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99-673: By 1746, the War of the Austrian Succession had effectively become a proxy contest between Britain and France, with French victories in Flanders offset by British naval success. Both sides were concerned by the financial costs, although the French position was significantly worse, with the Royal Navy blockade causing severe food shortages. The intention was to agree terms between France and Britain and end

198-479: A Franco-Bavarian army was defeated at Pfaffenhofen on 15 April. With most of his electorate once again occupied, on 22 April he signed the Treaty of Füssen , in which he agreed to vote for Francis Stephen as Emperor, and made peace with Austria. Prussia was now isolated; attempts by Frederick to divide his opponents by supporting Frederick Augustus of Saxony for Emperor were unsuccessful, while neither Britain or Russia

297-726: A French army invaded the Austrian Netherlands . As in 1744, they were greatly helped by divisions between the Pragmatic Allies, making it very difficult to formulate a consistent strategy. The British and Hanoverians detested each other, Austrian resources were focused in Alsace , while the Dutch were reluctant to declare war on France, and unsuccessfully tried to persuade Louis to withdraw. The Dutch however did want to protect their Barrier fortresses and Isaac Cronström thus argued to engage

396-475: A French army of 80,000 under Marshal Saxe defeated a Pragmatic Army of 120,000, led by the Duke of Cumberland . Arguably the most talented general of his generation, Saxe had conquered much of the Austrian Netherlands between 1744 and 1746. In early 1747, Cumberland planned an offensive to retake Antwerp , but was forced to fall back when the French threatened to cut him off from his supply base at Maastricht. When

495-532: A Habsburg for over 300 years, it was an elective position and could not be held by a woman. The problem was exacerbated by tensions within the Holy Roman Empire , caused by dramatic increases in the size and power of Bavaria, Prussia, and Saxony, mirrored by the post-1683 expansion of Habsburg power into lands previously held by the Ottoman Empire . These were the centrifugal forces behind a war that reshaped

594-507: A Spanish delegate turned up, claiming to represent Ferdinand VI , new king of Spain. The British were kept informed of French negotiating strategy, as letters to the French delegates were intercepted and copied by postmasters in British pay. Sandwich also played a key role in the coup that brought William of Orange to power in the Netherlands. Previously neutral, Newcastle viewed Dutch entry into

693-605: A counter-attack but as the infantry formed up, a Dutch cavalry unit to their front was routed by the French and fled, throwing those behind them into disorder and exposing the Allied centre. This was held by the Dutch, who had been limited to two fruitless attacks, both repulsed by French artillery, costing them 537 men. When the Allied left gave way, the centre and right followed. Meanwhile, 150 squadrons of French cavalry had assembled around Wilre, preparing to attack Cumberland's flank; unaware

792-576: A crippling British naval blockade. The stalemate led to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle which confirmed Maria Theresa in her titles but failed to resolve underlying tensions between the signatories, many of whom were unhappy with the terms. France achieved minimal gains for vast expenditure, while the Spanish gained the Duchies of Parma , Piacenza and Guastalla . Prussia, often considered the clearest winner, acquired Silesia from Austria, an outcome that undermined

891-516: A direct assault. The centre was held by the Dutch States Army under the Prince Waldeck , while the left wing, placed around the village of Lauffeld, consisted of British, Hanoverian, and Hessian troops. Most sources suggest around 82,000 French troops faced a slightly smaller Allied army, although estimates vary. The next day was overcast, and heavy rain made movement slow and difficult, so

990-465: A general, all of which had been factors in his earlier defeat at Fontenoy in 1745. These included inadequate reconnaissance, lack of strategic awareness, and poor co-ordination with his senior commanders, as shown by his failure to inform Ligonier he had withdrawn the infantry. Despite their success in Flanders, the British naval blockade caused a collapse in French customs receipts, and cut them off from

1089-595: A major element in the breakdown of the Anglo-Austrian Alliance . Sandwich was rewarded by being made First Lord of the Admiralty , although both he and Newcastle were attacked for giving up Louisbourg so easily. In France, there was enormous disquiet about returning their territorial gains in Flanders, which cost so much, in return for so little. The phrase "as stupid as the Peace" became popular to express contempt for

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1188-467: A population of 16 million, Austria had an authorised standing army of 157,000, although financial restraints meant its true size was considerably less than that in 1740. Since they had a much greater area to defend, their army was more of "a sieve" than a shield against foreign invasion. In contrast, the Prussian Army was better trained and led than its opponents, while its standing army of 80,000

1287-527: A proposed invasion of Britain , aimed at restoring the exiled Stuarts , and over the winter, 12,000 French troops and transports were assembled at Dunkirk . In the February 1744 Battle of Toulon , a combined Franco-Spanish fleet fought an indecisive action with a British naval force commanded by Admiral Mathews . Although Mathews prevented them exiting the Mediterranean and supporting the invasion attempt, he

