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60-400: While the ideology of FLB was unclear during its very early years, the group's overarching goal was Breton independence, considering their cause a part of the greater struggle of Celtic and European nations. The FLB believed that France had abused the treaty of 1532 , as the treaty allowed Brittany to remain a legally separate duchy from France and thus retain a large degree of sovereignty, which

120-730: A "wartime collaborator." Pierre joined a resistance movement at 16 years old during the German occupation of France during which time he survived being captured by occupying forces. After the war in 1955 he co-founded the Breton Nationalist magazine Ar Vro and later Jeune Bretagne, becoming a regular contributor to Armor Magazine . He was arrested during attacks by the Breton Liberation Front. After being freed he went into exile for many years in Jersey. He died at 96 years old in 2023 after

180-656: A 68-year career as a founding member, vice-president, and president of the Federal Union of European Nationalities and its representative at the Council of Europe and OSCE . Union of Brittany and France The union of the Duchy of Brittany with the Crown of France was the culmination of a political process begun at the end of the 15th century in the wake of the Mad War . It resulted in

240-502: A federal or confederal structure, devoid of foreign domination. When interviewed, most FLB members confirmed that the organization was not pan-European, with one member stating: "We had to build a strategy of separation that would lead to total independence. It must also be said that in that era we were not interested at all in the construction of the European Union. Our preferred readings were The People’s War by Mao Zedong, The Rape of

300-555: A federation of the current states." Strong Celtic and Pan-European currents in Breton nationalism made the FLB embrace these ideologies as well, infusing their separatism with "celticism and europeanism". However, support for European federation was never supported by the majority of FLB members, and was a minority view that considered Breton struggle for independence a part of a larger struggle for liberating all stateless nation of Europe and creating

360-517: A governing sovereign for both the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Brittany, and the parliament of Brittany remains suppressed to modern times. The duchy could only submit, in spite of its occasional resistance, in the face of one of Europe's strongest armies. The Breton elite were attracted by France's royal court, but the Breton merchant bourgeoisie in Saint-Malo did not identify with the interests of

420-490: A new wave of nationalist politics associated with anti-colonialist ideology. The group claimed that Brittany was oppressed by France acting as a colonial power. Citizens of Brittany, or, Bretons , retain their own national identity including an independent language from that of France, music, and other cultural details. Bretons are considered an ethnic Celtic group with their roots in Brittonic-speaking people from what

480-463: A reputation in the international community as the "smiling terrorists." There are even reports that the only two known FLB victims during this period were two FLB members themselves, who were killed while trying to defuse a bomb they were afraid would hurt civilians. Factions in the FLB emerged in the early 1970s, leading to the creation of the militant Breton Revolutionary Army ( Armée révolutionnaire bretonne , or ARB). This group acted separately from

540-650: Is a colony suffering under the foreign domination of France. The FLB wrote: "... We are in a typical colonial situation, where a handful of foreign capitalist entrepreneurs, represented by the French State, exploit and transform at their leisure, and for their own interests, the natural and human wealth of an indigenous community, powerless and enslaved, that is to say almost destroyed." The organisation called itself socialist and called for 'indigenous socialism' in Brittany that would be "neither bureaucratic nor authoritarian", and

600-577: Is today Devon and Cornwall in Britain. The group was linked to surviving members of earlier nationalist groups, notably Yann Goulet , who was operating from Ireland. The first known FLB attack occurred in June 1966 when a municipal tax office in Saint-Brieuc was bombed, and a note signed by the FLB claimed that they would continue to carry out a campaign of violence against these "occupying symbols of Brittany". In

660-449: The Count of Nantes , forced Conan IV, Duke of Brittany into abdication, and had Constance , the successor duchess, married to his son Geoffrey —the Duchy of Brittany never became incorporated into the crown of England. The Plantagenet regime came to an end in 1203, in consequence of King John’s murder of his nephew Arthur , the son of Duke Geoffrey and Constance. From that point, Brittany

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720-633: The Frankish kings , following their policy of partial delegation of power to local representatives (a precursor of the feudal system ), nominated administrators of Brittany. Thus Nominoë was designated as Missus Imperatoris (emissary of the emperor) by King Louis the Pious , and then as Ducatus Ipsius Gentismissus of the Bretons, before he rebelled against royal power and obtained a degree of autonomy for Brittany. In 942 Louis IV of France (reigned 936–954) received

