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109-509: The city is a suffi spiritual town between the Arab tribes of Beni zemmour descendants of Banu Hilal Famous people originated from Bejaâd include: 32°46′N 6°24′W  /  32.767°N 6.400°W  / 32.767; -6.400 This Béni Mellal-Khénifra location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Banu Hilal The Banu Hilal ( Arabic : بنو هلال , romanized :  Banū Hilāl )

218-454: A hadith may have drifted from its original telling to when it was finally written down, even if the chain of transmission is authentic. Overall, some Western academics have cautiously viewed the hadith collections as accurate historical sources, while the "dominant paradigm" in Western scholarship is to consider their reliability suspect. Scholars such as Wilferd Madelung do not reject

327-470: A jinn , which made him no longer want to live. In desperation, Muhammad fled from the cave and began climbing up towards the top of the mountain to jump to his death. But when he reached the summit, he experienced another vision , this time seeing a mighty being that engulfed the horizon and stared back at Muhammad even when he turned to face a different direction. This was the spirit of revelation ( rūḥ ), which Muhammad later referred to as Gabriel ; it

436-462: A Prophet; otherwise, he would be a liar. When they returned to Mecca and asked Muhammad the questions, he told them he would provide the answers the next day. However, 15 days passed without a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress. At some point later, the angel Gabriel came to Muhammad and provided him with the answers. In response to the first query,

545-452: A cloak and tucked him in her arms until his fears dissipated. She had absolutely no doubts about his revelation; she insisted it was real and not a jinn. Muhammad was also reassured by Khadija's Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal , who jubilantly exclaimed "Holy! Holy! If you have spoken the truth to me, O Khadijah, there has come to him the great divinity who came to Moses aforetime, and lo, he

654-574: A few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage , he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam . The revelations ( waḥy ) that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses ( āyah ) of the Quran, upon which Islam is based, are regarded by Muslims as the verbatim word of God and his final revelation. Besides

763-425: A greater emphasis on the hadith instead of the biographical literature, since hadith maintain a traditional chain of transmission ( isnad ); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes. The hadiths generally present an idealized view of Muhammad. Western scholars have expressed skepticism regarding the verifiability of these chains of transmission. It

872-455: A job leading caravans on the northern segment of the route to Syria. The historical record of Mecca during Muhammad's early life is limited and fragmentary, making it difficult to distinguish between fact and legend. Several Islamic narratives relate that Muhammad, as a child, went on a trading trip to Syria with his uncle Abu Talib and met a monk named Bahira , who is said to have then foretold his prophethood. There are multiple versions of

981-451: A major role in Muhammad sending them there. According to W. Montgomery Watt , the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca. In Urwa 's letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after

1090-526: A message to Akhnas ibn Shariq , a member of his mother's clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas declined, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of Quraysh . Muhammad then sent a message to Suhayl ibn Amir , who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle. Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask Mut'im ibn 'Adiy , the chief of the Banu Nawfal . Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in

1199-504: A message, rather than to strictly and accurately record history. Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari , Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj , Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi , Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai , Abu Dawood , Ibn Majah , Malik ibn Anas , al-Daraqutni . Muslim scholars have typically placed

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1308-556: A million Hilalians migrated to the Maghreb between 1051-1110, and estimated that the Hilalian population in the Maghreb at his time in 1573 was at 4,000,000 individuals, excluding other Arab tribes and other Arabs already present. The Banu Hilal originated in Najd in the central Arabian Peninsula , sometimes travelling towards Iraq in search of pastures and oases. According to Arab genealogists,

1417-527: A more illustrious suitor. When Muhammad was 25, his fortunes turned around; his business reputation caught the attention of his 40-year-old distant relative Khadija , a wealthy businesswoman who had staked out a successful career as a merchant in the caravan trade industry. She asked him to take one of her caravans into Syria, after which she was so impressed by his competence in the expedition that she proposed marriage to him; Muhammad accepted her offer and remained monogamous with her until her death. In 605,

1526-413: A mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, c.  610 , Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613, Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that 'God is One', that complete 'submission' ( Islām ) to God ( Allāh ) is the right way of life ( dīn ), and that he