1386-545: A result, the French made rapid progress, quickly capturing most of the Dutch-held Barrier fortresses along the border, including Menen and Ypres . When an Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine invaded Alsace in early June, Louis went on the defensive in the Southern Netherlands , and travelled to Metz to meet this threat. In early August, he fell dangerously ill with smallpox , a disease often fatal at

1485-560: A second column under Johann Bärenklau moved through the Tyrol , towards Munich . On 17 January, von Khevenhüller defeated a Bavarian army at Schärding while seven days later 10,000 French soldiers surrendered at Linz. On 12 February, Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned Emperor Charles VII, the first non-Habsburg to hold the position in 300 years, although Bärenklau captured Munich the same day. Although technically all allies, Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria had no desire to see France established in

1584-741: A strategic priority. Neutrality had allowed the Dutch to become the main carriers of French imports and exports and its loss put further strain on both economies, with the Dutch government putting pressure on the British to make peace. Although the British were also incurring high levels of debt, they were far better equipped to finance it. To keep their Allies fighting, in the January 1747 Hague Convention Britain agreed to fund Austrian and Savoyard forces in Italy, along with an Allied army of 140,000 in Flanders, increasing to 192,000 in 1748. The Duke of Newcastle , who as Secretary of State oversaw foreign policy felt

1683-465: A town of far less importance to Maria Theresa than Bohemia. Frederick was left dangerously exposed, a situation worsened in early October when Saxony joined the coalition against him as an active belligerent. Under pressure from Charles of Lorraine and a combined Austro-Saxon force under Count Traun , the Prussians were forced to retreat; by the time they entered Silesia in late November, Frederick's army

1782-521: A winter offensive to retake Upper Austria, and attack Bavaria. While Frederick completed his conquest of Silesia, a French force under Maurice de Saxe took Prague on 26 November 1741, allowing the Bavarian elector, Charles Albert , to be crowned King of Bohemia . The year ended with Khevenhüller decisively defeating a bigger Franco-Bavarian army at Sankt Pölten and advancing up the Danube towards Linz, while

1881-417: Is disputed; one suggestion is that it was a fabrication by Frederick, designed to remove anti-Prussian opponents, chiefly Chancellor Bestuzhev-Ryumin . Anna Bestuzhev, wife of his brother Mikhail, and her friend Natalia Lopukhina , confessed to the plot after 25 days of torture; they were publicly flogged, and had their tongues removed before being exiled to Siberia . Fredrick's supporters referred to it as

1980-510: The Austrian Netherlands , along with a wider naval conflict. The war itself can be divided into three separate but connected conflicts, the first being the Silesian Wars between Prussia and Austria. In the second, Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attacks in Northern Italy , while the third featured an increasingly global contest between Britain and France. In the end, French conquest of

2079-552: The Austrian War of Succession by presenting them to the other parties, who were not consulted. The British deliberately extended discussions, hoping to improve their position, but defeat at Lauffeld in July 1747 and the loss of Bergen op Zoom in September led them to agree terms. These were imposed by France and Britain on their allies at Aix-la-Chapelle with minimal consultation. In

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2178-620: The Duke of Newcastle argued Dutch support provided an opportunity to recover the Austrian Netherlands . Instead, it revealed the extent of their decline since 1713 while hopes of building an alliance with Spain after the death of Philip V in July 1746 also proved incorrect. Discussions began in August 1746, led by Lord Sandwich and the Marquis de Puisieux . Sandwich and the British delegation were based near Breda Castle lent to them by William IV, Prince of Orange . Negotiations proceeded slowly, since

2277-571: The Dutch Republic was technically neutral until 1747. French victory at Rocoux in October 1746 confirmed their control of the Austrian Netherlands , but failed to force Britain to agree peace terms. France entered the war to reduce the post-1713 expansion in British commercial strength which they viewed as a threat to the European balance of power, but by 1747 British trade was expanding once again while

2376-515: The Habsburgs became extinct in the male line, these possessions would go first to Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia , daughters of Emperor Joseph I , then those of Charles, his younger brother. Since Salic law excluded women from the inheritance, this agreement required approval by the various Habsburg territories and the Imperial Diet . Charles succeeded Joseph in 1711 and two years later issued

2475-511: The Kingdom of Naples was unsuccessful, largely due to the incompetence of their commanders. In the north, arguments over strategy, and Spanish accusations of French cowardice at Toulon prevented them from taking full advantage of their victories earlier in the year. This was offset by similar divisions among their opponents; Charles Emmanuel was reluctant to see the Bourbons expelled from Italy, leaving