780-535: The Holy Roman Empire . The French ambassadors contested some of the duchy's moves toward independence and its assertion of historic sovereignty . The territorial expansion of France brought it to the borders of Brittany and led to the goal of overlordship or direct control of the peninsula. From the start of the Breton War of Succession in 1341, France sought this goal and because France never willingly accepted

840-499: The "Movement for the Organization of Brittany." In 1973 Yann ran for political office, lost, then was arrested two years later for involvement with the Breton Liberation Front's bombings. He was released conditionally until 1979 when he and 22 others were charged with security-related offences . He died in Saint-Brieuc at 101 years old in 2011, where he spent his last days advocating for Breton Nationalism and avoiding being tried as

900-550: The 15th century, the kings of France had multiple events work to their advantage in the quest to acquire Brittany: Following the Battle of Saint-Aubin du Cormier , the Treaty of Sablé , or "treaty of the orchard", concluded with King Charles VIII of France on 20 August 1488, required the agreement of the French king to any marriage of the daughters of Francis II. The survival of the Breton state

960-525: The 15th century, the more recent dukes of Brittany rendered homage to the French king, although Francis II, Duke of Brittany desired a return to greater independence. After the conclusion of the Hundred Years War , it manifested itself in direct conflicts between the king and the great princes of the kingdom. Francis II sought alliances and established diplomatic relations with England , the Holy See , and

1020-673: The Breton Chancellery of the 14th-16th centuries defended the opposite view, arguing mainly from settlement of the territory by Bretons at an earlier date than by the Franks; but conveniently forgetting the lack of a treaty with the Roman Empire permitting the settlement in Brittany and the settlement of the Franks in the Vannes region, as well as agreements with the Frankish kings in authority following

1080-530: The Breton community, and the FLB enjoyed constant support of Breton nationalists. One of their most notorious acts was the 1978 bombing of the Palace of Versailles . It was in 1969 that the police intervened, confiscating propaganda and weaponry. More than 60 people were arrested, those directly involved in previous attacks were given brief sentences, however within a few months many had been granted amnesty, or pardons, and released. Although created by young Bretons in

1140-569: The Dukes of Brittany. Yann Fou%C3%A9r%C3%A9 Defunct Defunct Yann Fouéré (26 July 1910 – 20 October 2011), also known as Seàn Mauger was a Breton nationalist and a European federalist . His French birth certificate names him as Jean Adolphe Fouéré , a French name, as the French Third Republic did not allow Breton names. Fouéré was born in Aignan, Gers , France. He fled

1200-605: The Edict of Union of 13 August 1532 and the incorporation of the duchy into the Crown lands of France , a critical step in the formation of modern-day France. As a territorial principality of the Kingdom of France , Brittany had enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy since Clovis I was given authority over the Gallo-Roman domain during the 5th century. It was first recorded as a " duchy " during

1260-456: The FLB and proved to be the durable faction that still exists today. There were several Breton liberation groups that were distinct from the FLB. The first known FLB attack occurred in June 1966 when a municipal tax office in Saint-Brieuc was bombed, and a note signed by the FLB claimed that they would continue to carry out a campaign of violence against these "occupying symbols of Brittany." In

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1320-530: The Masses: The Psychology of Totalitarian Political Propaganda by Sergei Chakhotin, The Technique of Revolution by Malaparte." Ultimately, the FLB followed "a philosophy more concerned with socialism worldwide than ethnonationalism and Europeanism". While sympathy for other separatist was common, and the FLB believed that its cause "was very connected to the international struggles in Paris, in relation with

1380-592: The Occitans and the Algerians", the organization did not share the vision of confoederal "Third Europe" of Yann Fouéré . In 1972, FLB and ETA released a joint declaration calling for the boycott of the French referendum on enlargement of the European Economic Community , rejecting the European Union as exploitative and bourgeois. Both organisations likewise stated: "The fight against imperialism and colonialism in

1440-586: The Organization of Free Brittany" which he led until 2004. Yann was involved in a "Pro-German witch Hunt" in 1944, where he was held in custody for a year. Upon escape, he was sheltered by fellow Nationalists in Wales. While hidden he was sentenced to life in prison and was forced out of Brittany and into the Republic of Ireland, where he secured citizenship. In 1955 he was given a retrial in France and came back, innocent, to form

