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99-640: With the combination of these two companies with Republic Steel Corporation, Republic became the third largest steel company in the United States after U.S. Steel Company and the Bethlehem Steel Company . At the time of its combination with Bourne-Fuller and Central Alloy, Republic was headquartered in Youngstown , Ohio. In 1936 it moved its headquarters to Cleveland , Ohio. Before it combined with Republic, Bourne-Fuller consisted of three entities: first

198-408: A ladle . In this step, the oxygen binds with the undesired carbon, carrying it away in the form of carbon dioxide gas, an additional source of emissions. After this step, the carbon content in the pig iron is lowered sufficiently and steel is obtained. Further carbon dioxide emissions result from the use of limestone , which is melted at high temperatures in a reaction called calcination , which has

297-410: A " carbon offset ", where emissions are "traded" against the sequestration of the source biomass, "ofsetting" emissions by 5% to 28% of current CO 2 values. Offsetting has a very low reputation globally, as cutting down the trees to create the pellets or charcoal does not sequester carbon, it interrupts the natural sequestration the tree was providing. Offsetting is not reduction. Overall, there are

396-479: A batch ("heat") of iron is loaded into the furnace, sometimes with a "hot heel" (molten steel from a previous heat). Gas burners may be used to assist with the melt. As in basic oxygen steelmaking, fluxes are also added to protect the lining of the vessel and help improve the removal of impurities. Electric arc furnace steelmaking typically uses furnaces of capacity around 100 tonnes that produce steel every 40 to 50 minutes. This process allows larger alloy additions than

495-655: A brief time. The United States Shipbuilding Company was in turmoil; its subsidiaries, including the Bethlehem Steel Company, contributed to the United States Shipbuilding Company's problems. Schwab again became involved with Bethlehem Steel Company through the parent company, the United States Shipbuilding Company. The United States Shipbuilding Company planned in 1903 to reorganize as the Bethlehem Steel and Shipbuilding Company, which would be

594-620: A lawsuit was filed in the Third Circuit Court of Appeals in Philadelphia . The case, Lawrence Hollyfield, Fiduciary to the Estate of Collins Hollyfield v. Pension Plan of Bethlehem Steel Corporation and Subsidiary Companies, was settled in favor of Hollyfield in 2001. It led to a class action lawsuit filed by Bethlehem Steel's workers union soon thereafter. This settlement led to PBGC assuming all Bethlehem Steel pension obligations, representing

693-424: A loss of US$ 1.5 billion and shut down much of its operations. The company's profitability returned briefly in 1988, but restructuring and shutdowns continued through the 1990s. In the mid-1980s, demand for the plant's structural products began to diminish and new competition entered the marketplace. Lighter construction styles, due in part to lower-height construction styles, such as low-rise buildings, did not require

792-482: A naval appropriations bill that authorized the construction of two armored second-class battleships, one protected cruiser, one first-class torpedo boat, and the complete rebuilding and modernization of two Civil War-era monitors. The two second-class battleships, the USS ; Texas and the USS  Maine , both had large-caliber guns with 12-inch and 10-inch, respectively, and heavy armor plating. Bethlehem secured both

891-652: A pilot plant in Woburn, Massachusetts , and building a production facility in Brazil, it was founded by MIT professors Donald Sadoway and Antoine Allanore. A research project which involved the steel company ArcelorMittal tested a different type of iron ore electrolysis process in a pilot project called Siderwin. It operates on relatively low temperatures (around 110 °C), while the Boston Metal process operates on high temperatures (~1.600 °C). As of March 2023 ArcelorMittal

990-853: A presence in Latin America for roughly a century (1880s - 1980s). As such, the company profited greatly from the United States’ economic control over the region. “In a single year, 1960, U.S. Steel and Bethlehem Steel realized a greater than 30 percent profit on their Venezuelan iron investment, and this profit equaled all the taxes paid to the Venezuelan state in the decade since 1950” Bethlehem Steel also relied on Latin American mines for manganese , an additive for tensile strength. During President Eurico Dutra’s presidency in Brazil (1946 - 1951), Bethlehem Steel received 40 million ton of manganese “for 4 percent of

1089-408: A result, the company encountered difficulty when it faced rising pension costs combined with diminishing profits and increased global competition. By the 1970s, imported foreign steel was proving cheaper than domestically produced steel, and Bethlehem Steel faced growing competition from mini-mills and smaller-scale operations that could sell steel at lower prices. In 1982, Bethlehem Steel reported

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1188-547: A single one of which was for 50,000 tons of steel, went to competitors in Seattle, St. Louis, New York and Illinois. U.S. global leadership in steel manufacturing lasted about two decades during which the U.S. steel industry operated with little foreign competition. Eventually however, foreign firms were rebuilt with modern techniques such as continuous casting , while profitable U.S. companies resisted modernization. Bethlehem experimented with continuous casting but never fully adopted

