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54-542: The Brahma Jinalaya , sometimes called as the Greater Jain Temple of Lakkundi , is an early 11th-century Mahavira temple in Lakkundi , Gadag District of Karnataka state, India. The temple is attributed to Attiyabbe (Danacintamani Attimbbe), the wife of the local governor Dandanayaka Nagadeva. It faces east, has a mukhamandapa, a gudhamandapa and its sanctum is covered by a sur-temple style vimana superstructure. The temple

108-527: A garbhagriha , an antarala , a closed navaranga mandapa, and an open pillared mukha- mandapa . Over the garbhagriha is the three storeyed nirandhara vimana with a square griva and sikhara. Above the cornice of these arched niches at regular intervals is a seated Jaina figure. The ceilings are plain and pillars are well decorated. The open mandapa is supported by 32 pillars and pilasters. According to art critic Percy Brown , these elements are found commonly in all Western Chalukya temples . The building material

162-567: A rounded form; adds motifs and decoration to the outer walls; and changes how the temple aesthetically appears both outside and inside to the pilgrims. The Vesara form allowed the architect and artisans to add more narrative panels about the Epics, the Puranas, the Vedic legends, scenes of artha, kama, dharma (divine iconography). These accompanied illustrations of different types of temple shikaras as aedicules to

216-645: A simple mixture of Nagara and Dravida, but as a deliberate architectural synthesis grounded in the available materials and construction methods in India from the 7th to 12th centuries. This view is supported by inscriptions discovered in the north Karnataka region. For example, at the mid-11th-century Joda Kalasha Hindu temple in Sudi – an early Vesara example – an inscription is visible in a mix of Sanskrit and Kannada below Shaiva iconography. It mentions Somesvara I and saka 981 (circa 1060 AD). After mentioning Hindu dynasties all over

270-518: A square up to prastara and then is circular from the griva (neck) onwards. There are other theoretical classifications of Hindu temple architecture, with South Indian texts using the plan and North Indian texts using the overall shape and form, in particular of the superstructure. However, the realized temples built before the 17th century show such an abundance of experimentation, innovations and overlapping varieties that scholars generally avoid adhering to strict theoretical terms. For example, while

324-482: A woman named Attimabbe who gets permission from Satyasraya to build her Jaina temple, which she did and which is now the oldest surviving Brahma Jinalaya temple in Lakkundi. Lakkundi grew to be a major city, prosperous and one with a mint. Lakkundi and several historic towns to its north – such as Rona, Sudi, Kradugu now known as Gadag, Hooli and others – attracted a burst of religious, cultural and literary flowering from

378-518: Is soapstone , which according to Percy Brown became the standard in later Hoysala architecture as well. According to art historians Henry Cousens and Om Prakash, the most conspicuous feature of the Western Chalukya temples is the decrease in the size of masonry and the resulting decrease in the overall height of the temples compared to those built by the Badami Chalukyas at Pattadakal . This

432-420: Is among the most mentioned cities. By 1884 some 35 Hindu and Jain inscriptions dated to between the 9th and 13th-century CE had been found that mention Lokkugundi. Though Lakkundi was an established town in the second half of the 1st millennium, its growth and wealth came after 973 CE when Taila II, a Chalukya of Vatapi descendant and chieftain appointed in 965 CE, organized a successful revolt against Karkka II of

486-524: Is close to historic temples found in Dambal , Kukkanur , Gadag, Annigeri, Mulgund, Harti, Laksmesvara, Kalkeri, Savadi, Hooli, Rona, Sudi, Koppal, and Itagi . The nearest Railway station is in Gadag city. Lakkundi is phonetically shortened name of the historic city of Lokkigundi , a name found in inscriptions in the village and those quite far in southern Karnataka and Maharashtra. The earliest surviving inscription

540-513: Is in what is now the Kukkanur village of Karnataka, the Kallesvara (Shiva) temple (1000 – 1025 AD). The Kukkanur temple shows mostly Dravidian features, particularly in the superstructure. The sanctum and mandapa , however, introduce a projecting bhadra with rhythmically placed thin pilasters. This thereby incorporates Nagara style and takes an initial step in harmonizing the relationship between how

594-482: Is notable for its reliefs depicting Jaina artwork, statues of the Tirthankaras and the two statues of Brahma and Saraswati inside its inner mandapa. The temple was ruined and mutilated during or after the wars of the 13th-century. It was rediscovered by British archaeologists led by Henry Cousens in "deserted, filthy condition, occupied by a colony of bats" with beheaded Mahavira statue outside. Now cleaned and restored,