1500-638: The Provisional Irish Republican Army around the same time. All three groups exchanged intel, and in 1972 some Breton militants received training from ETA in the Pyrenees. The FLB also had its combatants trained by the far-left Irish Saor Éire . The organization also sought ties with revolutionary Cuba and contacted the Cuban government through Swiss embassy, but Cuba turned the Bretons down as it did not want to sour its relations with France. Surprisingly,

1560-679: The Western European subcontinent calls for determined and fundamental opposition to the Common Market. The national oppression and economic exploitation suffered by the Irish, Basque, and Breton people can do nothing in effect but worsen by the development of this vast and dangerous capitalist enterprise." Nevertheless, the FLB was distinguished by its willingness to work together with other separatist organizations. It established contact with Basque Euskadi Ta Askatasuna in 1969, and became associated with

1620-463: The advent of Clovis. They also argued for the sovereignty of Brittany based on its status as an ancient kingdom, although Nominoe , who had won considerable autonomy for the administration of Britain, never had the title of king, and the fact that the homage paid by the dukes to the kings was one of alliance rather than as lieges. This last point was not recognized by the King of France. In the second half of

1680-707: The country after the Liberation of France in 1945 and took Irish citizenship in the early 1950s. He founded the Parti pour l'organisation d'une Bretagne libre ("Movement for the Organisation of a Free Brittany"), and was one of the founders of the Celtic League along with his compatriot Alan Heusaff . He also co-founded the European Free Alliance . Fouéré was alleged to have been a collaborator during World War II, but

1740-508: The crown and the duchy were not held by the same hereditary claimant until the reign of Henry II , beginning 1547. According to Julius Caesar , Brittany (fr. Bretagne) was historically part of Celtic Gaul as Armorica (Gallic for "Place by the Sea"). On the fall of the Roman Empire , it was integrated into the Gallo-Roman domain of Syagrius . The territory was liberated from imperial control and

1800-527: The death of his mother. The crowns of Brittany and France differed principally in the application of Salic Law, and this difference remained to challenge the permanent union of the two crowns. Before this legal challenge ever surfaced, however, centuries passed, and King Louis XVI of France , who remained Duke of Brittany in his own right, was deposed and beheaded during the French Revolution. The Revolution eliminated royalty, nobility, and any vestiges of

1860-405: The early 1960s, the FLB enjoyed popular support, evident during these arrests which revealed that members came from very diverse backgrounds: businessmen, housewives, students, farmers, and even clergy. Though most had favorable outcomes for the organization, trials bolstered the Breton "liberation" movement as the trials were perceived to be further suppressive action by the government. This period

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1920-432: The following years, the FLB carried out attacks against administrative structures, such as electrical installations, police barracks and statues, mainly by bombing them. The number of attacks peaked in 1968. However, the FLB ensured that no physical injuries or deaths would result from their attacks, which they wished to remain purely symbolic. In this they followed the model of the earlier group Gwenn ha du . They thus gained

1980-436: The following years, the FLB carried out attacks against administrative structures, such as electrical installations, police barracks and statues—mainly by bombing them. Though the group peaked in 1968 there have been attacks reported as recently as 2014 using incineration tactics. The FLB ensured that no physical injuries or deaths would result from their attacks, which they wished to remain purely symbolic; in this they followed

2040-543: The homage of Alan II, Duke of Brittany . Both of them had grown up together at the court of Æthelstan , king of England, as they were in protective exile from King Raoul of France (Louis) and Viking occupation (Alan). During the expansion of the Plantagenet , Brittany had at all times acknowledged Capetian sovereignty – even the Plantagenet rulers had rendered homage for the duchy to the kings of France – but typically of

2100-565: The kingdom and dukedom were united in ruler. Francis I also sought to enfold Brittany into the Kingdom of France through parliamentary maneuvers. Francis formally invited the Duchy of Brittany to join the French crown. On 13 August 1532, an edict of union was signed by the Estates of Brittany in Nantes . Some members of the parliament (the Estates of Brittany) were either intimidated into co-operation with

2160-517: The main ideology of the group, the new 1972 manifesto affirmed the FLB's dedication to Marxism instead. The document also included the name change of ARB - instead of Armee Republicaine Bretonne (Breton Republican Army), it was now known as the Armee Revolutionnaire Bretonne (Breton Revolutionary Army). Breton separatism was particularly unique in its eagerness to establish international connections with other separatist movements across