2574-506: The Low Countries , while both parties recognised Prussian control of Silesia . A Congress was held at Aix-la-Chapelle for all belligerents to confirm terms agreed between Britain and France at Breda. Peace was formally concluded with the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . Maria Theresa was outraged at British acceptance of the Prussian conquest of Silesia without any Austrians being present,

2673-542: The Marquis d'Ormea . On 1 February 1742, Schulenburg and Ormea signed the Convention of Turin which resolved (or postponed resolution) many differences and formed an alliance between the two countries. In 1742, field marshal Count Traun held his own with ease against the Spanish and Neapolitans. On 19 August 1742, Naples was forced by the arrival of a British naval squadron in Naples ' own harbour, to withdraw her 10,000 troops from

2772-601: The Newfoundland cod fisheries , a key food supply for the poor. Finance Minister Machault repeatedly warned Louis XV of the impending collapse of their financial system. Their position deteriorated further in October 1747 when the Royal Navy attacked a large convoy on its way to the West Indies at Cape Finisterre in October 1747. Despite the loss of their naval escort, most of the merchantmen escaped but warned of their approach,

2871-570: The Pragmatic Allies . As the conflict widened, it drew in other participants, among them Spain , Sardinia , Saxony , Sweden , and Russia . Prussia occupied the Austrian province of Silesia in 1740, although Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attacks in Northern Italy. By early 1748, France held most of the Austrian Netherlands , but was close to bankruptcy due to the cost of the war and

2970-575: The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , which confirmed the principle of female inheritance. However, it also modified the 1703 agreement by placing the rights of his own children first and after his first child Maria Theresa was born in 1717, Charles' internal and external policy was dominated by ensuring her succession ahead of his two nieces. Prior to their respective marriages to Frederick Augustus of Saxony and Charles Albert of Bavaria in 1719, both nieces were obliged to formally renounce their rights to

3069-524: The Second Pacte de Famille in October, and Louis XV began plans to invade the Austrian Netherlands . The year ended with Saxony agreeing a pact of mutual defence with Austria, leaving Prussia isolated, and facing a renewed offensive as Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia. Under the 1743 Treaty of Fontainebleau, Louis XV and his uncle, Philip V of Spain agreed on joint action against Britain. This included

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3168-642: The Treaty of Worms , intended to expel Spain from Italy. In return for Sardinian support in Lombardy , the Austrians ceded all their territories west of the river Ticino and Lake Maggiore , along with lands south of the Po . In return, Charles Emmanuel renounced his claim to the strategic Duchy of Milan , guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, and provided 40,000 troops, paid for by Britain. France and Spain responded with

3267-575: The War of Jenkins' Ear , the First Carnatic War , and the First and Second Silesian Wars . Its pretext was the right of Maria Theresa to succeed her father, Emperor Charles VI , as ruler of the Habsburg monarchy . France , Prussia , and Bavaria saw it as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg power, while Maria Theresa was backed by Britain , the Dutch Republic , and Hanover , collectively known as

3366-468: The "Botta Conspiracy", alleging the involvement of Austrian envoy Antoniotto Botta Adorno . When Tsarina Elizabeth demanded Botta be punished, Maria Theresa refused, and the episode poisoned the relationship between Austria and Russia. Frederick managed to divide his two main opponents, but Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin remained in place, leaving the overall position unchanged. On 13 September, Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia , Maria Theresa and Britain agreed

3465-584: The Allies to fight on ground of his own choosing. On 11 May, he won a hard-fought victory at Fontenoy , a success that established French dominance in the Netherlands, and caused bitter disputes between the British and Dutch. On 4 June, Frederick won a major victory at Hohenfriedberg , but despite this, Austria and Saxony continued the war. Prussian requests for French support were ignored; Louis had been warned by his ministers state finances were increasingly strained, making it important to focus their efforts. One area

3564-474: The Allies to win a narrow victory . This was the last time a British monarch would personally lead troops in battle. While the Pragmatic Army were able to continue their retreat, they had to abandon their wounded, and although reinforced by Charles of Lorraine were unable to agree what to do next. Charles later described Allied headquarters as a 'republic', while Adrien Maurice de Noailles told Louis XV he

3663-449: The Allies were falling back on Maastricht, Ligonier and 60 squadrons charged, taking them by surprise. One of the best known cavalry charges in British military history, Saxe later claimed only this prevented him destroying the Allied army . The French Irish Brigade suffered more than 1,400 casualties; at one point, the short-sighted Cumberland mistook the red-coated Irish for his own troops, and barely escaped being taken prisoner. To cover

