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127-796: Brendan Eich ( / ˈ aɪ k / EYEK ; born July 4, 1961) is an American computer programmer and technology executive. He created the JavaScript programming language and co-founded the Mozilla project, the Mozilla Foundation , and the Mozilla Corporation . He served as the Mozilla Corporation's chief technical officer before he was appointed chief executive officer , but resigned shortly after his appointment due to pressure over his opposition to same-sex marriage. He subsequently became
254-437: A Pomo two-spirit, "Many men associated with him for short periods, some sleeping with him. None married him permanently." The Yuki people , who live in modern-day Mendocino County , refer to two-spirit individuals as íwamusp ( pronounced [ˈiːwɒmʊsp] ). The íwamusp wore women's clothing, performed women's activities, were tattooed like women, and lived with and married men. The Cahto people , who live at
381-496: A programming language to Navigator. They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with Sun Microsystems to embed the Java language, while also hiring Brendan Eich to embed the Scheme language. The goal was a "language for the masses", "to help nonprogrammers create dynamic, interactive Web sites ". Netscape management soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise
508-553: A stay of the ruling. In a one-page order on June 4, 2008, the court denied all petitions for rehearing or to reconsider the May 15 ruling and rejected moves to delay enforcement of the decision until after the November election, when Californians would vote on a constitutional amendment to overturn the decision. As a result, same-sex marriages took place starting in mid-June. Chief Justice George and Justices Kennard, Werdegar and Moreno voted for
635-660: A writ of mandate by the Superior Court to the Registrar of Vital Statistics on June 19, 2008. On June 20, 2008, gay rights groups filed suit with the California Supreme Court seeking to remove the initiative from the November ballot; their lawsuit was later dismissed on July 16, 2008. They argued that the changes would constitute a revision to the California Constitution, which requires a two-thirds vote of
762-695: A civil contract between a man and a woman, to which the consent of the parties capable of making that contract is necessary". Opponents of the bill included Assemblyman Willie Brown and Senator Milton Marks . The bill passed 23–5 in the California State Senate and 68–2 in the Assembly . It was signed into law on August 17, 1977 by Governor Jerry Brown . The section was repealed in 2015. Legislation (known as AB 167 ), authored by Assemblyman John Burton , in 1991 would have deleted gender requirements. It failed to garner enough votes for passages and died in
889-422: A civil contract, to which the consent of the parties capable of making that contract is necessary." This definition was uniformly interpreted as including only opposite-sex partners, but, because of worries that the language was unclear, Assembly Bill 607 , authored by Assemblyman Bruce Nestande , was proposed and later passed in 1977 to "prohibit persons of the same sex from entering lawful marriage". Fears that
1016-418: A database query to return information. The notable standalone runtimes are Node.js , Deno , and Bun . The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless explicitly specified otherwise. JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., if statements, while loops, switch statements, do while loops, etc.). One partial exception
1143-402: A difference of about 504,000 votes; as many as 3 million absentee and provisional ballots remained to be counted. The organizers of the "No on Prop 8" campaign conceded defeat on Thursday, November 6, issuing a statement saying, "Tuesday's vote was deeply disappointing to all who believe in equal treatment under the law." On Wednesday, November 5, 2008, three lawsuits were filed, challenging
1270-595: A gender-neutral marriage ordinance that defines marriage as "the union of two individuals by any ceremony or practice recognized under Yurok law, and includes marriages according to Yurok custom and tradition." The Karuk Tribe also has a gender-neutral marriage law. The Luiseño , an indigenous people living from the present-day southern part of Los Angeles County to the northern part of San Diego County , have traditionally recognized two-spirit individuals who wore women's clothing and performed everyday household work and artistic handiwork which were regarded as belonging to
1397-684: A joint announcement with Sun Microsystems – it was named JavaScript in December. Simultaneously, he designed the first SpiderMonkey engine, to execute the new language in the Navigator browser. When Mozilla inherited the Netscape base code in 1998, it included this engine, which was written in the C language . It was then changed in JavaScript 1.5 to comply with the ECMA-262 standard. Eich continued to oversee
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#17329094269001524-456: A lawsuit after Attorney General Jerry Brown changed the title of the initiative from "Limit on Marriage" to "Eliminates the Right of Same-Sex Couples to Marry". On August 8, 2008, Superior Court Judge Timothy Frawley ruled that "The Attorney General did not abuse his discretion in concluding that the chief purpose and effect of the initiative is to eliminate the right of same-sex couples to marry", so
1651-468: A message to Firefox users with information about Eich's donation, and suggesting that users switch to a different browser (although giving them a link to continue with Firefox). CREDO Mobile collected more than 50,000 signatures demanding that Eich resign. After 11 days as CEO, Eich resigned on April 3, 2014, and left Mozilla after public outrage. In his personal blog, he posted, "under the present circumstances, I cannot be an effective leader". Mozilla made
1778-463: A new language, with syntax similar to Java and less like Scheme or other extant scripting languages . Although the new language and its interpreter implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator beta in September 1995, the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December. The choice of the JavaScript name has caused confusion, implying that it
1905-653: A period of approximately 4 months, 2 weeks and 6 days, as a result of the Supreme Court of California finding in the case of In re Marriage Cases that barring same-sex couples from marriage violated the Constitution of California . The issuance of such licenses was halted from November 5, 2008 through June 27, 2013 (though existing same-sex marriages continued to be valid) due to the passage of Proposition 8 —a state constitutional amendment barring same-sex marriages. The granting of same-sex marriages recommenced following
2032-407: A press release saying that board members tried to get Eich to stay in the company in a different role, but that he had chosen to sever ties for the time being. Eich is the co-founder and CEO of Brave Software , an Internet browser platform company that raised $ 2.5 million in early funding from angel investors like Founders Fund , Foundation Capital , and Digital Currency Group . In January 2016,