1635-662: A nation divided into its own sub-tribes, of which the most notable were the Athbaj , Riyah , Jusham , Zughba , Adi, and Qurra. Ibn Khaldun described their genealogy, which consisted of two mother tribes: themselves and the Banu Sulaym . In Arabia, they lived on the Ghazwan near Ta'if while the Banu Sulaym attended nearby Medina , sharing a common cousin in the Al Yas branch of the Quraysh . At

1744-503: A place for the poor to gather to receive alms, food, and care. Christians and Jews were also allowed to participate in community worship at the mosque. Initially, Muhammad's religion had no organized way to call the community to prayer in a coordinated manner. To resolve this, Muhammad had considered using a ram's horn ( shofar ) like the Jews or a wooden clapper like the Christians, but one of

1853-422: A significant clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba. In this gathering, seventy-five individuals from Medina (then Yathrib) attended, including two women, representing all the converts of the oases. Muhammad asked them to protect him as they would protect their wives and children. They concurred and gave him their oath, commonly referred to as the second pledge at al-Aqabah or the pledge of war. Paradise

1962-476: A violent man. The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had said what they had heard from their companions. He answered yes, and one of them seized him by his cloak. Abu Bakr intervened, tearfully saying, "Would you kill a man for saying God is my Lord?" And they left him. The Quraysh attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of

2071-562: Is generally associated with Jerusalem. Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven. The dating of the events also differs from account to account. Ibn Sa'd recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of Ramadan , 18 months before the Hijrah , while

2180-627: Is referred to as Muhammad in a number of verses. The Quranic text also describes the settlement of his followers in Yathrib after their expulsion by the Quraysh, and briefly mentions military encounters such as the Muslim victory at Badr . The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context and timeline. Almost none of Muhammad's companions are mentioned by name in

2289-449: Is the prophet of his people." Khadija instructed Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned. When he appeared during their private time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time. After Khadija removed her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it

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2398-410: Is widely accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to what constitutes "the farthest place of worship". Some modern scholars maintain that the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens. A later tradition, however, refers to it as Bayt al-Maqdis , which

2507-450: Is widely believed by Western scholars that there was widespread fabrication of hadith during the early centuries of Islam to support certain theological and legal positions, and it has been suggested that it is "very likely that a considerable number of hadiths that can be found in the hadith collections did not actually originate with the Prophet". In addition, the meaning of

2616-566: The Hijrah , maintains that Muhammad penned the text and divulges its assumed content without supplying any isnad or corroboration. The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes, but rather addressed tribal matters. While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it

2725-506: The hadith which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in their historical context. Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca c.  570 , and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal . He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, which was a dominant force in western Arabia. While his clan was one of

2834-618: The Aurès region and south Algeria . In Morocco during the 17th century, the sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif created a guich army made up of Arab warriors from the Banu Hilal and the Banu Maqil which was one of the main parts of the Moroccan army. They were garrisoned in their own lands of water and pastures and served as troops and military garrisons to fight in wars and suppress rebellions. Originally,

2943-653: The Banu Sulaym ) move to Egypt . Many followed, so that the two groups became numerous in Egypt. During the Abbasid Caliphate , the Hilal were known for their unruliness. In the 9th century, Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym migrated from Najd to Iraq , and later to the Levant , before migrating to the Maghreb in the 11th century. In the 970s, the Hilal and the Sulaym joined the radical sect of

3052-499: The Black Stone and performing the ritual tawaf . As Muhammad passed by them, they reportedly said hurtful things to him. The same happened when he passed by them a second time. On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, "Will you listen to me, O Quraysh? By Him (God), who holds my life in His hand, I bring you slaughter." They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not

3161-508: The Fatimid Caliphate became the rulers of Egypt and the founders of Cairo in 969, they hastened to confine the unruly Bedouin in the south before sending them to Central North Africa ( Libya , Tunisia and Algeria ) and then to Morocco . Historians estimate the total number of Arab nomads who migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century to be to 500,000 to 700,000 to 1,000,000. Historian Mármol Carvajal estimated that more than