3762-473: The Allies were strong enough to improve their bargaining position by recovering the Netherlands, while he also anticipated the collapse of the Bourbon alliance following the death of Philip V in July 1746. Although both assumptions proved incorrect, when Franco-British negotiations began at Breda in August 1746, Newcastle instructed his envoy, Lord Sandwich , to delay. By taking troops from other areas, Saxe

3861-499: The Austrian Netherlands gave them clear dominance on land, while Britain's victories at sea cemented its place as the dominant naval power. For much of the 18th century, French military strategy focused on potential threats on its eastern and northern borders, which required a strong land army. Its colonies were left to fend for themselves, or given minimal resources, anticipating they would likely be lost anyway. This strategy

3960-631: The Austrians had an army at Tábor , while Neipperg was recalled from Silesia to defend Vienna. Apparently close to defeat, on 21 September Maria Theresa made an emotional speech to the Hungarian Diet in Pressburg . They approved a levée en masse , which ultimately produced 22,000 troops, rather than the promised 60,000, but was an assertion of loyalty long remembered. Maria Theresa was also helped by deep divisions among her opponents and Frederick's duplicity. Hoping to weaken Saxony, on 9 October he signed

4059-607: The Austrians, Charles VII fled to Augsburg , from where he initiated talks with Vienna and London , feeling he had been abandoned by his French allies. Divided at the top, and their troops weakened by disease, the Franco-Bavarian forces offered limited resistance to the Austrian advance; on 9 May, the Bavarians were defeated outside Simbach , by Charles of Lorraine. In mid-June, the Pragmatic Army arrived at Aschaffenburg , on

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4158-554: The British Leeward Islands Squadron under Commodore George Pocock was able to intercept many of them in late 1747 and early 1748. As a result of this defeat, the French navy could no longer protect their colonies or trade routes. In November, Britain and Russia signed a convention for the supply of additional troops and in February 1748, a Russian corps of 37,000 arrived in the Rhineland. However, by now Newcastle

4257-453: The British delegation now agreed to settle terms with France prior to confirmation by their allies. They arguably underestimated the impact of victory at Second Cape Finisterre in October, which effectively ended French naval operations and put their entire colonial empire at risk. The North American fortress of Louisbourg , captured by Britain in 1745, was exchanged for Madras, India , captured by France in 1746; France agreed to withdraw from

4356-536: The British wanted to extend discussions long enough for their position in Flanders to improve. On the other side, France wanted to reach agreement immediately, the terms including making the Low Countries neutral territory in future conflicts; these were drawn up by Gabriel de Mably , who shortly afterwards fell from favour. Unsatisfied by his performance, the French recalled Puisieux and replaced him, giving Sandwich an opportunity to delay by demanding his replacement prove his accreditation. There were further delays when

4455-631: The Continent. They sought to offset the disadvantage this created in Europe by allying themselves with one or more Continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France. In the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were allied with Austria; by the time of the Seven Years' War , they were allied with its enemy, Prussia . In contrast to France, once Britain became engaged in

4554-475: The Empire, nor to see one another gain relative ground. Maria Theresa ended Austria's secret truce with Frederick, first releasing the details. The Austrians assembled a second army of 28,000 to retake Prague, under Charles of Lorraine . News of the secret truce badly damaged the relationship between Frederick and his allies, but Emperor Charles asked him to relieve the pressure by invading Moravia. Frederick had used

4653-402: The French due to Louis' illness. By mid-September, Frederick had captured Prague, Tabor , Budweis and Frauenberg ; he now advanced up the river Moldau , hoping to catch the Austrians between his forces, and the Franco-Bavarian army he assumed was in pursuit. However, the Bavarians contented themselves with re-occupying Munich, while the French settled down to besiege Freiburg im Breisgau ,

4752-403: The French economy was being strangled by the Royal Navy blockade. By the end of 1746, most of the participants sought peace. Maria Theresa had secured her throne and was more interested in rebuilding her army in order to retake Silesia; Austria had only acquired the Austrian Netherlands in 1713 because neither the British or Dutch would allow the other to control it and retaining it was not

4851-448: The French in the open field. George Wade , supreme commander of the allied army, disagreed. He was under strict orders of the British government to not risk losing his connection to Ostend and not to risk British or Hanoverians troops becoming prisoners of war, which also meant that he refused to put them on garrison duty. The British feared another Jacobite uprising and therefore wanted to be able to send their troops home in time. As

4950-502: The French unable to defend their merchant shipping. The stalemate resulted in the October 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . When the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740, Britain was focused on the 1739–1748 War of Jenkins' Ear with Spain , fought mostly in the Caribbean . British and Dutch troops in Flanders initially did so as part of the army of Hanover ; France did not formally declare war on Britain until March 1744, while