2159-718: A spokesman for the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press . City officials in San Francisco claimed that although the 2004 marriages were prohibited by state law, the state law was invalidated by the Equal Protection Clause . Mayor Gavin Newsom echoed this view, permitting the marriages because he believed the state law was unconstitutional. However, legislators and groups opposing same-sex marriages quickly reacted, filing
2286-452: A stand-alone JavaScript runtime system. As of 2018, Node had been used by millions of developers, and npm had the most modules of any package manager in the world. The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on GitHub , and editions are produced via regular annual snapshots. Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a comprehensive proposal process. Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check
2413-525: A suit and requesting a court order to prevent the city from performing the ceremonies. Additionally, the California state agency that records marriages stated that altered forms, including any marriage license issued to same-sex couples, would not be registered. In Lockyer v. City and County of San Francisco , the Supreme Court ordered San Francisco to stop performing same-sex marriages pending court review on
2540-827: A variety of other software systems, both for server-side website deployments and non-browser applications . Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were Netscape Enterprise Server and Microsoft 's Internet Information Services , but they were small niches. Server-side usage eventually started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of Node.js and other approaches . Electron , Cordova , React Native , and other application frameworks have been used to create many applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript. Other non-browser applications include Adobe Acrobat support for scripting PDF documents and GNOME Shell extensions written in JavaScript. JavaScript has been used in some embedded systems , usually by leveraging Node.js. A JavaScript engine
2667-520: A white paper in which he coined the term Ajax and described a set of technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create web applications where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding the need for full page reloads. This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-source libraries and the communities that formed around them. Many new libraries were created, including jQuery , Prototype , Dojo Toolkit , and MooTools . Google debuted its Chrome browser in 2008, with
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#17329094269002794-464: Is Roman Catholic . He began his career at Silicon Graphics , working for seven years on operating system and network code. He then worked for three years at MicroUnity Systems Engineering writing microkernel and DSP code. Eich started work at Netscape Communications Corporation in April 1995. He originally joined intending to put Scheme "in the browser", but his Netscape superiors insisted that
2921-470: Is both a city and a county . California is home to hundreds of indigenous peoples , many of whom have traditions of two-spirit individuals who were born male but wore women's clothing and performed everyday household work and artistic handiwork which were regarded as belonging to the feminine sphere. This two-spirit status allowed for marriages between two biological males or two biological females to be performed among some of these tribes. Same-sex marriage
3048-475: Is multi-paradigm , supporting event-driven , functional , and imperative programming styles . It has application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions , standard data structures , and the Document Object Model (DOM). The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking , storage , or graphics facilities. In practice,
3175-524: Is scoping : originally JavaScript only had function scoping with var ; block scoping was added in ECMAScript 2015 with the keywords let and const . Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between expressions and statements . One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolon insertion , which allow semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted. JavaScript is weakly typed , which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on
3302-455: Is a software component that executes JavaScript code . The first JavaScript engines were mere interpreters , but all relevant modern engines use just-in-time compilation for improved performance. JavaScript engines are typically developed by web browser vendors, and every major browser has one. In a browser, the JavaScript engine runs in concert with the rendering engine via the Document Object Model and Web IDL bindings. However,
3429-499: Is a "basic civil right" that cannot be withheld from same-sex couples, that sexual orientation is a protected class like race and gender, and that any classification or discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause of the California State Constitution . Associate Justices Joyce L. Kennard , Kathryn Werdegar , and Carlos R. Moreno concurred. It
3556-625: Is binding upon all 58 of California's counties based on the interpretation of California Supreme Court's decision in Lockyer v. City and County of San Francisco , stating that county clerks are state officials under supervision of the California Department of Public Health for the limited purpose of issuing marriage licenses and are thus bound by the injunction. Governor Brown then directed all county clerks to comply with district court ruling. On July 12, 2013, Proposition 8 proponents petitioned
3683-487: Is by far the most-used. Other notable ones include Angular , Bootstrap , Lodash , Modernizr , React , Underscore , and Vue . Multiple options can be used in conjunction, such as jQuery and Bootstrap. However, the term "Vanilla JS" was coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks at all, instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality. The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its web browser roots. JavaScript engines are now embedded in
3810-491: Is directly related to Java. At the time, the dot-com boom had begun and Java was a popular new language, so Eich considered the JavaScript name a marketing ploy by Netscape. Microsoft debuted Internet Explorer in 1995, leading to a browser war with Netscape. On the JavaScript front, Microsoft created its own interpreter called JScript . Microsoft first released JScript in 1996, alongside initial support for CSS and extensions to HTML . Each of these implementations
3937-742: Is legal on the reservations of the Blue Lake Rancheria , the Colorado River Indian Tribes , and the Iipay Nation of Santa Ysabel . The latter was the first tribe in California to legalize same-sex marriage when they announced in the wake of the Perry ruling in June 2013 that they would allow same-sex couples to marry on their reservation. "Although the Tribe has certainly come far, they won't ever forget
