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61-569: Recreational caving in the United Kingdom dates back to the mid-19th century. The four major caving areas of the United Kingdom are North Yorkshire , South Wales , Derbyshire , and the Mendips . Minor areas include Devon , North Wales , and the Scottish Highlands . Caving grew in popularity in the 1950s and 60s through participation in caving clubs. There are about 4,000 active cavers in

122-581: A cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system. In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington , known as "Vertical Bill", further developed the single-rope technique (SRT) in

183-400: A cave. Cave maps, called surveys , can be used to compare caves to each other by length, depth and volume, may reveal clues on speleogenesis , provide a spatial reference for further scientific study, and assist visitors with route-finding. Caves provide a home for many unique biota. Cave ecologies are very diverse, and not sharply distinct from surface habitats. Generally however, the deeper

244-615: A club library. They are seldom published (except in reduced form in a guidebook) and can be difficult to obtain because there is no central catalogue listing who holds what. In about 2012 a central repository for survey data and drawn-up surveys was set up by the BCA and now contains a significant amount of UK (and some foreign, from expeditions) survey data. There are also projects that are attempting to assemble online maps and catalogues from repositories of surveys by overlaying them on satellite imagery: The most widely referenced guidebooks for caving

305-442: A dissolution of existing features. Pollution is also of concern. Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone's drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well. Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota. Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile, and often,

366-503: A flexible metal ladder . In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting feces out of the cave are carried. During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave – some cavers have stayed underground for many days, or in particularly extreme cases, for weeks at

427-499: A group for companionship or to provide emergency help if needed. Some however consider the assistance cavers give each other as a typical team sport activity. The term potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes , a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves . Clay Perry , an American caver of the 1940s, wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England . This group referred to themselves as spelunkers ,

488-525: A particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world, such as Alabama cave shrimp . Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves. Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during

549-534: A pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under all but the most gentle touch. In 1988, concerned that cave resources were becoming increasingly damaged through unregulated use, Congress enacted

610-402: A sinkhole, frogs swept into a cave by a flash flood, etc. The two factors that limit cave ecologies are generally energy and nutrients. To some degree moisture is always available in actively forming Karst caves. Cut off from the sunlight and steady deposition of plant detritus, caves are poor habitats in comparison with wet areas on the surface. Most of the energy in cave environments comes from

671-693: A term derived from the Latin spēlunca ("cave, cavern, den"). This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas . Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English . It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US. In the 1960s, the terms spelunking and spelunker began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts. In 1985, Steve Knutson – editor of

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732-424: A time. This is particularly the case when exploring or mapping extensive cave systems, where it would be impractical to retrace the route back to the surface regularly. Such long trips necessitate the cavers carrying provisions, sleeping, and cooking equipment. Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling , flooding , falling rocks and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground

793-400: Is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialized courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving

854-426: Is highly favorable for the growth of microbes . Microbial assemblages in caves include archaea , bacteria , fungi and other micro- eukaryotes , these highly adapted microbial communities represent the living-backbone of cave ecosystems and play a key role in shaping structures and sustaining trophic networks. The creation of an accurate, detailed map is one of the most common technical activities undertaken within

915-416: Is in the form of extensive personal archives that have been bequeathed to the community. Some areas also have extensive databases of diagrams and other survey documents for particular areas. The following libraries are open to club members, some of which are also open to non-members. Cave surveys have historically been kept by the person who drew them (with the measurement data often lost), or deposited in

976-413: Is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key. Caving in warmer climates carries the risk of contracting histoplasmosis , a fungal infection that is contracted from bird or bat droppings. It can cause pneumonia and can disseminate in the body to cause continued infections. In many parts of

1037-521: Is the scientific study of caves and other karst features, as well as their composition , structure, physical properties , history, ecology , and the processes by which they form ( speleogenesis ) and change over time (speleomorphology). The term speleology is also sometimes applied to the recreational activity of exploring caves, but this is more properly known as caving , potholing (British English), or spelunking (United States and Canadian English). Speleology and caving are often connected, as

1098-434: Is used, to provide some abrasion protection while remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn – hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies ) often with neoprene socks ("wetsocks") in wetter caves. Knee -pads (and sometimes elbow -pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on