1287-492: A subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, though the Bethlehem Steel Company also had subsidiaries of its own. Bethlehem Steel Corporation became the second largest steel provider in the United States. Both the Bethlehem Steel Company and the Bethlehem Steel Corporation existed simultaneously after 1904 until the 1960s, when the two companies were merged into the Bethlehem Steel Corporation. From 1906 until it

1386-481: A team of assistants, applied a series of management principles established by Taylor, which would later come to be known as scientific management and was used in increasing mass production. The Bethlehem Iron Company was very successful and profitable, and the corporate management of the Bethlehem Iron Company believed that it could be even more profitable. To accomplish that goal, the corporate ownership of

1485-427: Is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich pig iron is melted and converted into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron converts some of the carbon in the iron into CO and CO 2 , turning it into steel. Refractories — calcium oxide and magnesium oxide —line the smelting vessel to withstand the high temperature and corrosive nature of the molten metal and slag . The chemistry of

1584-451: Is also rich in the reducing agents of H 2 and CO. The top gas can be captured, the CO 2 removed, and the reducing agents reinjected into the blast furnace. A 2012 study suggested that this process can reduce BF CO 2 emissions by 75%, while a 2017 study showed that emissions are reduced by 56.5% with carbon capture and storage, and reduced by 26.2% if only the recycling of the reducing agents

1683-451: Is and ongoing project by SuSteel to develop a hydrogen plasma technology that reduces the oxides with hydrogen, as opposed to with CO or carbon, and melts the iron at high operating temperatures. In steelmaking, coal and coke are used for fuel and iron reduction. Biomass such as charcoal or wood pellets are a potential alternative fuel, but this does not actually reduce emissions, as the burning biomass still emits carbon, it merely provides

1782-401: Is infused with carbon (from coal) in an electric arc furnace . Hydrogen produced by electrolysis requires approximately 2600 kWh per ton of steel. Costs are estimated to be 20–30% higher than conventional methods. However, the cost of CO 2 -emissions add to the price of basic oxygen production, and a 2018 study of Science magazine estimates that the prices will break even when that price

1881-469: Is introduced into the process. Steelmaking is one of the most carbon emission intensive industries in the world. As of 2020 , steelmaking is responsible for about 10% of greenhouse gas emissions . To mitigate global warming , the industry will need to find significant reductions in emissions. Steelmaking has played a crucial role in the development of ancient, medieval, and modern technological societies. Early processes of steel making were made during

1980-472: Is investigating whether the company wants scale up the technology and build a larger plant, and expects an investment decision by 2025. Scrap in steelmaking refers to steel that has either reached its end-of-life use, or was generated during the manufacture of steel components. Steel is easy to separate and recycle due to its inherent magnetism and using scrap avoids the emissions of 1.5 tons of CO 2 for every ton of scrap used. As of 2023 , steel has one of

2079-446: Is iron ore electrolysis, where the reducing agent is simply electrons as opposed to H 2 , CO, or carbon. One method for this is molten oxide electrolysis. Here, the cell consists of an inert anode, a liquid oxide electrolyte (CaO, MgO, etc.), and the molten steel. When heated, the iron ore is reduced to iron and oxygen. Boston Metal is at the semi-industrial stage for this process, with plans to reach commercialization by 2026. Expanding

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2178-440: Is not very strong, but a low concentration of carbon – less than 1 percent, depending on the kind of steel – gives the steel its important properties. The carbon in steel is obtained from coal and the iron from iron ore. However, iron ore is a mixture of iron and oxygen, and other trace elements. To make steel, the iron needs to be separated from the oxygen and a tiny amount of carbon needs to be added. Both are accomplished by melting

2277-573: Is the most prominent among green steel technologies. This differs from conventional steel making processes, in which carbon in coke is used as the reductant (to strip oxygen from iron ore), which creates iron and carbon dioxide. Where hydrogen is generated from a renewable energy source as both the alternative reductant and the fuel, the greatest gain in CO 2 emissions is achieved. As of 2021, only ArcelorMittal in France, Voestalpine in Austria, and TATA in

2376-413: Is used. To keep the carbon captured from entering the atmosphere, a method of storing it or using it would have to be found. Another way to use the top gas would be in a top recovery turbine which then generates electricity, which could be used to reduce the energy intensity of the process, if electric arc smelting is used. Carbon could also be captured from gases in the coke oven. As of 2022 , separating