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4064-463: Is now the following: Marriage is a personal relation arising out of a civil contract between two persons, to which the consent of the parties capable of making that contract is necessary. Consent alone does not constitute marriage. Consent must be followed by the issuance of a license and solemnization as authorized by this division, except as provided by Section 425 and Part 4 (commencing with Section 500). [California Family Code § 300] In April 2016,
4191-537: Is the dominant client-side scripting language of the Web, with 99% of all websites using it for this purpose. Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML documents and interact with the DOM . All major web browsers have a built-in JavaScript engine that executes the code on the user's device. Over 80% of websites use a third-party JavaScript library or web framework as part of their client-side scripting. jQuery
4318-525: The California Attorney General on the actual ballot, gathered an estimated 764,063 valid signatures and qualified for the November 4, 2008 ballot as Proposition 8. The measure would add Section 7.5 to Article I of the Constitution of California . It would supersede the part of the Supreme Court's holding that authorized the granting of marriage licenses to same-sex couples. Twelve other proposed amendments since 2004 had failed to qualify to be on
4445-556: The Due Process and Equal Protection clauses of the U.S. Constitution, and on August 12, 2010, had scheduled to deny a motion to stay the ruling throughout the appeals process. On August 16, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals granted the motion to stay, ordered expedited briefing on the merits of the appeal, and directed the parties to brief the issue of why the appeal should not be dismissed for lack of standing. On August 17,
4572-556: The Family Code , largely replicated the 1977 language. In the March 7, 2000 primary election , Proposition 22 was adopted by a vote of 61% to 39%, thus adding section 308.5 to the Family Code, largely replicating the 1977 enactment. The one-sentence code section explicitly defined "the union of a man and a woman as the only valid or recognizable form of marriage" in California. Proposition 22
4699-504: The Los Angeles County Superior Court . Eventually, all six cases were coordinated ( In re Marriage Cases ) and assigned to San Francisco Superior Court Judge Richard Kramer . On March 14, 2005, Judge Kramer ruled that California statutes limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples were unconstitutional. The court held there was no rational connection between forbidding same-sex marriage and any legitimate state interest and
4826-470: The Netscape corporation, which released a more polished browser, Netscape Navigator , in 1994. This quickly became the most-used. During these formative years of the Web, web pages could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add
4953-436: The Supreme Court of California ruled that the marriages were void. Consolidated lawsuits against the state government in favor of same-sex marriage eventually reached the Supreme Court of California. On May 15, 2008, it overturned the state's ban on same-sex marriage with its ruling In re Marriage Cases . The four-to-three decision took effect on June 16, 2008. Two weeks earlier, an initiative to override this result of
5080-464: The U.S. Constitution in a case known as Perry v. Schwarzenegger . Judge Vaughn Walker ordered a full trial which began in January 2010. It addressed questions as wide-ranging as whether being gay diminishes one's contribution to society, affects one's ability to raise children, impairs judgment, or constitutes a mental disorder. Judge Walker ruled that Proposition 8 was unconstitutional, violating both
5207-651: The U.S. Supreme Court on July 31, 2012, and the court granted certiorari on December 7, 2012 as Hollingsworth v. Perry . On June 26, 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court found that the Proposition 8 supporters did not have standing for their appeal, and thus ordered the Ninth Circuit to void their ruling, leaving Walker's decision standing. The Ninth Circuit lifted its stay on June 28, allowing same-sex marriages to proceed in California once again. Kristin Perry and Sandra Stier, two of
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5334-566: The U.S. Supreme Court 's decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization , which overturned Roe v. Wade , in June 2022, a group of state lawmakers, including representatives Scott Wiener and Evan Low , said they had prepared a draft bill to repeal Proposition 8 from the California Constitution. The group sought to have a measure put on the November 2024 ballot for approval by voters. Senate President Toni Atkins said, "The door will be opened to undermine all of those rights.", in response to
5461-578: The U.S. Supreme Court 's decision in Hollingsworth v. Perry , which restored the effect of a federal district court ruling that overturned Proposition 8 as unconstitutional. Before the passage of Proposition 8, California was only the second U.S. state (after Massachusetts ) to legalize same-sex marriage. Those marriages granted under the laws of other state governments , foreign and domestic, were legally recognized and retained state-level rights since 2008. On November 12, 2008, Connecticut obtained
5588-500: The V8 JavaScript engine that was faster than its competition. The key innovation was just-in-time compilation (JIT), so other browser vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT. In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in Oslo . This led to the eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work and drive the language forward. The result was
5715-539: The client side for webpage behavior. Web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine that executes the client code . These engines are also utilized in some servers and a variety of apps . The most popular runtime system for non-browser usage is Node.js . JavaScript is a high-level , often just-in-time compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript standard. It has dynamic typing , prototype-based object-orientation , and first-class functions . It
5842-493: The "leaders of the mourning ceremony held immediately after the death", though would only take the "profession if they had received instructions to do so in a dream". The tonocim were spiritually important for the tribe, but generally did not marry men or women. The Mono people call them onotim ( pronounced [oˈnotim] ), and the Kawaiisu call them huˀyupɨzi ( pronounced [huʔjuˈpɨzi] ). Among
5969-430: The 1977 legislation, The Marriage Recognition and Family Protection Act , and Proposition 22. The legislation would remove the statutory reference to marriage as a union "between a man and a woman" from the Family Code and update the law with gender-neutral terms to apply to same-sex marriages as well as different-sex ones. During its passage, some concern was expressed that, by repealing Proposition 22, SB 1306 breached
6096-504: The 2005–2006 session, Assemblyman Mark Leno introduced Assembly Bill 19 ( AB 19 ), which proposed legalizing same-sex marriage. The bill gained the support of Speaker Fabian Núñez among others. Leno had introduced a similar bill in the prior session, but it died in committee. Assembly committees reported out AB 19 favorably, but the measure failed on the Assembly floor on June 2, 2005. Later that month, Assemblywoman Patty Berg amended