1159-623: The Alpazat cave rescue in Mexico in 2004, France in 2010, Ireland in 2011, Norway in 2006 and 2014, and the Tham Luang cave rescue in Thailand in 2018. Many clubs hold extensive libraries recording decades of exploration in terms of surveys and logbooks, as well as newsletters, reports and books detailing the history of cave explorations both within their nearby areas and abroad on expeditions. Other information

1220-507: The Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble , which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in

1281-587: The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act , giving land management agencies in the United States expanded authority to manage cave conservation on public land. Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. The oldest of these is the French Federation of Speleology (originally Société de spéléologie) founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895, which produced

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1342-750: The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was held in the UK in 1977 at which British speleological achievements were presented and discussed. Gordon Warwick became a vice president of the UIS, taking a major role at its international conferences. British cave divers continued to pioneer explorations at Wookey Hole in the Mendips, Keld Head in the Yorkshire Dales and Pozo Azul in Spain. Innovations in techniques and equipment in

1403-426: The National Speleological Society (NSS) publication American Caving Accidents  – made the following distinction: …Note that (in this case) the term 'spelunker' denotes someone untrained and unknowledgeable in current exploration techniques, and 'caver' is for those who are. This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and T-shirts displayed by some cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers". Nevertheless, outside

1464-715: The Peak District , Ingleborough Cave in the Yorkshire Dales , and Marble Arch Caves in County Fermanagh . The British Caving Association is the national body for caving in the United Kingdom. There are a number of regional caving organisations in the UK such as the Cambrian Caving Council . Many caving clubs exist, which often run expeditions abroad, for example to particular territories such as Matienzo or Picos . The British Cave Rescue Council (BCRC)

1525-432: The rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of vertical exploration to a wider range of cavers. Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric LED lights are most common. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light – one as primary and

1586-801: The 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills . One of the oldest established caving clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers' Club , was founded in 1892. Caving as a specialized pursuit was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac , in France, as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110-metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In

1647-713: The 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France ( Causses and Pyrenees ) transformed cave exploration into both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly , Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time, surveying mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II , an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier , Fernand Petzl , Charles Petit-Didier and others explored

1708-618: The 1970s, 1980s and onwards improved safety and made more advanced exploration possible. In 1979, watched by 20 million television viewers, The Underground Eiger showed a world record-breaking cave dive of 6,000 ft (1,800 m) made by Geoff Yeadon and Oliver Statham. Two years later, Martyn Farr established a new world record for underwater cave penetration in the Bahamas. Because of the long and active history of caving, almost every entrance with surface access in Britain has been fully explored, so

1769-459: The British Isles. The rescuers are all experienced cavers who have undertaken training in underground rescue techniques and many have additional specialist skills such as casualty care or cave diving. Through BCRC, British cave divers, particularly Richard Stanton , John Volanthen , Jason Mallison and Chris Jewell have been called on internationally for cave rescues and recoveries. These include

1830-671: The Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939). An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone, France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris. The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was founded in 1965. Speleology Speleology (from Ancient Greek σπήλαιον ( spḗlaion )  'cave' and -λογία ( -logía )  'study of')

1891-524: The UK and about 70,000 people who went on instructor-led courses into caves in the Yorkshire Dales. The four major caving areas of the United Kingdom are North Yorkshire , South Wales , Derbyshire , and the Mendips . Minor areas include Devon , North Wales , and the Scottish Highlands . There are a number of show caves open to visitors in the main caving areas, including Wookey Hole Caves on Mendip , Dan-yr-Ogof in South Wales , Peak Cavern in

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1952-640: The UK and nearly twenty times that number who attend instructor-led courses each year in caves around the country. In addition, many tourists visit show caves such as Wookey Hole Caves . Cave diving is a niche technical area of caving practised in the UK since the 1930s. This skill enables cavers to explore water-filled cave passages in Britain, and around the world. In recent years, British cave divers have been called on internationally for cave rescues and recoveries. Before modern caving developed, John Beaumont wrote detailed descriptions of some Mendip caves in 1681, and in 1780 John Hutton described some of