3270-512: The Maghreb , who intermarried with the indigenous peoples. The Fatimids used the tribe, which began their journey as allies and vassals, to punish the particularly difficult to control Zirids after the conquest of Egypt and the founding of Cairo . As the dynasty became increasingly independent and abandoned Shia Islam , they quickly defeated the Zirids after the battle of Haydaran and deeply weakened

3379-595: The Malikization of the Maghreb in the twelfth century and later centuries. The accounts and records that the folk poet Abdul Rahman al-Abnudi gathered from the bards of Upper Egypt culminated in the Taghribat Bani Hilal , an Arab epic describing the journey of the tribe from Arabia to the Maghreb. The tale is divided into three main cycles. The first two bring together unfolding events in Arabia and other countries of

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3488-684: The Qarmatians in their attacks on the Fatimid Caliphate , which had just conquered Egypt and was pushing into Syria . As a result, after his victory over the Qarmatians in 978, the Fatimid caliph al-Aziz ( r.  975–996 ) forcibly relocated the two tribes to Upper Egypt . As they continued to fight among themselves and pillage the area, they were prohibited from crossing the Nile River or leaving Upper Egypt. The Banu Hilal first began migrating to

3597-516: The Quran . But Muhammad asserted that the Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof. According to Amr ibn al-As , several of the Quraysh gathered at Hijr and discussed how they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad. They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods. Sometime later, Muhammad came, kissing

3706-587: The Year of the Elephant , when Abraha , the Aksumite viceroy in the former Himyarite Kingdom , unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Mecca. Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred, would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth. Later Muslim scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's birth to elucidate

3815-460: The 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Hijri era (mostly overlapping with the 8th and 9th centuries CE respectively). These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about his life. The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq 's Life of God's Messenger written c.  767 (150 AH). Although

3924-638: The Abyssinian Kingdom of Aksum and found a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar . Among those who departed were Umm Habiba , the daughter of one of the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Sufyan , and her husband. The Quraysh then sent two men to retrieve them. Because leatherwork at the time was highly prized in Abyssinia, they gathered a lot of skins and transported them there so they could distribute some to each of

4033-540: The Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them. The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws. At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged their loyalty to him. Muhammad then entrusted Mus'ab ibn Umayr to join them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. Come June 622,

4142-548: The Banu Hilal embraced a nomadic lifestyle, rearing cattle and sheep. Despite several tribes living in arid and desert areas, they became experts in the field of agriculture. The Banu Hilal were conservative and patriarchal, and were tolerant Shi'ites . They were initially Isma'ili Shia, but after their conquest of the Sunni Maghreb , the vast majority of Banu Hilal progressively adopted the Maliki school of Sunni Islam , following

4251-539: The Banu Hilal were a sub-tribe of the Mudar tribal confederation, specifically of the Amir ibn Sa'sa'a , and their progenitor was Hilal. According to traditional Arab sources, their full genealogy was the following: Hilāl ibn ʿ Āmir ibn Ṣaʿṣaʿa ibn Muʿāwiya ibn Bakr ibn Hawāzin ibn Manṣūr ibn ʿIkrima ibn K̲h̲aṣafa ibn Qays ibn ʿAylān ibn Muḍar ibn Nizār ibn Ma'ad ibn ʿAdnān . The Banu Hilal were very numerous, effectively

4360-537: The Banu Khazraj. These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn would warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them. On hearing Muhammad's religious message, they said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and

4469-546: The Isra' from Mecca to Bayt al-Maqdis took place on the 17th night of the Last Rabi’ul before the Hijrah . As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In Ibn Hisham 's account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. In contrast, al-Tabari included only the story of Muhammad's ascension from

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4578-669: The Maghreb when the Zirid dynasty of Ifriqiya proclaimed its independence from the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. In retribution against the Zirids, the Fatimids dispatched large Bedouin Arab tribes, mainly the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym , to defeat the Zirids and settle in the Maghreb. These tribes followed a nomadic lifestyle and were originally from the Hejaz and Najd . To persuade the Bedouin into migrating to

4687-462: The Maghreb, the Fatimid caliph gave each tribesman a camel and money and helped them cross from the east to the west bank of the Nile River . The severe drought in Egypt at the time also persuaded these tribes to migrate to the Maghreb, which had a better economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph instructed them to rule the Maghreb instead of the Zirid emir Al-Mu'izz and told them "I have given you