2220-409: The model of the earlier group Gwenn ha du , founded 1930. There are reports that the only two known FLB victims during this period were two FLB members themselves, who were killed while trying to defuse a bomb they were afraid may hurt civilians. They thus gained a reputation in the international community as the "smiling terrorists." The actions of the organization did not arise any moral disapproval of

2280-403: The nobles struggled to maintain their autonomy against the increasing central authority desired by Louis XI of France . As a result of several wars, treaties, and papal decisions, Brittany was united with France through the eventual marriage of Louis XI's son Charles VIII to the heiress of Brittany, Anne in 1491. However, because of the different systems of inheritance between the two realms,

2340-601: The party was also allied to the Basque Nationalist Party , despite it being much more moderate than ETA. The FLB was also involved in the creation of the far-left Front de libération du Québec . Breton Nationalism had been a significant force in the early 20th century through the Breton National Party , but it has been discredited by its association with collaborationism in World War II . The FLB represented

2400-423: The principalities, this sovereignty was purely nominal until the early thirteenth century. Henry II of England (ruled 1154–1189) had attempted to conquer Brittany, which was surrounded on all sides by his possessions, as he held Normandy in vassalage from the crown of France and married Eleanor of Aquitaine , thus gaining lands to the south of Brittany. While Henry's maneuvering was partially successful—he became

2460-498: The rule of Nominoe in 846, in likely recognition of Carolingian overlordship. Over the centuries, the fealty demonstrated by the Duchy of Brittany toward the French king depended significantly on the individuals holding the two titles, as well as the involvement of the English monarchy at that particular time. The reign of Francis II, Duke of Brittany , was at an especially crucial time, as

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2520-539: The rule of Brittany in the hands of an enemy of France. As a result, France resumed its armed conflict with Brittany. The spring of 1491 brought new successes by the French general La Trémoille , and Charles VIII of France came to lay siege to Rennes. Maximilian failed to come to his bride's assistance (the Habsburgs were too busy in Hungary to pay serious attention to Brittany), and Rennes fell. Anne became engaged to Charles in

2580-456: The strict Salic Law governing the Kingdom of France. Her actions also demonstrated that the Duke of Brittany and the King of France, at least at this time, remained distinct and separable titles. Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII , also married Anne of Brittany , and thus the title of Duke of Brittany jure uxoris was once again in the person of the king of France. In this marriage, however, Anne

2640-551: The title of Duchess of Brittany, and imposed his own rule on the Duchy through a Royal Governor from the House of Penthièvre . However, when the king died leaving the royal couple childless, the Duchy of Brittany reverted to Anne. She returned to Brittany and re-established her independent rule. Anne's actions underscored that the Duke of Brittany's line of succession was governed by the Celtic nation's peculiar form of Semi-Salic Law rather than

2700-415: The title of the Duke of Brittany supports the perception that the Duchy of Brittany remained separate from the Kingdom of France. However, before the kingship and dukedom could be joined in one person, Francis III died in 1536, never to inherit the French crown. The duchy then passed to Henry , the second son of Francis I and Claude. When Francis I died in 1547, Henry succeeded him as Henry II of France, and

2760-418: The union or bought off, with the demand for union in fact being inspired by Francis I. It has been argued that the legal validity of the union is doubtful on such grounds. Regardless of the validity of the Edict of Union of 1532, four years later in 1536, Henry became the Duke of Brittany upon the death of his brother. Thereby the Duchy of Brittany was considered incorporated into the Kingdom of France upon

2820-723: The vault of the Jacobins in Rennes and traveled to Langeais to be married. Although Austria made diplomatic protests, claiming that the marriage was illegal because the bride was unwilling, that she was already legally married to Maximilian, and that Charles was legally betrothed to Margaret of Austria (Maximilian's daughter), Anne was wed to Charles VIII on 6 December 1491. The marriage was subsequently validated by Pope Innocent VIII on 15 February 1492. Charles VIII became Duke of Brittany jure uxoris upon his marriage to Anne of Brittany . During their marriage, Charles prohibited Anne from using

2880-517: The victory of the opposing prince, battles or wars followed one another until the final French success in 1491, 1532 or 1598, according to different views and different sources. Louis XI felt a great hatred for Francis II of Brittany following the latter's involvement in a number of great conspiracies. Louis and his successors, the regent Anne de Beaujeu and Charles VIII, wished to: The French Chancery justified its sovereignty over Brittany based on historical precedent: The Breton chroniclers and