2475-451: Is €68 per tonne CO 2 , which is expected to be reached in the 2030s. Secondary steelmaking is most commonly performed in ladles . Some of the operations performed in ladles include de-oxidation (or "killing"), vacuum degassing, alloy addition, inclusion removal, inclusion chemistry modification, de-sulphurisation, and homogenisation. It is now common to perform ladle metallurgical operations in gas-stirred ladles with electric arc heating in

2574-562: The American Civil War , the U.S. Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities as national energies were redirected toward settling the West and rebuilding the war-ravaged South. Almost no new ordnance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U.S. fleet and the need to rebuild it to protect U.S. military capabilities, trade, and prestige. In 1883, U.S. Secretary of

2673-618: The Axis powers in World War II. Historians cite Bethlehem Steel's ability to quickly manufacture warships and other military equipment as decisive factors in American victories in both world wars. Bethlehem Steel's roots trace to an iron-making company organized in 1857 in Bethlehem, which was later named the Bethlehem Iron Company. In 1899, the owners of the iron company founded Bethlehem Steel Company and, five years later, Bethlehem Steel Corporation

2772-682: The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco , and the Peace Bridge between Buffalo and Fort Erie, Ontario . Bethlehem Steel played an instrumental role in manufacturing the U.S. warships and other military weapons used in World War I and later by the Allied forces in ultimately winning World War II . Over 1,100 Bethlehem Steel-manufactured warships were built for use in defeating Nazi Germany and

2871-581: The Lackawanna Steel Company , which included the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and extensive coal holdings. During World War I and World War II , Bethlehem Steel was a major supplier of armor plate and ordinance to the U.S. armed forces, including armor plate and large-caliber guns for the U.S. Navy, and was influential to U.S. victories in both wars. Bethlehem Steel "was the most important to America's national defense of any company in

2970-575: The Lehigh Valley region of the United States. Its primary steel mill manufacturing facilities were first located in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania and later expanded to include a major research laboratory in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and plants in Sparrows Point, Maryland, Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Lackawanna, New York, and its final and largest site in Burns Harbor, Indiana. The company's steel was used in

3069-447: The industrial process in which coal is used as the source of carbon that removes oxygen from iron ore in the following chemical reaction, which occurs in a blast furnace : Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO 2 (g) Additional carbon dioxide emissions result from mining, refining and shipping the ore used, basic oxygen steelmaking , calcination , and the hot blast . Proposed techniques to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in

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3168-420: The Bethlehem Iron Company switched to steel production, and the company's name was formally changed to Bethlehem Steel Company. In 1899, Bethlehem Steel Company was established. This was the first company to carry the name Bethlehem Steel. Bethlehem Steel Company, also then known as Bethlehem Steel Works, was incorporated to take over all liabilities of the Bethlehem Iron Company. The Bethlehem Iron Company and

3267-556: The Bethlehem Steel Company gained control of all properties from the Bethlehem Iron Company and the Bethlehem Iron Company ceased operations. Schwab transferred his ownership of the Bethlehem Steel Company to the U.S. Steel Corporation , the company of which he was president. This period was brief; Schwab repurchased Bethlehem Steel Company, then sold it to the United States Shipbuilding Company . The United States Shipbuilding Company owned Bethlehem Steel Company only

3366-433: The Bethlehem Steel Company were separate companies under the same ownership. The Bethlehem Steel Company leased the properties that were owned by the Bethlehem Iron Company. In 1901, Charles M. Schwab (no relation to the stockbroker Charles R. Schwab ), purchased the Bethlehem Steel Company and made Samuel Broadbent its vice president. During this time, the company's lease with the Bethlehem Iron Company came to an end as

3465-586: The Bourne-Fuller Company soon after Paul P. Condit died in 1886. (The company name was changed in approximately 1892.) The sales firm was first located on Water Street in Cleveland and later the office was moved to River and Main Streets, also in Cleveland. Bourne-Fuller Co. was represented by James Dempsey of Squires Samuel & Dempsey, a leading Cleveland law firm. Dempsey, who was a director of Bourne-Fuller,

3564-555: The CO2 from other gases and components in the system, and the high cost of the equipment and infrastructure changes needed, have kept this strategy minimal, but the potential for emission reduction has been estimated to be up to 65% to 80%. Alternatively, hydrogen can be used in a shaft furnace to reduce the iron oxides. Only water is produced as the by-product of the reaction between iron oxide and hydrogen, and results in emission-free iron-making. Known as hydrogen direct reduction (HDR), this

3663-496: The City of Cleveland for the rapidly expanding steel industry in 1873. Union Rolling Mill and a railroad purchased the cemetery, moving more than 3,000 burials to a new place in 1881-1882. “The mill employed 400 hands, covered seven acres of ground, and had a daily capacity of 120 tons of finished iron. . . With a capital of $ 500,000, the Mill’s annual capacity, with the remodeled Emma Furnace,

