reflect the presence of acid sulfates and wetlands with average salinity levels can be heavily influenced by calcium or magnesium. Biogeochemical processes in wetlands are determined by soils with low redox potential. The life forms of

7544-414: The soil slows down the decomposition of organic material, leading to the accumulation of carbon-rich sediments, acting as a long-term carbon sink . Also, anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils hinder the complete breakdown of organic matter, promoting the conversion of carbon into more stable forms. As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it

7636-419: The soil. This organic matter, derived from decaying plant material and root systems, is rich in carbon compounds. Microorganisms in the soil break down this organic matter, and in the process, some of the carbon becomes further stabilized in the soil as humus - a process known as humification . On a global basis, it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon. This is greater than 3-fold

7728-412: The soils and plants at higher elevations. Plants and animals may vary within a wetland seasonally or in response to flood regimes. There are four main groups of hydrophytes that are found in wetland systems throughout the world. Submerged wetland vegetation can grow in saline and fresh-water conditions. Some species have underwater flowers, while others have long stems to allow the flowers to reach

7820-515: The sources of water include tidal wetlands , where the water source is ocean tides ); estuaries , water source is mixed tidal and river waters; floodplains , water source is excess water from overflowed rivers or lakes; and bogs and vernal ponds , water source is rainfall or meltwater . The world's largest wetlands include the Amazon River basin , the West Siberian Plain ,

7912-406: The spatial and temporal dispersion, flow, and physio-chemical attributes of surface and ground waters. Sources of hydrological flows into wetlands are predominantly precipitation , surface water (saltwater or freshwater), and groundwater. Water flows out of wetlands by evapotranspiration , surface flows and tides , and subsurface water outflow. Hydrodynamics (the movement of water through and from

8004-709: The surface of the water. When trees and shrubs comprise much of the plant cover in saturated soils, those areas in most cases are called swamps . The upland boundary of swamps is determined partly by water levels. This can be affected by dams Some swamps can be dominated by a single species, such as silver maple swamps around the Great Lakes . Others, like those of the Amazon basin , have large numbers of different tree species. Other examples include cypress ( Taxodium ) and mangrove swamps. Many species of fish are highly dependent on wetland ecosystems. Seventy-five percent of

8096-490: The surface. Submerged species provide a food source for native fauna, habitat for invertebrates, and also possess filtration capabilities. Examples include seagrasses and eelgrass . Floating water plants or floating vegetation are usually small, like those in the Lemnoideae subfamily (duckweeds). Emergent vegetation like the cattails ( Typha spp.), sedges ( Carex spp.) and arrow arum ( Peltandra virginica ) rise above

8188-457: The surrounding environment resulting in increased extinction rates in unfavorable and polluted environmental conditions. Reptiles such as snakes , lizards , turtles , alligators and crocodiles are common in wetlands of some regions. In freshwater wetlands of the Southeastern US, alligators are common and a freshwater species of crocodile occurs in South Florida. The Florida Everglades

8280-442: The true area that has a net cooling effect on the climate when accounting for biophysical feedbacks like albedo is 20-80% lower. Planting and protecting these trees would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon if the trees survive future climate stress to reach maturity. To put this number into perspective, this is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions (as of 2019) . This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of

8372-440: The types of plants that live within them. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a water table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants . A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil and hydrophytes . Wetlands have also been described as ecotones , providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. Wetlands exist "...at

8464-458: The world's land is composed of wetlands. Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive CO 2 sinks and many are being restored. Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve water quality , and aid with flood control . The plants that makeup wetlands absorb carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere and convert it into organic matter. The waterlogged nature of

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