6223-646: The Assembly. The bill was supported by the San Francisco Bar Association , which had issued a statement in favor of same-sex marriage in 1989, and the California Lawyers Association . Following Senator William J. Knight 's failure to pass anti-marriage legislation on two different occasions in 1995 and 1997 in the California State Legislature , Proposition 22 was created as an initiative statute to add section 308.5 to
6350-455: The California Supreme Court in Hollingsworth v. O'Connell , invoking the court's original jurisdiction under Article VI of the California Constitution, asking the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandate and an immediate stay or injunction ordering county clerks to enforce Proposition 8. Arguing that the district court lacked authority to grant relief beyond the named plaintiffs or, even if
6477-478: The California general election ballot on November 4, 2008 and passed with a 52% majority. One supporter of Proposition 8 was the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , which donated $ 20 million to campaign for its passage. The California Supreme Court heard several challenges to Proposition 8 in March 2009, but ultimately upheld the amendment, though the over 18,000 same-sex marriages that were performed before
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#17329094269006604-570: The Civil Code would allow marriage between parties of the same sex had arisen due to a couple in Orange County who sought a marriage license after the passage of legislation which repealed the criminality of homosexuality in California in 1976. The Orange County Clerks Association submitted a call to Nestande to clarify the law as it pertained to same-sex couples. The act amended the Civil Code to define marriage as "a personal relation arising out of
6731-511: The ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December 2009. Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive collection of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of ECMAScript 6 in 2015. The creation of Node.js in 2009 by Ryan Dahl sparked a significant increase in the usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Node combines the V8 engine, an event loop , and I/O APIs , thereby providing
6858-618: The Netscape browser unit in July 2003, Eich helped spin out the Mozilla Foundation . In August 2005, after serving as a lead technologist and as a member of the board of directors of the Mozilla Foundation, Eich became chief technical officer (CTO) of the newly founded Mozilla Corporation , meant to be the Mozilla Foundation's for-profit arm. Eich continued to "own" the Mozilla SpiderMonkey module, its JavaScript engine, until he passed
6985-416: The Ninth Circuit, was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court on July 31, 2012. The case was granted review as Hollingsworth v. Perry on December 7, 2012 and a decision was issued on June 26, 2013. The court decided that the official sponsors of Proposition 8 did not have legal standing to appeal the district court decision when the state's public officials refused to do so. The judgment of the Ninth Circuit
7112-437: The Ninth Circuit. Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy denied the petition on June 30. Proposition 8 proponents argued that the district court's injunction was applicable only to the two couples who were the plaintiffs in the case or, at most, applied to the two counties whose clerks were named as defendants. Attorney General Kamala Harris, however, issued an analysis that the district court's injunction applies statewide and
7239-516: The November 2024 ballot for approval by the electorate. The measure was approved by 62.4% of voters. In February 1993, Benjamin and Marcial Cable-McCarthy submitted an application for a marriage license to the Los Angeles County Clerk's Office, but it was rejected. They had previously changed their names to Cable-McCarthy. Their lawsuit against the Clerk's Office, filed in April 1993, was
7366-506: The State Legislature before being placed before voters, rather than a mere amendment, which does not require involvement by the State Legislature. They further argued that the original petitions, which were circulated before the May 15 court decision, were misleading because the petitions said the initiative would not change the marriage laws and would have no fiscal impact. Prior to the election date, backers of Proposition 8 also filed
7493-516: The State Legislature had passed in 1977 and Proposition 22. After the ruling, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger issued a statement repeating his pledge to oppose Proposition 8, the ballot initiative that would override the ruling. The opinion, written by Chief Justice Ronald M. George , cited the court's 1948 decision in Perez v. Sharp where the state's interracial marriage ban was held unconstitutional. It found that "equal respect and dignity" of marriage
7620-516: The State Senate voted 34–2 to approve Senate Bill 1005 , introduced by Senator Hannah-Beth Jackson , that updated California law similarly to SB 1306 . The Assembly approved the bill by a vote of 63–1 with amendments. The bill went back to the Senate for the amendments' approval, and it was passed by 34 votes to 0. It was signed into law by Governor Brown, and took effect on January 1, 2017. Following
7747-403: The Supreme Court to take up the case. In December 2006, the Supreme Court voted unanimously to review all six cases and held oral arguments on March 4, 2008, consolidating the cases as In re Marriage Cases . On May 15, 2008, the Supreme Court struck down California's statutes limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples in a 4–3 ruling. The judicial ruling overturned the anti-marriage law which
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#17329094269007874-470: The United States. The trademark was originally issued to Sun Microsystems on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they acquired Sun in 2009. A letter was circulated in September 2024, spearheaded by Ryan Dahl , calling on Oracle to free the JavaScript trademark . Brendan Eich the original creator of JavaScript, was among the over 14,000 signatories who supported the initiative. JavaScript
8001-426: The ability to import scripts. JavaScript is a single- threaded language. The runtime processes messages from a queue one at a time, and it calls a function associated with each new message, creating a call stack frame with the function's arguments and local variables . The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. When the call stack is empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to
8128-540: The amendment was passed remained valid. In the wake of Proposition 8's passage, California continued to allow domestic partnerships . This granted same-sex couples almost all state-level rights and obligations of marriage , but did not apply to "federal-level rights of marriage that cannot be granted by states." Before Proposition 8 passed, the Williams Institute projected in June 2008 that about half of California's more than 100,000 same-sex couples would wed during