3762-559: The HIsarna process is more energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional steelmaking processes. Steel can be produced from direct-reduced iron, which in turn can be produced from iron ore as it undergoes chemical reduction with hydrogen. Renewable hydrogen allows steelmaking without the use of fossil fuels . In 2021, a pilot plant in Sweden tested this process. Direct reduction occurs at 1,500 °F (820 °C). The iron

3861-579: The Navy William E. Chandler and U.S. Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board and Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers. On one of these trips, he formed business ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester , England. He returned to the United States as Whitworth's agent and, in 1885, was granted an extended furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques

3960-586: The Netherlands were committed to using green hydrogen to make steel from scratch. HDR is employed in the HYBRIT project in Sweden. However, this approach requires a substantial amount of renewables to produce the needed renewable hydrogen. For the European Union, it is estimated that the hydrogen demand for hydrogen-based steelmaking would require 180 GW of renewable capacity. Another developing possible technology

4059-675: The United States Steel Corporation.” Bourne-Fuller Company wanted to purchase Upson Nut so that it would own a furnace. These three companies were the largest independent steel companies in Ohio. The president of Bourne-Fuller Co., was B.F. Bourne, Horace A. Fuller was vice president (and president of Union Rolling Mill Co.). Horace Fuller's father, Samuel Augustus Fuller , was founder and president of Condit Fuller & Co., which became Bourne-Fuller & Co., after Mr. Paul P. Condit's death in 1886. In 1912-1913 Anton Burchard designed

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4158-560: The Upson Nut Company was supplied by Republic's Youngstown plant. In 1893 Cleveland's production of nuts and bolts surpassed all other American cities. Upson Nut Company (in 1864 it was called the Union Nut Company) was a foremost maker of cold and hot pressed and forged nuts, bolts and washers. Finished steel was delivered from Republic's Youngstown plant to Upson's plant on 1970 Carter Road in Cleveland. Bourne-Fuller then became

4257-478: The Upson Nut Plant was shut down. Samuel Augustus Fuller founded and was president of Condit Fuller Company which became known as Bourne-Fuller Company. In 1881, Samuel A. Fuller began another venture known as Condit Fuller & Co., on Water Street. It was the sales office for iron and steel. His son, Horace Arthur Fuller, entered the partnership in 1883. The company changed the name of Condit Fuller Company to

4356-407: The air in the hot blast is heated by burning fossil fuels, which often is the case, this is an additional source of carbon dioxide emissions. The steel industry produces 7-8% of CO 2 emissions created by humans (almost two tonnes for every tonne of steel produced), and it is one of the most energy-consuming industries on earth. There are several carbon abatement and decarbonization strategies in

4455-545: The armor plate for warships, and one-third of the big cannon forgings for the U.S armed forces were turned out by Bethlehem Steel. Steel is an alloy made up of iron and carbon, with additional minerals added depending on its use. In the 20th century, sourcing the necessary minerals in the United States was significantly more expensive than supplying them from elsewhere. Bethlehem Steel is just one of several U.S. companies to have sourced iron from Latin America. Bethlehem Steel held

4554-407: The basic oxygen method. In HIsarna ironmaking process, iron ore is processed almost directly into liquid iron or hot metal . The process is based around a type of blast furnace called a cyclone converter furnace , which makes it possible to skip the process of manufacturing pig iron pellets that is necessary for the basic oxygen steelmaking process. Without the necessity of this preparatory step,

4653-463: The blast furnace where the iron ore is reduced to pig iron, helping to achieve the high activation energy. The hot blast temperature can be from 900 to 1,300 °C (1,650 to 2,370 °F) depending on the stove design and condition. Oil, tar , natural gas, powdered coal and oxygen can also be injected into the furnace to combine with the coke to release additional energy and increase the percentage of reducing gases present, increasing productivity. If

4752-401: The calcium oxide can react to remove silicon oxide impurities: SiO 2 + CaO → CaSiO 3 This use of limestone to provide a flux occurs both in the blast furnace (to obtain pig iron) and in the basic oxygen steel making (to obtain steel). Further carbon dioxide emissions result from the hot blast , which is used to increase the heat of the blast furnace. The hot blast pumps hot air into

4851-599: The classical era in Ancient China , India , and Rome . Cast iron is a hard, brittle material that is difficult to work, whereas steel is malleable, relatively easily formed and a versatile material. For much of human history, steel has only been made in small quantities. Since the invention of the Bessemer process in 19th century Britain and subsequent technological developments in injection technology and process control , mass production of steel has become an integral part of

4950-607: The company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating used by the U.S. Navy . The company continued to prosper during the early 1880s, but its share of the rail market began to decline in the face of competition from growing Pittsburgh and Scranton -based firms, such as the Carnegie Steel Company and Lackawanna Steel . The nation's decision to rebuild the Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Company's destiny. Following