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648-553: Is one of many Jain and Hindu temples found in and around Lakkundi. It is located on the southwest side of the village, near few other historic Jaina temples. The town of Lakkundi was known as Lokkigundi in medieval times. It was of considerable importance during the 11-12th century A.D. Western Chalukya rule, and hosted a number of Jain and Hindu temples. The Brahma Jinalaya was built in 1007 CE by Attimabbe , wife of Nagadeva, who served as general under both Taila II and Satyashraya Irivabedanga (997-1008 A.D.). The temple represents

702-511: Is shown like other historic temples of Jainism. Lakkundi Utsav is two-day annual cultural event organised annually. The event has main stage with temples as the background, is named 'Daana Chintamani Attimabbe Vedike' after 11th century queen Attimabbe. The temple is protected as a monument of national importance by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Karnataka government has announced setting up Lakkundi Development Authority for

756-405: Is some disagreement as to the periods to which it applies. Such disagreements are largely restricted to matters of the term's usefulness and extent. There is general agreement about most aspects of the actual surviving buildings. Vesara means mule . The south Indian text Kamika-agama explains that this name is derived from its mixed nature, as its plan is Dravidian, yet its shape is Nagara in

810-524: The Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura and Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi ; the two side shrines are at 90° angles to the central, main one. According to Dubey, there is no consensus in pre-13th-century Indian tradition as to how Vesara should be described or identified. The conditions and "mixed" features for Vesara are also found in Bhumija and Varata architecture, where synthesis and innovation drives

864-723: The Hoysalas . In 1192 CE, after many of the remarkable temples of Lakkundi were already standing, a Sanskrit inscription of Hoysala king Ballala II re-affirms the continued importance of Lakkundi and it becoming his capital. After the 13th-century, there is an abrupt end to all evidence of new public works, temples, inscriptions and other indirect signs of economic prosperity in Lakkundi. Lakkundi has about 50 temples and temple ruins of different sizes and sophistication, all dated to pre-14th century. They are of Shaivism, Jainism and Vaishnavism, though most temples include diverse iconography such as Surya and of Vedic deities such as Brahma. For example,

918-760: The North Indian and South Indian towards being variants of each other. The discovery of early examples of elliptical, circular, apsidal Hindu temples, states Dubey, may correspond to the Vesara as they once existed, and as such what the South Indian texts were referring to when they were composed. Adam Hardy states that these inventive forms are better understood in terms of the architecture schools and their geographical context, bearing in mind that those schools shared and competed in their ideas. Vesara evolved in Karnataka, Varata in

972-749: The Suprebheda-agama and others. On the other hand, verse 7.15 of the Dipta-agama , verse 9.3 of the Padma-samhita , and verse 30.44–45 of Ishana-Sivagurudeva-Paddhati state that a Vesara may be circular, elliptical or apsidal in plan. A third view is proffered in the section 6 of the Marichi samhita, verses 18.47–48 of the Manasara , and verses 19.36–38 of the Mayamata , namely that a Vesara can be circular or it can be

1026-507: The 11th to 13th century, with ever more sophisticated temple architectures, Vidyadana (charity supported schools) and public works such as step wells. These are largely in the context of Shaivism and Jainism, though a few major temples of Vaishnavism here are also from this period. Smaller Lakkundi monuments can be traced to the Kalachuris , the short rule here of the Seunas and the longer rule of

1080-484: The 19th century played a significant role in rediscovering Lakkundi and its significance in Indian art history. The ruins of Lakkundi now highlight the history of Indian art in museums, with some ruins displayed in a local sculpture gallery (museum) and sheds near the temples. Aside from Hindu and Jain monuments, a Muslim dargah dedicated to Zindeshah Wali is also found in Lakkundi. The site attracts visitors from all over

1134-485: The 19th-century Scottish historian known for his archaeological and architectural studies in India, reported over 30 more inscriptions from Lakkundi, in Kannada and Sanskrit, most of which range between the 11th and 12th century. Some of these were foundation stone inscriptions of Jain and Hindu temples, others gifts to different temples, to Maha-agrahara , to monasteries such as Hiree Matha (now lost), to donate step wells for