8255-417: The ballot. The ability of the voters to remove a fundamental constitutional right by initiative amendment was challenged. A lawsuit filed on those grounds asking for the removal of Proposition 8 from the ballot was dismissed on July 16, 2008. On the day after the election, the results remained uncertified. With 100% of precincts reporting, the vote was 52.47% in favor of Proposition 8 and 47.53% opposed, with
8382-446: The bill, citing Proposition 22, which had passed with the approval of a majority of voters five years earlier. The State Legislature avoided physically delivering the bill to Governor Schwarzenegger for over two weeks, during which time advocacy groups urged him to change his mind. Ultimately, the bill was delivered on September 23 and vetoed on September 29, 2005. Schwarzenegger said he believed that same-sex marriage should be settled by
8509-496: The bill. He wrote in his veto statement that to solve the issue of same-sex marriage, the California Supreme Court needed to rule on the constitutionality of Proposition 22. Months before the California Supreme Court 's ruling, groups who opposed same-sex marriage began circulating initiative petitions. One petition, titled the "California Marriage Protection Act" by its proponents and the "Limit on Marriage" amendment by
8636-512: The cofounder and CEO of Brave Software . Eich grew up in Pittsburgh; Gaithersburg, Maryland; and Palo Alto , where he attended Ellwood P. Cubberley High School , graduating in the class of 1979. He received his bachelor's degree in mathematics and computer science at Santa Clara University , and he received his master's degree in 1985 from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . Eich
8763-540: The company released developer versions of its open-source, Chromium -based Brave web browser , which blocks ads and trackers . At Brave Software, Eich co-created the Basic Attention Token (BAT), a cryptocurrency designed for use in the Brave browser. BAT launched its ICO on May 31, 2017, and raised $ 35 million. In 2020, The New York Times reported that Eich's comments about "the policy and science related to
8890-402: The coronavirus" on Twitter caused a backlash within the browser's user base, commenting that this echoed the criticism that led to his resignation from Mozilla. JavaScript JavaScript ( / ˈ dʒ ɑː v ə s k r ɪ p t / ), often abbreviated as JS , is a programming language and core technology of the Web , alongside HTML and CSS . 99% of websites use JavaScript on
9017-411: The couple in June 2005, upholding the federal law and declining to consider the California law. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the case on appeal in May 2006, and the U.S. Supreme Court denied review on October 10, 2006. San Francisco and numerous individuals sued the state of California seeking to overturn Proposition 22, the state law that limited marriage to opposite-sex couples. Among
9144-542: The court decision qualified for the November election ballot. The court declined to stay its decision until after the November elections . Some reports suggested that out-of-state same-sex couples would marry in California prior to the 2008 elections because California does not require the marriage to be valid in the couple's home state. The ballot initiative, Proposition 8 , a state constitutional amendment titled Eliminates Right of Same-Sex Couples to Marry Act , appeared on
9271-447: The court's reasoning as "circular". He wrote that the majority's indifference to the reasons why marriage is a fundamental right unintentionally "diminish the humanity of the lesbians and gay men whose rights are defeated". Both justices in the majority commented at length on Justice Kline's dissent. In November 2006, several parties petitioned the Supreme Court of California to review the decision. Attorney General Bill Lockyer asked
9398-443: The courts or another vote by the people via a statewide initiative or referendum . He argued that the State Legislature's bill simply complicated the issue, as the constitutionality of Proposition 22 had not yet been determined, and its ultimate disposition would render AB 849 either unconstitutional (being in conflict with a valid voter initiative) or redundant (being guaranteed by the California Constitution itself, as construed by
9525-545: The courts). Shortly after the newly-elected Assembly was sworn in, Leno resubmitted a similar bill on December 4, 2006. The bill was passed by the State Legislature in early September 2007, giving Governor Schwarzenegger until October 14, 2007 to either sign or veto the bill. Schwarzenegger had stated months before that he would veto the bill on the grounds that the issue at hand had already been voted on by California voters by way of Proposition 22. Schwarzenegger followed through on his statement and on October 12, 2007 he vetoed
9652-601: The decision to overrule Roe . Wiener and Low introduced the bill to the State Legislature in February 2023. On June 26, 2023, the California Assembly voted 67–0 to approve a constitutional amendment repealing the text of Proposition 8 and replacing it with the following: "The right to marry is a fundamental right." On July 13, 2023, the California Senate voted unanimously 31–0 to approve the amendment and refer it to
9779-415: The development of SpiderMonkey, the specific implementation of JavaScript in Navigator. In early 1998, Eich co-founded the free and open-source software project Mozilla with Jamie Zawinski and others, creating the mozilla.org website, which was meant to manage open-source contributions to the Netscape source code. He served as Mozilla's chief architect . AOL bought Netscape in 1999. After AOL shut down
9906-648: The different cases were City and County of San Francisco v. State of California , Tyler vs. State of California , filed by two same-sex couples, Woo and Chung v. Lockyer , filed by the American Civil Liberties Union , Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights , and three more. All challenged the state's ban on same-sex marriage. Five of the cases were filed in the San Francisco County Superior Court and one case in
10033-519: The direction of Mayor Gavin Newsom , officials in San Francisco issued marriage licenses to approximately 4,000 same-sex couples despite it being illegal to do so at both the state and federal level. During the month that licenses were issued, couples traveled from all over the United States and from other countries to be married. On August 12, citing Newsom's lack of authority to bypass state law,
10160-481: The distinction of being the second U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage. Following the reinstatement of same-sex marriage rights in 2013, California was the tenth U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage. In 2024, Proposition 8 was repealed and replaced with gender-neutral language regarding marriage rights, making California the second U.S. state to repeal a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage after neighboring Nevada . From February 12 to March 11, 2004, under