5049-882: The construction of many of America's largest and most famed structures. Among major buildings, Bethlehem produced steel for 28 Liberty Street , the Chrysler Building , the Empire State Building , Madison Square Garden , Rockefeller Center , and the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City and Merchandise Mart in Chicago . Among major bridges, Bethlehem steel was used in constructing the George Washington Bridge and Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge in New York City,

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5148-459: The construction trades. Galvanized sheet steel under the name BETHCON was widely produced for use as duct work or spiral conduit. The company also produced forged products for defense, power generation, and steel-producing companies. From 1949 to 1952, Bethlehem Steel had a contract with the U.S. federal government to roll uranium fuel rods for nuclear reactors in Bethlehem Steel's Lackawanna, New York plant. Workers were not aware of

5247-481: The dangers of the hazardous substance and were not given protective equipment. Some workers have since attempted to receive compensation under a year 2000 radiation-exposure law. The law required the U.S. Labor Department to compensate workers up to $ 150,000 if they developed cancer later in life, provided their work history involved enough radiation exposure to significantly increase their cancer risk. Bethlehem Steel workers have not been awarded this compensation because

5346-604: The early 1900s, Samuel Broadbent led an initiative to diversify the company. The corporation branched out from steel, with iron mines in Cuba and shipyards around the country. In 1913, under Broadbent, Bethlehem Steel acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts , assuming the role of one of the world's major shipbuilders. In 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation Ltd. In 1922, Bethlehem Steel purchased

5445-514: The emergency vessel SS Sinclair Superflame at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts . In 1946, Bethlehem Steel signed a contract with mining company LKAB to contribute to the recovery of the post-World War II recovery of the iron ore industry in northern Sweden . Following end of World War II, the Bethlehem Steel plant continued to supply a wide variety of structural shapes for

5544-462: The end of 1995, Bethlehem Steel closed steel-making at its main Bethlehem plant. After roughly 140 years of metal production in Bethlehem, Bethlehem Steel ceased its Bethlehem operations. Two years later, in 1997, Bethlehem Steel Corporation ceased shipbuilding activities in an attempt to preserve its steel-making operations. In 2001, however, Bethlehem Steel filed for bankruptcy and, in 2003, the company dissolved. In 1998, after denied pension benefits,

5643-670: The factory floor and in the company offices. After the war, female workers were promptly fired in favor of male counterparts. On Liberty Fleet Day , September 27, 1941, then U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was present at the launching of the first Liberty ship SS Patrick Henry at Bethlehem Steel's Bethlehem Fairfield Shipyard in Baltimore . Also launched the same day were the Liberty SS James McKay at Bethlehem Sparrows Point Shipyard in Sparrows Point, Maryland , and

5742-587: The father of the U.S. Steel Industry, accompanied Bethlehem Iron directors Robert H. Sayre , Elisha Packer Wilbur, president of Lehigh Valley Railroad , William Thurston, and Joseph Wharton , founder of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania , to meet with Jaques in Philadelphia . In early 1886, Bethlehem Iron and the Whitworth Company executed a contract. In the spring 1886, Congress passed

5841-515: The fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1, 1861, the company's title was changed again, this time to the Bethlehem Iron Company. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1, 1861, and was operationalized on January 4, 1863. The first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863 with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26, 1863. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, in 1867, were completed. During its early years,

5940-418: The following chemical reaction: CaCO 3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO 2 (g) Carbon dioxide is an additional source of emissions in this reaction. Modern industry has introduced calcium oxide (CaO, quicklime ) as a replacement. It acts as a chemical flux , removing impurities (such as Sulfur or Phosphorus (e.g. apatite or fluorapatite ) ) in the form of slag and keeps emissions of CO 2 low. For example,

6039-453: The forging and armor contracts on June 28, 1887. Between 1888 and 1892, the Bethlehem Iron Company completed the first U.S. heavy-forging plant. It was designed by John Fritz with the assistance of Russell Davenport , who joined Bethlehem Iron in 1888. By fall 1890, Bethlehem Iron was delivering gun forging to the U.S. Navy and was completing facilities to provide armor plating. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair , Bethlehem Steel provided

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6138-467: The global economy and a key indicator of modern technological development. The earliest means of producing steel was in a bloomery . Early modern methods of producing steel were often labor-intensive and highly skilled arts. See: An important aspect of the Industrial Revolution was the development of large-scale methods of producing forgeable metal ( bar iron or steel). The puddling furnace