5049-615: The Habsburgs as the dominant power, while his territorial ambitions could only be achieved at Austrian expense. As a result, neither side could make significant progress in this area. Frederick's position continued to deteriorate; on 8 January, Austria, Britain, the Dutch Republic and Saxony signed the Treaty of Warsaw , which was clearly aimed at Prussia. This was accompanied by ominous signs of Russian military activity in Livonia , followed by

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5148-517: The Klein–Schnellendorf agreement with Neipperg and in what is now considered a memorable act of diplomatic subterfuge, the Austrians surrendered Neisse after a mock defence. Under the prevailing rules of war, this allowed them to receive a pass to the nearest friendly territory and thus be used against Prussia's allies elsewhere, rather than being taken prisoner. Her best general, von Khevenhüller incorporated them into an army being assembled for

5247-464: The Low Countries. Returning the territorial gains which had cost so much, in exchange for so little, led to the phrase "as stupid as the Peace". The war confirmed the decline of the Dutch Republic as a major power, while Newcastle later blamed himself for his "ignorance, obstinacy, and credulity", in believing otherwise. Seeking an alternative Continental ally, the British supported the annexation of

5346-602: The Montemar force to provide for home defence. The Spanish force under Montemar was now too weak to advance in the Po Valley and a second Spanish army was sent to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria in the Convention of Turin and at the same time neither state was at war with France and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the Isère valley between

5445-549: The Polish Succession and the Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739 , and it was weakened by the losses incurred. The situation was compounded by a failure to prepare Maria Theresa for her new role, and many European statesmen were skeptical Austria could survive the contest that would follow Charles' death, which finally came about in October 1740. On land, fighting focused on three main theatres, Central Europe , Italy , and

5544-409: The Pragmatic Sanction, acknowledged Francis as Emperor, and evacuated Saxony. After 1745, Germany ceased to be an active military theatre; although Frederick knew Maria Theresa still intended to regain Silesia, both sides needed a period of peace in order to re-organise. French objectives were less clear; for centuries, the central plank of its foreign policy was weakening the Habsburgs , but it began

5643-459: The Prussian presence in Moravia remained a threat to Vienna. However, Habsburg policy was generally to avoid fighting on too many fronts at the same time; Prussia was the most dangerous, and most difficult to defeat. Although recovering Silesia remained a priority for decades, Maria Theresa was willing to agree a temporary truce with Prussia to improve her position elsewhere. This suited Frederick, who

5742-541: The Tongeren-Maastricht road, which ran along a ridge parallel to the river Meuse . Finding the French already in possession, they halted for the night, with the infantry billeted in the villages of Vlytingen and Lauffeld. As at Rocoux, the Austrians were on the right, holding the villages of Grote and Kleine Spouwen, which are now part of the Belgian town of Bilzen . A steep ravine immediately in front protected them from

5841-626: The allied army of 40,000 Spaniards and Neapolitans under the command of the Duke of Montemar had advanced towards Modena , Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian commander, Count Otto Ferdinand von Traun had out-marched them, captured Modena and forced the Duke to make a separate peace. The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and King Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia into negotiations in early 1742. These negotiations were held at Turin. Maria Theresa sent her envoy Count Schulenburg and King Charles Emmanuel sent

5940-439: The battle began with an exchange of artillery fire at 6:00 am, which continued until 8:30. Cumberland now made a serious error of judgement, and moved his infantry out of the villages where they had spent the night, having first set them on fire. At Fontenoy in 1745, Saxe used similar positions to inflict heavy casualties on the Allied troops, and Ligonier urged that they be re-occupied. After some hesitation, Cumberland agreed, but

6039-491: The battlefield. His deputy von Schwerin managed to drag out a victory, both sides losing nearly 25% of their strength. On 5 June, Frederick signed an alliance against Austria with France, who crossed the Rhine on 15 August. A combined Franco-Bavarian force now advanced along the Danube , towards Vienna , capturing Linz on 14 September. Joined by a Saxon army of 20,000, they advanced on Prague from three different points, initially meeting little resistance. Before long,

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6138-418: The borders of Hanover and Prussia to each other, and British diplomats tried to persuade Austria to end the Second Silesian War. Franco-Prussian relationships were marked by mutual distrust, while Maria Theresa resented British attempts to persuade her to accept the loss of Silesia. In central Italy an army of Spaniards and Neapolitans was collected for the purpose of conquering the Duchy of Milan . In 1741,

6237-465: The change in orders caused confusion among his subordinates. Saxe assumed abandoning the villages meant Cumberland was retreating across the Meuse, and around 10:30 sent his infantry forward to take possession. Although Vlytingen was empty, Lauffeld had been re-occupied by troops under Frederick of Hesse-Kassel . Over the next few hours, the village changed hands four or five times, before the French finally captured it around 12:30 pm. Cumberland ordered