10287-490: The district court had such authority, its injunction only applied to the two county clerks who were named defendants. They also argued that Article III of California Constitution prohibits administrative officials from declaring a law unconstitutional or unenforceable or refusing to enforce the law unless an appellate court has made such a determination. Since the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Hollingsworth v. Perry held that Proposition 8 proponents lacked legal standing to appeal
10414-433: The district court's decision, the decision of the Ninth Circuit was vacated with no legal effect or precedent . The California Supreme Court ordered the parties to brief on the merits and whether the stay should be issued, and on July 15 it denied the application for a stay. On July 19, San Diego County Clerk Ernest J. Dronenburg Jr. filed a petition, Dronenburg v. Brown , asking for the California Supreme Court to halt
10541-491: The effort to fully standardize the language was undermined by Microsoft gaining an increasingly dominant position in the browser market. By the early 2000s, Internet Explorer 's market share reached 95%. This meant that JScript became the de facto standard for client-side scripting on the Web. Microsoft initially participated in the standards process and implemented some proposals in its JScript language, but eventually it stopped collaborating on ECMA work. Thus ECMAScript 4
10668-637: The empty array is cast to a number by the remaining unary + operator. If the expression is wrapped in parentheses - ({} + []) – the curly brackets are interpreted as an empty object and the result of the expression is "[object Object]" as expected. Same-sex marriage in California Recognized Same-sex marriage has been legal in California since June 28, 2013. The State of California first issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples from June 16, 2008 to November 5, 2008,
10795-570: The enforcement of any law which would prohibit same-sex couples from marrying, the committee determined that the State Legislature has the capacity to repeal enjoined statutes. SB 1306 was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee 5–2 on April 8, 2014. On May 1, 2014, the Senate passed the bill on a 25–10 vote. On June 30, it passed the Assembly in a 51–11 vote. It was signed by Governor Brown on July 7 and took effect on January 1, 2015. The statute definition of marriage in California
10922-547: The feminine sphere. They are known in their language as kwit ( pronounced [kʷɪt] ). The kwit , known as "robust workers", married cisgender men, and were sometimes wives in polygynous chieftain households. The Mohave people of Southern California refer to two-spirit individuals who crossed out of the masculine gender as ʼalyha ( pronounced [ʔəlʲˈhaː] ). The ʼalyha married men and were regarded as "especially diligent wives", often sought out by shamans . They were spiritually important for
11049-504: The first case challenging California's laws on same-sex marriage. However, the case was dismissed by the 2nd District State Court of Appeal in Los Angeles on May 22, 1993. The case, Cable-McCarthy v. California , was then denied a review on appeal by the California Supreme Court. Rather than pursue the case further, the couple chose to await a resolution in Baehr v. Miike , a Hawaii case on
11176-591: The full legal recognition of same-sex marriages lawfully performed outside of California after the passage of Proposition 8, with the sole exception that the relationship could not be designated with the word "marriage". The law provided no label to be used in place of "marriage" to describe these relationships; they were not "domestic partnerships". The resumption of same-sex marriage in California on June 28, 2013 effectively supersedes this law with respect to out-of-state same-sex marriages. Introduced by Senator Mark Leno on February 21, 2014, Senate Bill 1306 would repeal
11303-477: The head of the South Fork Eel River , call two-spirit individuals tc'eek-aaldeeltcii ( pronounced [tʃʼeːkʰ aːlˈteːltʃʰiː] ). They married men, and were known for their basket weaving. An anthropologist noted in 1942 that a Cahto man "may make coarse baskets without reflecting on his masculinity but a male maker of fine baskets is suspected of homosexual tendencies". The Nomlaki , native to
11430-449: The issuance of marriage licenses to same-sex couples, which the court denied on July 23. He later withdrew his petition on August 2. On August 14, 2013, the Supreme Court denied the petition for a writ of mandate. The last attempt to resume Proposition 8 failed and the case is now closed. In November 2021, the Ninth Circuit agreed to release to the public unsealed videos from the Proposition 8 trial. Supporters of Proposition 8 had argued
11557-457: The language's syntax resemble that of Java . As a result, Eich devised a language that had much of the functionality of Scheme, the object-orientation of Self , and the syntax of Java. He completed the first version in ten days in order to accommodate the Navigator 2.0 Beta release schedule. At first the language was called Mocha, but it was renamed LiveScript in September 1995 and finally – in
11684-533: The legality of same-sex marriage, which subsequently lost in the Hawaii Supreme Court in 1999. In Smelt v. Orange County , Arthur Smelt and Christopher Hammer, a same-sex couple together for 8 years, sued in federal court, challenging the federal Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) and Proposition 22. Judge Gary L. Taylor of the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California ruled against
11811-452: The legality of the marriages on March 11, 2004, and ultimately voided all the marriages on August 12, 2004. Officials in Berkeley and Oakland , in nearby Alameda County , expressed interest in joining San Francisco, but were unable to do so because marriage licenses are handled at a county, rather than at a city, level. San Francisco was able to issue its own licenses because San Francisco
11938-646: The new name would appear on the ballots. On the day of the Strauss v. Horton decision on May 26, 2009–in which the Supreme Court of California upheld Proposition 8 as a lawful amendment of the State Constitution–;the American Foundation for Equal Rights (AFER) filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California to challenge the validity of Proposition 8 under
12065-414: The next message in the queue. This is called the event loop , described as "run to completion" because each message is fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking : program I/O is performed using events and callback functions . This means, for example, that JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for
12192-431: The next three years and 68,000 out-of-state couples would travel to California to exchange vows. On August 4, 2010, U.S. District Court Chief Judge Vaughn Walker declared Proposition 8 a violation of the Due Process and Equal Protection clauses of the U.S. Constitution in Perry v. Schwarzenegger , a decision upheld by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals on February 7, 2012. The case, known as Perry v. Brown in