2013-443: The UK are: Caving The challenges involved in caving vary according to the cave being visited; in addition to the total absence of light beyond the entrance, negotiating pitches , squeezes, and water hazards can be difficult. Cave diving is a distinct, and more hazardous, sub-speciality undertaken by a small minority of technically proficient cavers. In an area of overlap between recreational pursuit and scientific study,

2074-418: The cave becomes, the more rarefied the ecology. Cave environments fall into three general categories: Cave organisms fall into three basic classes: There are also so-called accidental trogloxenes which are surface organisms that enter caves for no survival reason. Some may even be troglophobes (“cave haters”), which cannot survive in caves for any extended period. Examples include deer which fell through

2135-498: The caves around Ingleborough , which was to popularise caves to those seeking the picturesque . In the 19th century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in Yorkshire , notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847–48, returning there in the 1870s. In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in the 1890s Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills . Frenchman Édouard-Alfred Martel reached

2196-462: The caving community, "spelunking" and "spelunkers" predominately remain neutral terms referring to the practice and practitioners, without any respect to skill level. In the mid-nineteenth century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in England, notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847–8, returning there in the 1870s. In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in

2257-564: The concept of speleology as a distinct area of study. In 1895 Martel founded the Société de Spéléologie , the first organization devoted to cave science in the world. Other early speleologists include Herbert E. Balch . An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone , France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris . The International Union of Speleology (UIS)

2318-652: The decomposition of the materials can happen as well. A speleothem is a geological formation by mineral deposits that accumulate over time in natural caves . Speleothems most commonly form in calcareous caves due to carbonate dissolution reactions. They can take a variety of forms, depending on their depositional history and environment. Their chemical composition, gradual growth, and preservation in caves make them useful paleoclimatic proxies. Caves have an absence of stable temperature , high relative humidity , low rates of evaporation and limited supply of organic material , which help in creating an environment which

2379-444: The environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece ("furry") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura ) or waterproof (e.g., PVC ) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing

2440-472: The first periodical journal in speleology, Spelunca . The first University-based speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca , Romania, by Emil Racovita , a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica. The British Speleological Association was established in 1935 and the National Speleological Society in the US was founded in 1941 (originally formed as

2501-580: The last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate, enter and survey them. In well-explored regions (such as most developed nations), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires cave digging or cave diving. Caving, in certain areas, has also been utilized as a form of eco and adventure tourism, for example in New Zealand . Tour companies have established an industry leading and guiding tours into and through caves. Depending on

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2562-621: The late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar . In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll , that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to vertical caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl . The development of

2623-500: The majority of new discoveries take place after months and sometimes years of cave digging . Notable recent discoveries since 1995 include Titan , the largest shaft in Britain, and Ogof Draenen , the second-longest cave in Britain. Fulfilling an idea first proposed in 1968, the Three Counties System , which was first explored in 1898, was proven to be interconnected in 2010–11. In 2018, there were up to 4,000 regular cavers in

2684-434: The most devoted and serious-minded cavers become accomplished at the surveying and mapping of caves and the formal publication of their efforts. These are usually published freely and publicly, especially in the UK and other European countries, although in the US they are generally more private. Although caving is sometimes categorized as an " extreme sport ," cavers do not commonly use this terminology and typically dislike

2745-610: The nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants. Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (single rope technique or SRT) or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight - (or figure-of-nine -) loop, bowline , alpine butterfly , and Italian hitch . Ropes are usually rigged using bolts , slings , and carabiners . In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use

2806-620: The oldest established clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers' Club , was founded in 1892 and began exploring the Marble Arch Caves from 1907. The University of Bristol Spelæological Society was founded in 1919. By the 1930s around 30 caving clubs existed. Eli Simpson formed the British Speleological Association (BSA) in 1935. In the same year, the Cave Rescue Organisation was established, the first such organisation in

2867-430: The others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamp systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers, particularly on remote expeditions where electric charging facilities are not available. The type of clothes worn underground varies according to

2928-416: The physical skills required for in situ study are the same. Speleology is a cross-disciplinary field that combines the knowledge of chemistry , biology , geology , physics , meteorology , and cartography to develop portraits of caves as complex, evolving systems. Before modern speleology developed, John Beaumont wrote detailed descriptions of some Mendip caves in the 1680s. The term speleology