6336-423: The conflict in Europe, hoping to regain possessions in Northern Italy lost to Austria and Sardinia in 1713. With the help of British subsidies, they repulsed Spanish troops from Northern Italy in late 1746; France was unable to continue funding Spain, while Maria Theresa of Austria wanted peace in order to restructure her administration. Despite the victories of de Saxe in Flanders , the British naval blockade

6435-406: The death of Emperor Charles VII on 20 January. Since Maria Theresa's husband, Grand Duke Francis, was the best-supported candidate to replace him, this was a major setback for the Franco-Prussian alliance. Charles' son and heir, Maximilian III Joseph made one last effort to drive the Austrians out of Bavaria, but his demoralised and ill-equipped army was out-manoeuvered by Count Batthyány , while

6534-420: The inheritance. Charles assumed the rivalry between Saxony and Bavaria would secure his daughter's throne, since neither would be prepared to allow the other to inherit, but instead he gave his two greatest rivals a claim to the Habsburg lands. Charles was also seeking to ensure the succession of Maria Theresa not just to her family lands but the titles and powers of the Holy Roman Emperor . Although held by

6633-444: The interval to reorganise his cavalry, previously neglected in favour of the infantry, and who performed poorly at Mollwitz; they would prove more effective in the 1742 campaign. In December 1741, von Schwerin had captured Olmütz ; Frederick took Glatz , before moving onto Groß Seelowitz in March 1742. This allowed him to threaten Vienna; a few Prussian patrols even appeared in the suburbs, before withdrawing. In early May, he took

6732-514: The invasion. They held on to the fortresses of Glogau , Breslau , and Brieg , but abandoned the rest of the province and withdrew into Moravia , with both sides taking up winter quarters. In under two weeks Prussia had occupied most of the richest province in the Holy Roman Empire, containing a population of over one million, and the commercial centre of Breslau along with mining, weaving and dyeing industries. However, Frederick underestimated Maria Theresa's determination to reverse her loss, while

6831-441: The long-standing Anglo-Austrian Alliance , since Maria Theresa deeply resented Britain's insistence she cede Silesia to make peace and made it her main objective to regain it. At the same time, the war demonstrated that Hanover, then held in personal union with the British Crown , was vulnerable to Prussian attacks, while many British politicians felt they received little benefit from the enormous subsidies paid to Austria. The result

6930-490: The long-term, it marked the point at which the Austrian Habsburg monarchy began moving closer to France, after over 300 years where conflict between them was the dominant theme of European politics. When the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740, Britain was focused on the 1739-1748 War of Jenkins' Ear with Spain ; fought mostly in the Caribbean , by the end of 1742, this had largely reached stalemate. France declared war on Britain in March 1744, while Spain joined

7029-418: The main carriers of French imports and exports. By 1747, the French financial system was on the verge of collapse, accompanied by severe food shortages. The Congress was an attempt to reach agreement between the two main protagonists and end the war but doing so was delayed by internal debates within the British government. They were also finding the financial burden hard to sustain, but the pro-war party led by

7128-518: The north bank of the river Main . Here they were joined by George II , who was attending the enthronement of a new Elector of Mainz in Wiesbaden . By late June, the Allies were running short of supplies and withdrew towards the nearest supply depot at Hanau , the road to which ran through Dettingen, now a part of Karlstein am Main , where 23,000 French troops blocked the road. Despite a strong position, mistakes made by their commander Gramont , allowed

7227-462: The offensive, and moved into north-east Bohemia; by 16 May, he had 10,000 infantry at Kuttenberg , and another 18,000 men under Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau a day's march behind. On the afternoon of 16 May, Charles of Lorraine's cavalry ran into Leopold's rearguard. Leopold recognized he was in contact with the Austrian main force and so accelerated his march ahead to close the gap with Frederick. At 2:00 am on 17 May, his exhausted troops stopped at

7326-574: The retention of Austrian fortresses in Southern Silesia meant a quick victory could not be achieved. Early in the year, an Austrian army under von Neipperg relieved Neisse , and marched on Brieg , threatening to cut the Prussians off. On 10 April, just outside Brieg, they were defeated at the Battle of Mollwitz ; Frederick made serious mistakes in his first battle, and was so close to defeat that his subordinates ordered him to avoid capture and leave

7425-519: The retreating infantry, Ligonier obtained permission for another charge, this time with only three regiments. He was taken prisoner, while the Scots Greys , one of the units involved, lost nearly 40% of their strength. This action allowed time for Karl Josef Batthyány and his Austrians to cover the Allied withdrawal. Estimates of total casualties vary, ranging from between 5,000 and 11,000 killed or wounded on either side. As on previous occasions, Saxe