6237-562: The heavy structural grades produced at the Bethlehem plant. In 1991, Bethlehem Steel Corporation discontinued coal mining it had been conducting under the name BethEnergy and the company exited the railroad car business two years later, in 1993. In 1992, the Johnstown plants of the Bethlehem Steel, which had been founded in 1852 by The Cambria Iron Company of Johnstown and were purchased by Bethlehem Steel in 1923, were forced into closure. By

6336-456: The high temperatures are needed to achieve the activation energy for this reaction. A small amount of carbon bonds with the iron, forming pig iron , which is an intermediary before steel, as it has carbon content that is too high – around 4%. To reduce the carbon content in pig iron and obtain the desired carbon content of steel, the pig iron is re-melted and oxygen is blown through in a process called basic oxygen steelmaking , which occurs in

6435-417: The highest recycling rates of any material, with around 30% of the world's steel being made from recycled components. However, steel cannot be recycled forever, and the recycling processes, using arc furnaces, use electricity. In the blast furnace, the iron oxides are reduced by a combination of CO, H 2 , and carbon. Only around 10% of the iron oxides are reduced by H 2 . With H 2 enrichment processing,

6534-409: The income of exporting it.” Bethlehem Steel ranked seventh among U.S. corporations in the value of wartime production contracts during World War II . Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation 's 15 shipyards produced a total of 1,121 ships, more than any other builder during the war and nearly one-fifth of the U.S. Navy's two-ocean fleet. Its shipbuilding operations employed as many as 180,000 persons,

6633-448: The industry decreased by a factor of 1000, to just 0.003-man-hours per tonne. In 2013, 70% of global steel output was produced using the basic oxygen furnace. Furnaces can convert up to 350 tons of iron into steel in less than 40 minutes compared to 10–12 hours in an open hearth furnace . Electric arc furnace steelmaking is the manufacture of steel from scrap or direct reduced iron melted by electric arcs . In an electric arc furnace,

6732-473: The iron ore at a very high temperature (1,700 degrees Celsius or over 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit) in the presence of oxygen (from the air) and a type of coal called coke . At those temperatures, the iron ore releases its oxygen, which is carried away by the carbon from the coke in the form of carbon dioxide. Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO 2 (g) The reaction occurs due to the lower (favorable) energy state of carbon dioxide compared to iron oxide, and

6831-460: The iron used in the creation of a 45.5 -foot steel axle to support the world's first Ferris wheel , a 264-foot (80 m) structure. The iron was manufactured in Bethlehem Steel's blast furnaces and represented the largest single steel forging ever constructed at the time. In 1898, Frederick Winslow Taylor joined Bethlehem Steel as a management consultant in order to solve an expensive machine shop capacity problem. Taylor and Maunsel White, with

6930-477: The largest such pension liability assumption in U.S. history. In 2001, Bethlehem Steel filed for bankruptcy , becoming the 25th American steelmaking company in the span of four years between 1998 and 2001 to file for bankruptcy protection. In 2003, the company was dissolved with its remaining assets, including six plants, acquired by the International Steel Group . International Steel Group, in turn,

7029-500: The late 1950s and early 1960s as the company began manufacturing 23 million tons of steel annually. In 1958, the company's president, Arthur B. Homer, was the highest-paid U.S. business executive, and the firm built the first phase of what would become its largest plant, Burns Harbor between 1962 and 1964 in Burns Harbor, Indiana . In 1967, the company lost its bid to provide the steel for the original World Trade Center . The contracts,

7128-448: The lid of the furnace. Tight control of ladle metallurgy is associated with producing high grades of steel in which the tolerances in chemistry and consistency are narrow. As of 2021 , steelmaking is estimated to be responsible for around 11% of the global emissions of carbon dioxide and around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Making 1 ton of steel emits about 1.8 tons of carbon dioxide. The bulk of these emissions results from

7227-577: The lion's share of the company's total employment of 300,000. Eugene Grace was president of Bethlehem Steel from 1916 to 1945, and chairman of the board from 1945 until his retirement in 1957. Grace orchestrated Bethlehem Steel's World War II wartime efforts. In 1943, Grace promised U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Bethlehem Steel would manufacture one ship per day, and he ultimately exceeded that commitment by 15 ships. World War II, however, drained Bethlehem Steel of much of its male workforce. The company hired female employees to guard and work on

7326-516: The main feed materials, and electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking, which uses scrap steel or direct reduced iron (DRI) as the main feed materials. Oxygen steelmaking is fueled predominantly by the exothermic nature of the reactions inside the vessel; in contrast, in EAF steelmaking, electrical energy is used to melt the solid scrap and/or DRI materials. In recent times, EAF steelmaking technology has evolved closer to oxygen steelmaking as more chemical energy