4796-622: The Maghrib and the rule of al-Mu'izz ibn Balkīn as-Sanhājī the runaway slave. You will want for nothing." and told Al-Mu'izz "I have sent you horses and put brave men on them so that God might accomplish a matter already enacted". Upon arriving in Cyrenaica , the Arab nomads found the region almost empty of its inhabitants, except a few Zenata Berbers that Al-Mu'izz had already mostly destroyed. The number of Hilalians who moved westward out of Egypt has been estimated as high as 200,000 families. Cyrenaica

4905-428: The Meccans, but he was met with a response: "If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn't He protect you? And if Allah wished to send a prophet, couldn't He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?" Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden

5014-453: The Muslims in the community had a dream where a man in a green cloak told him that someone with a loud booming voice should announce the service by crying out " allahu akbar " ('God is greater') to remind Muslims of their top priority; when Muhammad heard about this dream, he agreed with the idea and selected Bilal , a former Abyssinian slave known for his loud voice. The Constitution of Medina

5123-517: The Quran tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Quran 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. For the second query, the Quran speaks of Dhu al-Qarnayn , literally 'he of the two horns' (Quran 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate with the Alexander Romance . As for the third query, concerning the nature of the spirit,

5232-413: The Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices, found in transmitted reports, known as hadith , and in his biography ( sīrah ), are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law . The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad. The Quran is mainly addressed to a single "Messenger of God" who

5341-455: The Quran, hence not providing sufficient information for a concise biography. The Quran is considered to be contemporary with Muhammad, and the Birmingham manuscript has been radiocarbon dated to his lifetime, its discovery largely disproving Western revisionist theories about the Quran's origins. Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers of

5450-592: The Quranic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension. Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers. Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the Battle of Badr , while other captives were held for ransom. As Uqba pleaded, "But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad responded, "Hell!" In 615, Muhammad sent some of his followers to emigrate to

5559-472: The Quraysh decided to roof the Kaaba , which had previously consisted only of walls. A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight. Amid concerns about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, "O goddess! Fear not! Our intentions are only for the best." With that, he began demolishing it. The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his unharmed continuation

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5668-500: The Quraysh sent Nadr ibn al-Harith and Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt to Yathrib to seek the opinions of the Jewish rabbis regarding Muhammad. The rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the spirit. If Muhammad answered correctly, they stated, he would be

5777-456: The attack but changed their minds upon hearing the voices of Sawdah and some of Muhammad's daughters, since it was considered shameful to kill a man in front of the women in his family. They instead chose to wait until Muhammad left the house the next morning; one of the men peeked into a window and saw what he believed to be Muhammad (but was actually Ali dressed in Muhammad's cloak), though unbeknownst to them, Muhammad had previously escaped from

5886-507: The back of the residence. When Ali went outside to go for a walk the following morning, the men realized they had been fooled, and the Quraysh consequently offered a 100-camel bounty for the return of Muhammad's body, dead or alive. After staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with Abu Bakr for Medina, which at the time was still named Yathrib; the two men arrived in Medina on 4 September 622. The Meccan Muslims who undertook

5995-521: The basis for Islamic religious belief. Muhammad was born c.  570 CE in Mecca . He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb . His father, Abdullah, the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim , died around the time Muhammad was born. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan. He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib . In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in

6104-568: The beginning of the Islamic calendar , also known as the Hijri calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina . In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca . The conquest went largely uncontested, and Muhammad seized the city with minimal casualties. In 632,

6213-407: The command. As Muhammad reiterated his inability to read, Gabriel choked him again in a similar manner. This sequence took place once more before Gabriel finally recited the verses, allowing Muhammad to memorize them. These verses later constituted Quran 96:1-5 . When Muhammad came to his senses, he felt scared; he started to think that after all of this spiritual struggle, he had been visited by

6322-407: The conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as Hamza and Umar . Along with many others, Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number of Quraysh, after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19–20), Satan put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are

6431-442: The divine origin of his revelations. Some historians posit that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims. Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide. On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching

6540-407: The early community has been reevaluated. By the 20th century, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident. On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the criterion of embarrassment . Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but

6649-561: The east, while the third, called Taghriba (march west), recounts the migration of the Banu Hilal to North Africa. Until the early 20th century, the story of Banu Hilal was performed in a variety of forms across the Arab world from Morocco to Iraq , as folktale or local legend recounted in poetry. Muhammad Muhammad ( / m oʊ ˈ h ɑː m ə d / ; Arabic : مُحَمَّد , romanized :  Muḥammad , lit.   'praiseworthy'; [mʊˈħæm.mæd] ; c.  570  – 8 June 632 CE)

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6758-460: The end of the encounter, Addas felt overwhelmed and kissed Muhammad's head, hands, and feet in recognition of his prophethood. On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of Abu Jahl , and he said, "They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well." Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to deliver

6867-513: The end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca. Islamic tradition recounts that in light of the unfolding events, Abu Jahl proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan. Having been informed about this by the angel Gabriel, Muhammad asked his cousin Ali to lie in his bed covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him. That night , the group of planned assassins approached Muhammad's home to carry out

6976-465: The end. Muhammad's other uncle, Abu Lahab , who succeeded the Banu Hashim clan leadership, was initially willing to provide Muhammad with protection. However, upon hearing from Muhammad that Abu Talib and Abd al-Muttalib were destined for hell due to not believing in Islam, he withdrew his support. Muhammad then went to Ta'if to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against

7085-453: The famous Isra' and Mi'raj. Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem , while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens. There is considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not address it directly. Verse 17:1 of the Quran recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer to the most distant place of worship. The Kaaba , holy enclosure in Mecca,

7194-419: The first few decades) to 700,000 to 1,000,000 when the entire population of the Maghreb at the time was 5,000,000. Historian Mármol Carvajal estimated that more than a million Hilalians migrated to the Maghreb between 1051-1110, and estimated that the Hilalian population at his time in 1573 at 4,000,000 individuals, excluding other Arab tribes and other Arabs already present. The Banu Hilal later came under

7303-559: The high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest of Gabriel , claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed. The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca. This Satanic verses incident

7412-585: The hostility of the Quraysh against him. However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs. He eventually evaded this chaos and persecution by escaping to the garden of Utbah ibn Rabi'ah , a Meccan chief with a summer residence in Ta'if. Muhammad felt despair due to the unexpected rejection and hostility he received in the city; at this point, he realized he had no security or protection except from God , so he began praying. Shortly thereafter, Utbah's Christian slave Addas stopped by and offered grapes, which Muhammad accepted. By

7521-545: The imminent final judgment and the threat of hellfire for skeptics. Due to the complexity of the experience, Muhammad was initially very reluctant to tell others about his revelations; at first, he confided in only a few select family members and friends. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet. She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib , close friend Abu Bakr , and adopted son Zayd . As word of Muhammad's revelations continued to spread throughout

7630-528: The inhabitants of Mecca , who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose. The Quraysh challenged him to perform miracles , such as bringing forth springs of water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as sufficient proof of God's majesty. Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why God had not bestowed treasure upon him. Others called on him to visit Paradise and return with tangible parchment scrolls of

7739-469: The kingdom's generals. But the king firmly rejected their request. While Tabari and Ibn Hisham mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to Ibn Sa'd . Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to Mecca before the event of Hijrah , while the majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time and went directly to Medina after the event of Hijrah . These accounts agree that persecution played

7848-419: The legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been subject only to "tendential shaping". Other scholars have criticized the reliability of this method, suggesting that one cannot neatly divide traditions into purely legal and historical categories. Western historians describe the purpose of these early biographies as largely to convey

7957-434: The literate ones recorded it in writing. Muhammad also introduced rituals to his group which included prayer ( salat ) with physical postures that embodied complete surrender ( islam ) to God , and almsgiving ( zakat ) as a requirement of the Muslim community ( ummah ). By this point, Muhammad's religious movement was known as tazakka ('purification'). Initially, he had no serious opposition from