7524-399: The small village of Chotusitz , still three hours from Kutná Hora. Fought later the same day, the Battle of Chotusitz was inconclusive, but technically a Prussian victory, since the Austrians withdrew. On 24 May, French Field Marshal de Broglie won a minor action at Sahay . The two victories left the strategic situation unchanged, since Charles was still able to move against Prague, while

7623-595: The stage for the Seven Years' War. Frederick II succeeded his father Frederick William as king of Prussia on 31 May 1740 at the age of 28. Although Prussia had increased in importance over the prior few decades, its disparate and scattered territories prevented it wielding significant power, a reality Frederick intended to change. The death of Emperor Charles VI on 20 October 1740 provided him with an ideal opportunity to acquire Silesia, but he needed to do so before Augustus of Saxony and Poland could pre-empt him. With

7722-749: The terms agreed at Breda and Aix-la-Chapelle. In general, the Treaty satisfied no one and failed to resolve the issues that led to war in 1740. War of the Austrian Succession The War of the Austrian Succession was a European conflict fought between 1740 and 1748, primarily in Central Europe , the Austrian Netherlands , Italy , the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea . Related conflicts include King George's War in North America ,

7821-685: The time; although he later recovered, this temporarily paralysed the French command system. With the bulk of the Austrian army occupied in Eastern France, Frederick launched the Second Silesian War on 15 August, and by the end of the month, all 80,000 of his troops were in Bohemia. Although Maria Theresa's main objective was to regain Silesia, the speed of the Prussian advance took the Austrians by surprise. On 23 August, Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace to defend Bohemia, with little interference from

7920-455: The traditional European balance of power ; the various legal claims were largely pretexts and seen as such. Bavaria and Saxony refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial Diet, while in 1738 France agreed to back the 'just claims' of Charles Albert of Bavaria despite previously accepting the Pragmatic Sanction in 1735. Attempts to offset this involved Austria in the 1733–1735 War of

8019-456: The troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took no part. At the end of 1742, the Duke of Montemar was replaced as head of the Spanish forces in Italy by Count Gages . Battle of Lauffeld The Battle of Lauffeld took place on 2 July 1747, during the War of the Austrian Succession . Fought between the towns of Tongeren in modern Belgium, and the Dutch city of Maastricht ,

8118-524: The two armies met at Lauffeld, a series of mistakes by Cumberland compromised his position, and only counterattacks by the Allied cavalry prevented a serious defeat. The battle ended Allied hopes of regaining lost ground and Saxe captured Bergen op Zoom in September, then Maastricht in May 1748. However, by then France was close to bankruptcy, while severe food shortages caused by the Royal Navy blockade worsened after defeat at Cape Finisterre in October 1747 left

8217-473: The war as a way to boost the anti-French coalition in Flanders but it soon proved otherwise. The Dutch required massive British financial support, while the Allied position further deteriorated with defeat at Lauffeld in July and the loss of Bergen op Zoom in September. Newcastle berated himself for his "ignorance, obstinacy and credulity" and fully expected to be forced from office as a result. Despite previously insisting negotiations must include all parties,

8316-519: The war due to concern at British commercial growth post-1713. Since the war in Northern Italy was largely fought to support Spanish aims, this left the Netherlands as the only remaining theatre where France could achieve strategic victory. Another significant development was the start of the realignment of alliances that became the Diplomatic Revolution in 1756. Under the August 'Convention of Hanover', Frederick and George II mutually guaranteed

8415-489: The war, it took advantage of the Royal Navy to expand it into the colonies. The British pursued a dual strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports, and also utilized their ability to move troops by sea to the utmost. They would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort. This plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set

8514-560: Was 'heavily indebted to the irresolutions of George II.' They ended by doing nothing, and in October, took up winter quarters in the Netherlands. Frederick had responded to Dettingen by renewing his search for allies, and building up his army once again. In July, the Russian court discovered an alleged plot to overthrow Empress Elizabeth , and restore three-year old Ivan VI , with his mother Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna as his regent. Whether this amounted to anything more than drunken gossip

8613-1024: Was able to assemble a field army of 120,000 men for the 1747 campaign. The defeat of the Jacobite Rising allowed Cumberland to transfer troops back to Flanders, and prepare an offensive. He hoped to capture Antwerp in February, but bad weather, lack of transport, and war weariness meant the Allies were not ready to take the field until early May. During this delay, Contades captured Fort Liefkenhock, making Antwerp too strong to attack. Simultaneously, Löwendahl seized Sas van Gent , IJzenijke and Eekels, threatening Cumberland's supply lines with Maastricht . The latter inspired an Orangist Coup in Zeeland , which eventually led to William IV being appointed first hereditary Stadtholder of all seven Dutch provinces. To protect Maastricht, Cumberland sent von Daun to secure Tongeren , then held by Clermont-Tonnerre . The Allied cavalry under Ligonier were ordered to occupy