12319-658: The numerous Native American cultures of the North Coast , two-spirit individuals would generally remain unmarried. The Yurok refer to two-spirit people as wergern ( pronounced [wɚˈɣɚn] ). They were said to have been "impelled by the desire to become shamans", a profession generally reserved to women. In the Kashaya language , two-spirit people are known as hiʔbaya capʰya ( pronounced [hiʔbaˈja ˈtʃapʰja] ). They performed women's activities such as basket weaving . Edward Winslow Gifford wrote in 1926 of
12446-506: The old status bar at the bottom of your old browser ." In November 1996, Netscape submitted JavaScript to Ecma International , as the starting point for a standard specification that all browser vendors could conform to. This led to the official release of the first ECMAScript language specification in June 1997. The standards process continued for a few years, with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June 1998 and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999. Work on ECMAScript 4 began in 2000. However,
12573-409: The operation used. Values are cast to strings like the following: Values are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers. These processes can be modified by defining toString and valueOf functions on the prototype for string and number casting respectively. JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the complexity of
12700-554: The opposite-sex requirements impermissibly discriminated based on gender . The state and organizations opposed to same-sex marriage appealed. Division Three of the First District Court of Appeal held extended oral arguments on the cases on July 10, 2006, before a three-judge panel. In a 2-to-1 decision, the appellate court overturned the lower court. Writing for the majority, Presiding Justice William R. McGuiness found: The marriage statutes do not discriminate based on gender;
12827-754: The ownership of it to Dave Mandelin in 2011. On March 24, 2014, Mozilla made the decision to appoint Eich as CEO of Mozilla Corporation. The appointment triggered widespread criticism due to Eich's past political donations – specifically, a 2008 donation of $ 1,000 to California Proposition 8 , which called for the banning of same-sex marriage in California , and donations in the amount of $ 2,100 to Proposition 8 supporter Tom McClintock between 2008 and 2010. The Wall Street Journal initially reported that, in protest against his coming appointment, half of Mozilla's board ( Gary Kovacs , John Lilly , and Ellen Siminoff ) stepped down, leaving Mitchell Baker , Reid Hoffman , and Katharina Borchert . CNET later reported that of
12954-422: The passage of Proposition 8 would continue to be valid and be recognized as "marriage". The Marriage Recognition and Family Protection Act also established that a same-sex marriage performed outside the state would be recognized as "marriage" if it occurred before Proposition 8 took effect. This category also included same-sex marriages performed before same-sex marriage became legal in California. It also mandated
13081-463: The passage of Proposition 8, Governor Schwarzenegger signed into law The Marriage Recognition and Family Protection Act , legislation proposed by Senator Leno. The bill established that some of the same-sex marriages performed outside the state are also recognized by the state of California as "marriage", depending on the date of the union. On May 26, 2009, the California Supreme Court affirmed that all same-sex marriages performed in California before
13208-469: The plaintiffs in Perry , were married shortly afterward at San Francisco City Hall , making them the first same-sex couple to be married in California since Proposition 8 was overturned. The officiant was the Attorney General of California , Kamala Harris . Opponents of same-sex marriage filed an emergency petition on June 29 asking the U.S. Supreme Court to overturn the lifting of the stay issued by
13335-445: The proposition but did not overturn previous same-sex marriages which occurred following their ruling in June 2008 and before November 5, 2008. Same-sex marriage supporters considered trying to get another ballot initiative to repeal Proposition 8 on the ballot in the 2012 election, but decided to wait. To this day, Proposition 8 remains part of the California Constitution despite its unconstitutionality. On October 12, 2009, following
13462-406: The resolution, while dissenting or voting to reconsider the judgment, were Justices Marvin R. Baxter , Ming Chin and Carol Corrigan . The order stated, "The decision filed on May 15, 2008, will become final on June 16, 2008, at 5 p.m.." San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom announced that marriages would be held starting at 5:01 p.m. on June 16. The final stage of the case was the issuance of
13589-437: The rules can be mistaken for inconsistency. For example, when adding a number to a string, the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction. Often also mentioned is {} + [] resulting in 0 (number). This is misleading: the {} is interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object, and
13716-475: The same Ninth Circuit panel ordered expedited briefing on the Imperial County appeal. The court also ordered both appeals calendared for oral arguments during the week of December 6, 2010 in San Francisco. On February 7, 2012, in a 2–1 decision, a three judge panel of the Ninth Circuit affirmed the trial court's decision in Perry v. Brown , which it stayed pending appeal. Proponents of Proposition 8 appealed to
13843-665: The same dress [...] and enjoyed great consideration among their companions", married men, and also helped with raising young girls in the tribe. The coya were violently persecuted by Spanish colonizers, with explorer Pedro Fages ordering the execution of several coya in 1769, and they gradually disappeared with the Spanish missions in California . Among the Yokuts of the San Joaquin Valley , two-spirit individuals are known as tonocim ( pronounced [t̪oˈŋotʃim] ). They were
13970-471: The separation of powers as the State Legislature would be repealing an initiative passed by the voters. However, the consensus of the Assembly Judiciary Committee was that the voters are no more able to pass an unconstitutional, and subsequently enjoined, statute anymore than the State Legislature can. In light of In Re Marriage Cases and Hollingsworth v. Perry , which collectively forbade
14097-400: The state's interests in "preserving the traditional definition of marriage" and "carrying out the expressed wishes of a majority of Californians" were sufficient to preserve the existing law; and challenges from the two groups opposed to same-sex marriage had to be dismissed because they lacked standing in any actual controversy on which the court could rule. The majority emphasized that it
14224-436: The status of upcoming features individually. The current JavaScript ecosystem has many libraries and frameworks , established programming practices, and substantial usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Plus, with the rise of single-page applications and other JavaScript-heavy websites, several transpilers have been created to aid the development process. "JavaScript" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation in