2940-503: The world, and playing a very active role in Celtic movements. As early as 1911, Breton nationalists called for the need to "develop lines of friendship between all the Celtic peoples", and in 1927 Breton separatists held a conference in Rosporden which was also attended by representatives of the Alsatian, Corsican, Flemish and Celtic nationalist movements. While the declaration of the conference

3000-539: Was allowed to use her title, and Louis enacted all official actions in Brittany in her name. When Anne died in January 1514, her and Louis' daughter Claude inherited the Duchy of Brittany in her own right. In May 1514, the title of Duke of Brittany jure uxoris was again extant through Claude's marriage to her cousin Francis, Duke of Angoulême , heir to the throne of France. Louis XII died in January 1515, at which time Francis

3060-404: Was also marked with a rise in the number of students enrolling in Breton language courses, as being able to speak Breton was seen as legitimizing one's position as a Breton militant. Yann was a prominent force in the Breton Liberation Front, so much so that he fled to Ireland 1948, seeking political asylum. He was an author, businessman and, in some ways politician. In 1999 he formed the "Party for

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3120-399: Was awarded by the emperor to Clovis I after his victory at Soissons in 486. Clovis received the titles of Honorary Consul and Patricius , thus assuring the legitimacy of his authority over the ancient Gallo-Roman domain. When Clovis died, Brittany was included in the quarter of the kingdom that was given to his son, Childebert I . In the 9th century, with chaos spreading over Brittany,

3180-466: Was crowned king of France (as Francis I), with Claude as his queen consort. The Union of Brittany and France was nearly perfected through Francis III, Duke of Brittany , the eldest son of Francis I of France and Claude of France , and therefore the Dauphin of France. Francis III inherited the Duchy when he was 6 years old after the death of his mother in 1524. That Francis I allowed his eldest son to carry

3240-597: Was fully exonerated in 1955 following his voluntary return to France to face trial. He was a member of the Knights of the Sovereign Order of Jerusalem. Fouéré popularized the idea of a " Europe of 100 Flags ", in which a federal Europe would not be based on the currently existing nations, but instead on regional polities, the "100 Flags". The continent would "divide to unite" and "decentralize inwardly and federate outwardly." The idea has been adopted by some organizations in

3300-595: Was indisputably subject to Capetian authority, which could now be exercised directly. In the 14th century, the Breton War of Succession between the Breton House of Montfort and the House of Penthièvre could be seen as an episode of the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois (founded by Charles of Valois , the fourth son of Philip III of France ) and the House of Plantagenet (founded by Henry II of England ). In

3360-460: Was inspired by the IRA and which was considered the armed wing of the FLB. The ARB called for armed struggle against the "French occupation of Brittany", though initially the group lacked a precise doctrine and had its members operate autonomously. This was changed by the publication of FLB's manifesto in late 1968, which called for the right of Bretons to own local means of production and argued that Brittany

3420-556: Was then gradually abolished by French centralism. The organization positioned itself as a fierce opponent of French unitary administration and affirmed that it would not exist in the first place "if the Bretons had the status that the English colonists gave to the Quebecois: autonomous government, elected assembly, compulsory teaching of the national language." The FLB also included the ARB, whose name

3480-442: Was thus contingent on the marriage of Anne of Brittany . Francis II wanted Anne to wed Maximilian I of Austria as a means to (hopefully) ensure the sovereignty of Brittany. Although Francis died in September 1488, his loyal supporters facilitated this union for Anne in a marriage by proxy held 19 December 1490. Unfortunately, this violated the Treaty of Sablé as the king of France did not consent to this marriage, and it also placed

3540-404: Was to be inspired by the Celtic heritage and tradition of Brittany. The FLB then steadily moved towards a more radical direction, though in September 1969 a Maoist faction left the organisation to form FLB-2, which then dissolved shortly afterwards to join the Breton Communist Party . On 29 May 1972 the FLB published a new manifesto which went further; instead of establishing indigenous socialism as

3600-443: Was very moderate and only called for extensive autonomy within France that would become "une fédération de peuples", the Breton delegation stated that the long-term goal is to go further, stating: "We believe that Europe is destined to form, sooner or later, an economic unity, and we see this transformation as the sole means of eliminating this universal calamity that is standing armies and wars. But we believe that this unity will not be

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