7425-490: The making of pig iron to the manufacture of finished steel, structural, bars, plates, billets and finished products including nuts, bolts, rivets and the like.” "The Union Rolling Mill was built in 1861 and 1862 to roll merchant bar iron." It was located a mile outside the center of Cleveland in the Newburgh township. Its excellent location, which covered seven acres of ground, was a part of the Newburgh township cemetery annexed by

7524-489: The nut and bolt division of Republic. Republic consolidated its operations by closing or revamping its smaller plants of which Bourne-Fuller was one, although with Upson's open hearths in downtown Cleveland and a capacity of 240,000 tons a year of ingot steel production, it gave Republic a bolt and nut manufacturing business. In 1984, Republic Steel was merged with Jones Laughlin Steel Company to form LTV Steel and ultimately,

7623-527: The past century. We wouldn't have won World War I and World War II without it", historian Lance Metz told The Washington Post in 2003. In the 1930s, the company also manufactured the steel sections and parts for the Golden Gate Bridge and built for Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales ( YPF ), a new oil refinery in La Plata , Argentina, which was the tenth-largest in the world. During World War II, as much as 70 percent of airplane cylinder forgings, one-quarter of

7722-442: The practice. Meanwhile, the age of Bethlehem Steel workers was increasing, and the ratio of retirees to workers was rising, meaning that the value created by each worker had to cover a greater portion of pension costs than before. Former top manager Eugene Grace had failed to adequately invest in the company's pension plans during the 1950s. When the company was at its peak, pension contributions that should have been made were not. As

7821-406: The process is controlled to ensure that impurities such as silicon and phosphorus are removed from the metal. The modern process was developed in 1948 by Robert Durrer , as a refinement of the Bessemer converter that replaced air with more efficient oxygen . It reduced the capital cost of the plants and smelting time, and increased labor productivity. Between 1920 and 2000, labour requirements in

7920-415: The process, either in electric arc furnaces or to create hydrogen as a fuel, emissions can be reduced dramatically. European projects from HYBRIT, LKAB , Voestalpine , and ThyssenKrupp are pursuing strategies to reduce emissions. HYBRIT claims to produce true "green steel". Top gas from the blast furnace is the gas that is normally exhausted into the air during steelmaking. This gas contains CO 2 and

8019-428: The proportion of iron oxides reduced by H 2 is increased, so that less carbon is consumed and less CO 2 is emitted. This process can reduce emissions by an estimated 20%. The HIsarna ironmaking process was described above as a way of producing iron in a "cyclone converter furnace" without the pre-processing steps of choking/agglomeration, which reduces the CO 2 emissions by around 20%. One speculative idea

8118-500: The radiation dose involved in processing fresh uranium fuel is low and produces a small risk relative to the baseline risk. The larger danger in processing uranium is chemical poisoning from the heavy metal, which does not produce cancer. The steel industry in the U.S. prospered during and after World War II, while the steel industries in Germany and Japan lay devastated by allied bombardments. Bethlehem Steel's success reached its peak in

8217-464: The second company to use the name Bethlehem Steel. However, the United States Shipbuilding Company was not reorganized as the Bethlehem Steel and Shipbuilding Company; instead, a plan was drawn up for a new company to be formed to replace the United States Shipbuilding Company. The new company was initially to be named Bethlehem Steel and Shipbuilding Company. In 1904, it instead assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Corporation. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation

8316-422: The six-story brick and reinforced concrete office building for Upson and the one-story brick and steel forge shop. In 1920, when Bourne-Fuller Company purchased Upson Nut and Union Rolling Mill, it added seven four and five story buildings designed and built by H.K. Ferguson Company on line with the 1913 forge shop. “The operations of the three companies include the entire process of steel manufacture extending from

8415-505: The steel industry include reduction of iron ore using green hydrogen rather than carbon, and deployment of carbon capture and storage technology. See below for further decarbonization strategies. Coal and iron ore mining are very energy intensive, and result in numerous environmental damages , from pollution, to biodiversity loss, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions. Iron ore is shipped great distances to steel mills. To make pure steel, iron and carbon are needed. On its own, iron

8514-584: The steelmaking industry, which on the basic manufacturing process used. Options fall into three general categories: switching the energy source from fossil fuels to wind and solar ; increasing the efficiency of processing; and innovative new technological processes. All three may be used in combination. "Green steel" is the term used for manufacturing steel without the use of fossil fuels , that is, zero-emission products. However, not all companies claiming to produce green steel meet this criterion. Some merely reduce emissions. Australia produces nearly 40% of

8613-518: The world's iron ore, and the government, via the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA), is helping to fund many research projects involving direct reduced ironmaking (DRI) to increase green steel and iron production. Large companies such as Rio Tinto , BHP , and BlueScope are developing green steel projects. CO 2 emissions vary according to energy sources. When sustainable energy such as wind or solar are used to power