14351-419: The sting of prejudice, or stand passively by when others suffer discrimination or denial of basic human rights. Native Americans have fought hard to establish and protect their own rights, and Santa Ysabel is determined to support our own, and other same sex couples in their struggle to be recognized and treated fairly as citizens of this great nation", said Virgil Perez, the tribal chairman. The Yurok Tribe has
14478-648: The text of her fisheries-research measure, Assembly Bill 849 ( AB 849 ), which was already in the Senate, to the text of Leno's failed bill. On September 2, 2005, the California Senate approved the bill 21–15, and on September 6 the California State Assembly followed suit with a vote of 41–35, making the California State Legislature the first in the nation to approve a same-sex marriage bill without court pressure. The next day, September 7, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger indicated he would veto
14605-435: The three board members who had gone, only Lilly left due to Eich's appointment. Lilly told The New York Times , "I left rather than appoint him", and declined to elaborate further. On March 26, 2014, Eich expressed "sorrow for causing pain" and pledged to "work with LGBT communities and allies" at Mozilla. Some of the activists created an online campaign against Eich, with online dating site OkCupid automatically displaying
14732-782: The tribe as they were considered great healers, as were the hwame ( pronounced [hʷaˈmeː] ), individuals who were born female but wore men's clothing and performed men's activities. The hwame married women, and could claim paternity of a child if they married a pregnant woman. Living together with an ʼalyha or a hwame followed the same patterns as did the establishment and dissolution of opposite-sex marriages. The Chumash people who live in modern-day Santa Barbara County call two-spirit people ʼaqi ( pronounced [ˈʔaqi] ). They "live[d] as women, and kept company with them", and married cisgender men. The Salinan call them coya ( pronounced [ˈʃo.ja] ). They "lived as women, associated with them, wore
14859-502: The use of JavaScript engines is not limited to browsers; for example, the V8 engine is a core component of the Node.js runtime system . A JavaScript engine must be embedded within a runtime system (such as a web browser or a standalone system) to enable scripts to interact with the broader environment. The runtime system includes the necessary APIs for input/output operations, such as networking , storage , and graphics , and provides
14986-532: The validity of Proposition 8 on the grounds that revoking the right of same-sex couples to marry was a constitutional "revision" rather than an "amendment", and therefore required the prior approval of two-thirds of each house of the California State Legislature. Plaintiffs in the various suits included same-sex couples who had married or planned to marry, the cities of San Francisco and Los Angeles and Santa Clara County . The California Supreme Court heard several challenges to Proposition 8 and on May 26, 2009 upheld
15113-416: The videos should remain sealed, but the Ninth Circuit ruled that they lacked standing because they failed to show they would suffer a concrete injury if the videos were made public. The Supreme Court denied review without comment on October 11, 2022. "While it is great news that the recordings of this landmark trial have finally been made public, it never should have taken 12 years to get them unsealed.", said
15240-460: The web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O. Although Java and JavaScript are similar in name and syntax , the two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design. The first popular web browser with a graphical user interface , Mosaic , was released in 1993. Accessible to non-technical people, it played a prominent role in the rapid growth of the early World Wide Web . The lead developers of Mosaic then founded
15367-501: Was vacated and the case was returned to that court with instructions to dismiss the appeal. On June 28, 2013, a stay of execution was lifted and same-sex marriages were able to resume. Same-sex couples began marrying later that day. From the enactment of legislation in 1971 to replace gendered pronouns with gender-neutral pronouns until 1977, the California Civil Code defined marriage as "a personal relation arising out of
15494-452: Was authored by Senator Knight, and the measure was dubbed the "Knight initiative" in an attempt to link it to the failed Briggs Initiative of 1978 that would have banned gays and lesbians from working as teachers in California's public schools. The California Supreme Court invalidated the results of Proposition 22 in 2008. Proposition 22 was formally cited as The California Defense of Marriage Act . When California State Legislature opened
15621-576: Was based on an ECMAScript 4 draft. The goal became standardizing ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4. To this end, Adobe Systems released the Tamarin implementation as an open source project. However, Tamarin and ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side scripting, and without cooperation from Microsoft , ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition. Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not affiliated with ECMA work. In 2005, Jesse James Garrett released
15748-636: Was mothballed. During the period of Internet Explorer dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was stagnant. This started to change in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, Mozilla , released the Firefox browser. Firefox was well received by many, taking significant market share from Internet Explorer. In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the ECMAScript for XML (E4X) standard. This led to Mozilla working jointly with Macromedia (later acquired by Adobe Systems ), who were implementing E4X in their ActionScript 3 language, which
15875-493: Was not the role of the court to determine whether the "traditional definition" of marriage should be maintained. "The time may come when California chooses to expand the definition of marriage to encompass same-sex unions," McGuiness wrote. "That change must come from democratic processes, however, not by judicial fiat." In a sharply worded dissent, Justice J. Anthony Kline (Presiding Justice of Division Two, sitting by designation because two justices had recused themselves) described
16002-590: Was noticeably different from their counterparts in Netscape Navigator . These differences made it difficult for developers to make their websites work well in both browsers, leading to widespread use of "best viewed in Netscape" and "best viewed in Internet Explorer" logos for several years. Brendan Eich later said of this period: "It's still kind of a sidekick language. It's considered slow or annoying. People do pop-ups or those scrolling messages in
16129-586: Was the first state high court in the country to do so. The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court , by contrast, did not find sexual orientation to be a protected class, and instead voided its same-sex marriage ban on a rational basis review in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health in 2003. After the announcement, the Advocates for Faith and Freedom and the Alliance Defense Fund , inter alia , asked for
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