8712-435: Was also ready to agree terms, although it has been argued he failed to appreciate the impact of the naval blockade on the French economy. The terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle were first agreed by Britain and France at Breda, then presented to their allies. These confirmed Prussian possession of Silesia and minor territorial adjustments in Italy, but essentially returned the situation to 1740, with France withdrawing from

8811-684: Was disproportionately large, at around 4% of its 2.2 million population. To add to these advantages, in April 1739 Frederick ensured Austria faced war on two fronts when Louis XV of France agreed to attack from the west, while Prussia did so from the north. In early December 1740, the Prussian army assembled along the river Oder and on 16 December invaded Silesia without a formal declaration of war. Since Austrian military resources were concentrated in Hungary and Italy , they had fewer than 3,000 troops in Silesia, although this increased to 7,000 shortly before

8910-461: Was driven by a combination of geography, and the superiority of the British navy, which made it difficult for the French navy to provide significant supplies and support to French colonies. The expectation was military victory in Europe would compensate for any colonial losses; in 1748, France recovered possessions like Louisbourg , in return for withdrawing from the Austrian Netherlands. The British tried to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on

9009-465: Was forced to retreat, which led to his dismissal. Success allowed Spain to land troops in Northern Italy, and in April they captured the important port of Villefranche-sur-Mer , then part of Savoy . However, storms sank or severely damaged many French ships, while most of Louis' ministers opposed what they considered an expensive and futile diversion of resources. The invasion was cancelled on 11 March, Louis formally declared war on Britain, and in May,

9108-513: Was proclaimed Emperor Francis I on 13 September. Bolstered by this significant political victory, Maria Theresa continued her attempts to regain Silesia, only to be defeated once again at the Battle of Soor on 30 September. On 15 December, the Prussians forced Saxony out of the war with victory in the Battle of Kesselsdorf , leading to the Treaty of Dresden on 25th. Austria accepted Frederick's ownership of Silesia, while Saxony paid him an indemnity of one million crowns; in return, Prussia accepted

9207-476: Was reduced to 36,000, half of whom then died of dysentery. Despite the surrender of Freiburg and French advances in the Southern Netherlands, Austria seemed well-positioned at the end of 1744. Frederick's retreat damaged his reputation and weakened his army, but the most significant impact was on Franco-Prussian relations, with Louis accused of failing to support Prussia. In Italy, an Austrian attack on

9306-560: Was short of money and men and also suspected France was preparing a separate peace. In June, the Treaty of Breslau ended the First Silesian War; Prussian troops withdrew from Bohemia, and Austria recaptured Prague in December. At the beginning of the year, Louis XV insisted Broglie be given command of the Franco-Bavarian forces, creating tension with the Bavarians, and their general von Seckendorff . With most of his lands occupied by

9405-401: Was strangling French trade, while their own had recovered from the post 1739 decline and was expanding once again. This negated a key French objective of reducing the post-1713 expansion of British commercial strength, which they viewed as a threat to the European balance of power. Declaring war on the Dutch Republic made the immediate situation worse, since the neutral Dutch had previously been

9504-506: Was the Netherlands, particularly after British troops were recalled to deal with the Jacobite rising of 1745 . The other was Italy, where a Franco-Spanish army under Maillebois and Infante Philip defeated the Sardinians at Bassignano on 27 September, then captured Alessandria , Valenza and Casale Monferrato . As a result, France made no effort to block the election of Duke Francis, who

9603-505: Was the realignment known as the Diplomatic Revolution . Austria and France ended the rivalry which had dominated European affairs for centuries, while Prussia allied with Great Britain. These changes set the scene for the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756. The immediate cause of the war was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles VI (1685–1740) and the inheritance of the Habsburg monarchy , often collectively referred to as Austria. The 1703 Mutual Pact of Succession provided that if

9702-403: Was unable to follow up his success, leading to accusations from his critics that he was deliberately seeking to prolong the war in order to strengthen his own prestige. Lauffeld was thus another French victory that failed to achieve a decisive result, although it led to the capture of Bergen-op-Zoom in September and Maastricht in May 1748. It provided further proof of Cumberland's weaknesses as

9801-523: Was willing to mediate for him with Austria. Bavaria's exit allowed France to focus on the Low Countries, which Saxe persuaded Louis XV provided the best opportunity of defeating Britain, whose financial backing was crucial to the Pragmatic Alliance. He proposed to attack Tournai , a vital link in the trading network for Northern Europe, and strongest of the Dutch Barrier Forts , this forcing

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