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1188-448: The Indian subcontinent, successful public works, ascetics and the schools of the silpins , it states in verses 16–17: Shankararya constructed in the middle of the town of Shundi a dwelling for Nagesvara [Shiva] so that the finials were completed in a manner that none could possibly imagine. The Joda Kalasha temple thus was a challenging innovation on a trend whose earliest surviving sample

1242-498: The Jain temple of Lakkundi is one of many historic Chalukya era Jain and Hindu temples found in Lakkundi. It is the oldest major Jain temple in this region. Archaeological Survey of India has listed this basadi in the complex in the list of "Must See" Indian Heritage. Lakkundi is about 12 kilometers southeast of Gadag-Betageri twin city, between Hampi and Goa . It can be reached by India's National Highway 67. The Bramha Jinalaya temple

1296-628: The Rashtrakuta dynasty. In regional texts, the reign that followed is called Cālukya (Later Chalukyas, Kalyani Chalukyas, or Chalukyas of Kalyana) to distinguish them from the Calukya (Early Chalukyas). Lakkundi flowered and grew with the Shiva-tradition Hindu monarch Satyasraya Irivabedanga – the successor and son of Taila II who came to power in 997 or 998 CE. This is attested by both Jain and Hindu inscriptions of early 11th-century, particularly of

1350-507: The South Indian Hindu kingdoms. The village of Lakkundi contains over 50 temple ruins, many of which are in poor condition and inhabited by bats. However, the major temples have been restored and are now maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Lakkundi is an important center for the study of Kalyana Chalukya era Hindu architecture, known as the "Lakkundi-school" of architects andcraftsmen. British archaeologists of

1404-451: The Vesara equivalent is strongly divided into storeys or steps, but there are more of them, and the kapota roof motif is less dominant than in contemporaneous southern vimanas . George Michell describes a characteristic feature as "the obscuring of the outer profile of the building by multiplying the projections of the walls and superstructure; these move restlessly from one plane to another, relying upon effects of light and shade to lend

1458-573: The Vesara style has been linked to Karnataka and texts composed there. In general, many South Indian texts state that Vesara is a building that is "circular or round" in plan above its karna (base) or kantha (neck). Some examples of this definition for Vesara are found in verse 50.15–17 of the Svayambhuva-agama , verse 7.117 of the Karana-agama , verse 12.68 of the Ajita-agama , verse 30.41 of

1512-452: The Vesara style. Thereafter, many more innovations were introduced and increasingly sophisticated Kalayana Chalukya and Hoysala temples were built in the emerging Vesara style through the 13th century. The Vesara architecture departs from the Dravida architecture in several key conceptual and experiential ways: it projects the bhadra ; widens the sanctum (and mandapa ); takes it ever closer to

1566-408: The building its solidity and shape." There are generally prominent sukanasa projections from the tower on the roof over an antarala antechamber to the sanctum. The mandapa is generally larger than the sanctum and its vimana, while further open mandapas may be larger still. Some shrines have multiple temples, especially three. These are usually with three entrances off the same mandapa, as at

1620-415: The details. The same text says that Vesara is also called Sankara (hybrid) for the same reason. The Vesara style is not mentioned by name in north Indian texts on architecture, according to contemporary architectural scholars. In contrast, it is a term found in most South Indian texts on architecture alongside Dravida and Nagara. This pattern suggests that the Vesara style originally emerged and grew in

1674-536: The development of Lakkundi at cost of Rs. 3 crores. More than 50 ruined, mutilated Jain and Hindu sculpture, 3 inscriptions were discovered during tourist facility development and site restoration efforts at the nearby Naganatha temple – another Jain temple. Some of these sculpture are on display near the Brahma Jinalaya temple in a shed, conserved by the ASI. Lakkundi Lakkundi , also referred to as Lokkugundi ,

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1728-421: The image of a Jain saint (Jaina) in relief, with a kirtimukha decoration above. The walls of the shrine have pilasters , with the spaces between them containing, in relief, pavilions , and miniature decorative towers ( aedicula ) on slender half pilasters. Some miniature towers have niches below them. Overall, decorative ornamentation is taken to a new level compared to earlier temples. Dhaky and Meister call

1782-493: The later Hoysala empire (1000 – 1330 AD). Other art historians such as Sinha state that experimentation and innovations in Hindu temple architecture began quite early in Karnataka at sites such as Aihole , Pattadakal , Badami and Mahakuta where both Nagara and Dravida temples were built close to each other. However, each of these temples more or less retained their historic identity. Vesara, states Sinha, should not be treated as