8712-606: Was 55,000 net tons producing Bessemer foundry and forge pig iron . Its “daily capacity is 120 tons of finished iron . . . The specialties are “‘Union Refined’ bar, and cold-straightened shafting.” In 1930 Republic Steel shut down the Union Rolling Mill and transferred its production to its Youngstown plants. At that time the plant had an annual capacity of 350,000 tons of steel ingots in its five furnaces. It disbanded its loading docks and other maritime equipment on Lake Erie. The steel needed for Bourne-Fuller's finishing company,

8811-414: Was Bourne-Fuller Company, the sales agency or iron and steel jobber, which sold the output of its furnaces to its customers. The other two entities consisted of the Union Rolling Mill, a manufacturer of steel, and the Upson Nut Company, a manufacturer of nuts and bolts. Bourne-Fuller acquired these two companies in 1920, although the three companies had already formed an alliance in 1911 to be “able to fight

8910-565: Was acquired by Mittal Steel in 2005, which then merged with Arcelor to become ArcelorMittal in 2006. Steelmaking Steelmaking is the process of producing steel from iron ore and/or scrap . In steelmaking, impurities such as nitrogen , silicon , phosphorus , sulfur , and excess carbon (the most important impurity) are removed from the sourced iron, and alloying elements such as manganese , nickel , chromium , carbon, and vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel . Steelmaking has existed for millennia, but it

9009-420: Was aware that the U.S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet. Jaques contacted the Bethlehem Iron Company with a proposal to serve as an intermediary between it and the Whitworth Company, so Bethlehem Iron could erect a heavy-forging plant to produce ordnance. In 1885, John F. Fritz , sometimes referred to as

9108-568: Was created to be the steelmaking company's corporate parent. Bethlehem Steel survived the earliest declines in the American steel industry beginning in the 1970s. In 1982, however, the company suspended most of its steelmaking operations after posting a loss of $ 1.5 billion, attributable to increased foreign competition, rising labor and pensions costs, and other factors. The company filed for bankruptcy in 2001 and final dissolution in 2003 when its remaining assets were sold to International Steel Group . In 1857, what ultimately became Bethlehem Steel

9207-518: Was de-listed in 2002, Bethlehem Steel was traded on the NYSE under the two letter symbol BS. Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the Gray rolling mill and produced the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in the United States. These shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In

9306-517: Was formed by Schwab, who had recently resigned from U.S. Steel , and by Joseph Wharton , who founded the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia . Schwab became the first president and first chairman of the board of directors. After its formation, the Bethlehem Steel Corporation purchased the Bethlehem Steel Company and its remaining subsidiaries from the United States Shipbuilding Company. The Bethlehem Steel Company became

9405-720: Was initially a means of producing wrought iron but was later applied to steel production. The real revolution in modern steelmaking only began at the end of the 1850s when the Bessemer process became the first successful method of steelmaking in high quantity followed by the open-hearth furnace . Modern steelmaking processes can be divided into three steps: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel. Secondary steelmaking involves adding or removing other elements such as alloying agents and dissolved gases. Tertiary steelmaking involves casting into sheets, rolls or other forms. Multiple techniques are available for each step. Basic oxygen steelmaking

9504-597: Was launched as the Saucona Iron Company in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania by Augustus Wolle. That same year, the Panic of 1857 , a national financial crisis, halted the company's further organization. But the organization subsequently restarted, its site was moved elsewhere to South Bethlehem , and the company's name was changed to the Bethlehem Rolling Mill and Iron Company. On June 14, 1860, the board of directors of

9603-538: Was married to the sister of Irwin Bourne of Bourne-Fuller. Horace Fuller went on to become treasurer and president of Union Rolling Mill Co., in 1911, as well as president of Bourne-Fuller & Co. in 1912 and president of Upson Nut. Horace Fuller held these positions until he died in 1924 at the age of 60. Bethlehem Steel The Bethlehem Steel Corporation was an American steelmaking company headquartered in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania . Until its closure in 2003, it

9702-485: Was not commercialized on a massive scale until the mid-19th century. An ancient process of steelmaking was the crucible process . In the 1850s and 1860s, the Bessemer process and the Siemens-Martin process turned steelmaking into a heavy industry . Today there are two major commercial processes for making steel, namely basic oxygen steelmaking , which has liquid pig-iron from the blast furnace and scrap steel as

9801-478: Was one of the world's largest steel-producing and shipbuilding companies. At the height of its success and productivity, the company was a symbol of American manufacturing leadership in the world, and its decline and ultimate liquidation in the late 20th century is similarly cited as an example of America's diminished manufacturing leadership. From its founding in 1857 through its 2003 dissolution, Bethlehem Steel's headquarters were based in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in

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