2989-469: The slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath. Research suggests that increased carbon dioxide levels can lead to "a higher equilibrium concentration of calcium within the drip waters feeding the speleothems, and hence causes dissolution of existing features." In 2008, researchers found evidence that respiration from cave visitors may generate elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in caves, leading to increased temperatures of up to 3 °C and

3050-419: The surplus of the ecosystems outside. One major source of energy and nutrients in caves is dung from trogloxenes, most of which is deposited by bats. Other sources are mentioned above. Cave ecosystems are very fragile. Because of their rarity and position in the ecosystem they are threatened by a large number of human activities. Dam construction, limestone quarrying, water pollution and logging are just some of

3111-514: The term being used in reference to caving, as it implies a disregard for safety. Many caving skills overlap with those involved in canyoning and mine and urban exploration . Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the outdoor activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving . Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers, while others are engaged in cave photography. Virgin cave systems comprise some of

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3172-426: The type of cave and the type of tour, the experience could be adventure-based or ecological-based. There are tours led through lava tubes by a guiding service (e.g. Lava River Cave , the oceanic islands of Tenerife , Iceland and Hawaii ). Caving has also been described as an "individualist's team sport" by some, as cavers can often make a trip without direct physical assistance from others but will generally go in

3233-531: The underground lake of Marble Arch in Northern Ireland in 1895. In Yorkshire, he made the second descent, after Birkbeck in 1842, into the pothole of Gaping Gill, reaching the Main Chamber, 170 feet lower than Birkbeck had ventured. By the latter years of the 19th century, caving was established as a sport in the British Isles but remained largely the preserve of a very few adventurers and scientists. One of

3294-659: The warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable. Due to an affliction affecting bats in the northeastern US known as white nose syndrome (WNS), the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium effective March 26, 2009, on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (MD, NY, VT, NH, MA, CT, NJ, PA, VA, and WV) affected by WNS, as well as adjoining states. Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as

3355-408: The winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young. For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during

3416-427: The world, leptospirosis ("a type of bacterial infection spread by animals" including rats ) is a distinct threat, owing to the presence of rat urine in rainwater or precipitation that enters the caves water system. Complications are uncommon, but can be serious. Safety risks while caving can be minimized by using a number of techniques: Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even

3477-641: The world. Jack Sheppard undertook the first cave diving explorations in the world in Wookey Hole Caves in the 1930s using standard diving dress . During the Second World War, Bob Leakey discovered the 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) long Mossdale Caverns north of Grassington in the Yorkshire Dales . After the war, Graham Balcombe formed the Cave Diving Group in 1946. The Cave Research Group of Great Britain separated from BSA in 1948. Jim Eyre

3538-510: Was coined by Émile Rivière in 1890. Prior to the mid-nineteenth century the scientific value of caves was considered only in its contribution to other branches of science, and cave studies were considered part of the larger disciplines of geography , geology or archaeology . Very little cave-specific study was undertaken prior to the work of Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), the 'father of modern speleology', who through his extensive and well-publicised cave explorations introduced in France

3599-598: Was established in 1967 and is the coordinating body for fifteen cave rescue organisations in the British Isles, including the Cave Rescue Organisation , the Upper Wharfedale Fell Rescue Association and the Irish Cave Rescue Organisation . These organisations have around 1,000 volunteer rescuers available with specialised equipment to provide regional police forces with the capabilities to conduct rescues in caves and disused mines in

3660-608: Was founded in 1965. The growth of speleology is directly linked with that of the sport of caving , both because of the stimulation of public interest and awareness, and the fact that most speleological field-work has been conducted by sport cavers . Karst is a landscape that has limestone underneath which has been eroded. Caves are usually formed through chemical corrosion via a process of dissolution . Corrosion has several ways of doing this, it can be on carbonate rocks through chemical reactions, in gypsum and rock salt it can happen physically, and in silicate rocks and warm climate

3721-610: Was one of the first European cavers to explore the caves of Asia . Interest in caving grew rapidly in the 1950s and 60s. Neil Moss was the victim of a famous caving accident after descending a narrow unexplored shaft in Peak Cavern in Derbyshire 1959. This period saw the formation of more clubs, regional councils to manage cave access, and the National Association of Caving in 1968. The 7th International Congress of Speleology of

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