1836-604: The major temples are the Brahma Jinalaya (oldest), Mallikarjuna, Lakshminarayana, Manikeshwara, Naganatha, Kumbheshvara, Nanneshwara, Someshwara, Narayana, Nilakanteshwara, Kasivisesvara (most sophisticated, ornate), Virabhadhara, Virupaksha , and others. As its importance and wealth grew, Lakkundi became one of the capitals of the Hoysala Empire . In the 14th century the city was targeted by Islamic Sultanates as they sought to plunder and establish political dominance over

1890-402: The northern shikhara tower. The walls and superstructure are broadly circular or a straight-sided cone, though the geometry is based on rotating a square imposed on a circle. Vesara also contains unique decorative motifs. A common motif is miniature shikharas , often of the Bhumija type, showing that the architects were well aware of northern styles. Like the southern vimana superstructure,

1944-738: The oldest Jaina temple – Brahma Jinalaya – includes Hindu statues and artworks such as that of 4-headed Brahma, Saraswati and Lakshmi, along with Mahavira, Parsvanatha and other Tirthankaras. The major surviving temples in Lakkundi include: Lakkundi has a number of step wells, some functioning as water tanks for the temples. These are artistically built with small canopied niches enshrining lingas . The Chateer Bavi, Kanne Bavi and Musukina Bavi are architecturally significant and popular for their artwork and carvings. Over two dozen Kannada and Sanskrit inscriptions from different Hindu dynasties have been found at Lakkundi. These describe gifts and donations, donor names and which social classes these donors came from,

1998-468: The outside and inside. This ornamentation sharply contrasts with the plain structures found in the Dravida temples of earlier centuries. The Vesara style (if defined as beginning only with the Western Chalukyas in the late 10th century) contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles. In particular the shape of the superstructure over the sanctum is usually pyramidal in profile, and shorter than

2052-474: The public and pilgrims, and other purposes. Though damaged, many of them include the Saka year of the inscription. The profusion of these inscriptions attests to the importance of Lakkundi as a historic city to both Hindu and Jain traditions. Many more inscriptions on stone and copper plates mentioning Lokkugundi have been discovered far from Lakkundi. However, in this part of ancient and medieval Karnataka, Lokkugundi

2106-605: The region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that today is northern Karnataka . According to some art historians, the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the Chalukyas of Badami (500 – 753 AD) whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya architecture featured temples in a style that mixed some features of the Nagara and the Dravida styles. For example, they used both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over

2160-399: The ritual and cultural aspects of their times and the socio-political contexts of medieval era Karnataka. Some of these are important to help establish the Jain heritage in Karnataka during these Hindu dynasties. Some of these include: Lakkundi is known for Chalukya style temples , stepped wells and historic inscriptions. Lakkundi is often a gem missed by a majority of tourists. If you take

2214-553: The sanctum in different temples of similar date, such as at Pattadakal . This style was further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750 – 983 AD) in sites like Ellora . Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style, some writers only date the start of Vesara to the later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (983 – 1195 AD), whose sites include Lakkundi , Dambal , Itagi , and Gadag , and

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2268-415: The second phase of Kalyani Chalukyas art. In 1191 A.D., the noted Hoysala empire king Veera Ballala II made this town an important garrison. The temple includes several inscriptions that helps date this temple and the gifts it received before the 14th-century. When mentioned, the temple is called Brahma Jinalaya of Lokkigundi in these historic inscriptions. According to the art historian Adam Hardy ,

2322-414: The south of the subcontinent. The Manasara regionally categorizes Nagara in the north, Dravida in the south and Vesara in the middle. It goes on to state that Nagara emphasizes the four sides, Dravida a polygon (octagon), while Vesara compliments both with circular or elliptical forms. Given the many post-10th-century Hindu and Jain temple structures and ruins in Vesara form that have survived in Karnataka,

2376-478: The temple as the Great Jaina temple of Lakkundi , thereby differentiating it from other minor Jaina temples of Lakkundi. There are several notable freestanding sculptures in the temple: In addition to these sculptures, reliefs of Jaina goddesses and apsaras are depicted on the pillars. On the door lintel at the entrance to the vestibule, an image of Gajalakshmi (Hindu goddess Lakshmi with elephants on either side)

2430-430: The temple illustrates the " Later Chalukya architecture, mainstream Lakkundi school of mid-11th century with late 11th century superstructure ( shikhara )". The temple has single shrine ( ekakuta ) connected to a closed mantapa hall via a vestibule ( sukanasi or ardhamantapa ) that is connected to another, open mantapa. This temple is one of the fine illustrations of the Western Chalukya architecture. The temple has

2484-707: The term "Vesara" because although ancient writers used the word, they may have intended different meanings from its modern usage. Alternative terms for the tradition's whole timespan, from the 7th to the 13th century CE, include "Karnata Dravida" (Hardy's choice), "Central Indian temple architecture style", "Deccan architecture", or for shorter periods, terms referring to local dynasties, such as "Chalukyan architecture". Increasingly precise alternatives might include "Early Chalukya" or " Badami Chalukya architecture ", "Later" or "Kalyana" or " Western Chalukya architecture ", and " Hoysala architecture ", depending on dynastic and regional specifics. Among those who do use "Vesara", there

2538-601: The theory in Manasara states that Dravida temples are those south Indian temples that have an octagonal (or polygonal) plan, historic Dravidian temples with octagonal plans either were never built or have not survived into the modern age. Similarly, even on the walls of Hindu and Jain temples of Karnataka, there is no depiction of any elliptical temple. This may be because the sthanpati (architect) and silpins (artisans) in 9th to 11th century Karnataka were deliberately ignoring traditional texts and experimenting with novel and innovative approaches. The Vesara style originated in

2592-411: The tower over the shrine as Dravidian (south Indian) with a square plan. Kamath classifies it as Vesara because each tier are encrusted with motifs that make the tower more "curvilinear". According to Cousens, the overall structure with its well proportioned tiers and finial ( amalaka , kalasha ) give the superstructure a "majestic" look. Above the cornice are circular niches, each of which holds

2646-587: The trouble to visit Lakkundi, you will be rewarded with one of the finest architectural feasts of the Kalyana Chalukya period (c. 10th century CE). 11. LAKKUNDIY BRAMAJINALAY : VASTU-SHILP-SHASAN (2014), Dr. Appanna N. Hanje, Vidyashre Prakashan, ALAGAWADI-591317 12. LAKKUNDIY BASADIGALU (2015), Dr. Appanna N. Hanje, Vidyashre Prakashan, ALAGAWADI-591317 13. SAMAVASARAN (Research Articles-2015), Dr. Appanna N. Hanje, Vidyashre Prakashan, ALAGAWADI-591317 Vesara Some scholars like Adam Hardy avoid using

2700-427: The viewer aesthetically experiences the temple from the outside and from the inside. This bhadra innovation required changes in temples' construction methods and superstructure layouts. These changes were further perfected as the 11th century progressed in Karnataka. The Sudi temple was a significant step forward. The Kasivisvesvara temple in Lakkundi marked a high point of architectural and artistic accomplishment in

2754-446: The world due to its rich historical and cultural heritage . Lakkundi is about 12 kilometers from the twin city of Gadag-Betageri, between Hampi and Goa , connected by India's National Highway 67. A home to numerous ruins of historic Hindu and Jain temples, Lakkundi is geographically located in a region with many major temple groups from the Kalachuris , Chalukyas , Yadavas-Seunas , Hoysalas and Vijayanagara era. For example, it

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2808-550: Was a major city before the 14th century, and is now a village in Gadag District of Karnataka , India. By 10th century, it was already a major economic and commerce center with mint operations for South India , one mentioned in Kannada and Sanskrit inscriptions and texts. By 12th century, many Hindu and Jain temples had been consecrated here, along with public infrastructure such as stepwells and water reservoirs . Among

2862-431: Was a result of a shift in the basic building material, from sandstone to the more workable soapstone (Chloritic Shist ). In the coming decades, this transformation was to lead Vesara architecture toward increased ornamentation and articulation. The temple style is quite similar to the older Shiva temple in Kukkanur, and they represent the transition phase between early Chalukya and Late Chalukya styles. He categorizes

2916-399: Was discovered by British archaeologists on a stone slab near Kanner Bhanvi – a step well in Lakkundi. The inscribed stone slab was being used by local dhobis (laundry washerman) to wash clothes at the step well. The inscription on it dates to 790 CE. This inscription confirms that Lakkundi was already in existence and significant enough for an inscription by the 8th-century. James Fergusson –

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