8066-574: The migration were then called the Muhajirun , while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the Ansar . A few days after settling in Medina, Muhammad negotiated for the purchase of a piece of land; upon this plot, the Muslims began constructing a building that would become Muhammad's residence as well as a community gathering place ( masjid ) for prayer ( salat ). Tree trunks were used as pillars to hold up

8175-458: The more distinguished in the tribe, it seems to have experienced a lack of prosperity during his early years. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad was a hanif , someone who professed monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia . He is also claimed to have been a descendant of Ishmael , son of Abraham . The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in Arabic and it appears four times in the Quran . He

8284-445: The morning with his sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion. Mut'im replied, "Granting him protection, of course." Then Abu Jahl said, "We will protect whomever you protect." It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the Sīrah lay out

8393-516: The neighboring Hammadid dynasty and the Zenata . The Zirids abandoned Kairouan to take refuge on the coast where they survived for a century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym spread on the high plains of Constantine where they gradually obstructed the Qal'at Bani Hammad as they had done to Kairouan a few decades ago. From there, they gradually gained control over the high plains of Algiers and Oran . In

8502-479: The next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval. According to a narrative collected by Ibn Ishaq , when it was time to reattach the Black Stone , a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege. It was determined that the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate. Muhammad took on this role, asking for a cloak. He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly elevate it to its position. He then personally secured it within

8611-514: The next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib , until the latter's death. He then came under the care of his uncle, Abu Talib , the new leader of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib's brothers assisted with Muhammad's learning – Hamza , the youngest, trained Muhammad in archery , swordsmanship , and martial arts . Another uncle, Abbas , provided Muhammad with

8720-586: The offers. A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the Makhzum clan, known by the Muslims as Abu Jahl , went to Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib , head of the Hashim clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum to disown Muhammad: "By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take

8829-418: The original work was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari . However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people". Another early historical source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi ( d.  207  AH), and

8938-704: The peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of God. This encounter soothed Muhammad, and he returned home. Later, when there was another long break between revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and causing him to return home. Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages. The early Quranic revelations utilized approaches of cautioning non-believers with divine punishment, while promising rewards to believers. They conveyed potential consequences like famine and killing for those who rejected Muhammad's God and alluded to past and future calamities. The verses also stressed

9047-484: The people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans. According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning

9156-508: The rest of his family, they became increasingly divided on the matter, with the youth and women generally believing in him, while most of the men in the elder generations were staunchly opposed. Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public; many of his first followers were women, freedmen , servants, slaves, and other members of the lower social class . These converts keenly awaited each new revelation from Muhammad; when he recited it, they all would repeat after him and memorize it, and

9265-468: The roof, and there was no fancy pulpit; instead, Muhammad stood on top of a small stool to speak to the congregation. The structure was completed after about seven months in April 623, becoming the first Muslim building and mosque; its northern wall had a stone marking the direction of prayer ( qibla ) which was Jerusalem at that time. Muhammad used the building to host public and political meetings, as well as

9374-502: The rule of Islam until after Muhammad 's victory at the Battle of Hunayn in 630, but like other Āmirid tribes, they also did not join in the Ridda Wars that followed Muhammad 's death in 632. The tribe does not appear to have played any significant role in the early Muslim conquests , and for the most part remained in the Nejd. Only in the early 8th century did some of the Banu Hilal (and

9483-677: The rule of various subsequent dynasties, including the Almohad Caliphate , Hafsid dynasty , Zayyanid dynasty and Marinid dynasty . Finding their continued presence intolerable, the Almohad Caliphate defeated the Banu Hilal in the Battle of Setif and forced many of them to leave Ifriqiya and settle in Morocco. Upon the arrival of the Turks , the Banu Hilal rose against the Ottoman Empire near

9592-570: The same position as we do, in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him." Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left. When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account." The leaders of

9701-546: The sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to believe in the Messenger of God". As resistance to his proselytism in Mecca grew, Muhammad began to limit his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages. During this period, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from

9810-575: The second half of the 12th century, they went to the Moulouya valley and the Atlantic coast in the western Maghreb to areas such as Doukkala . Their influx was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural and ethnic Arabization of the Maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant. They had also heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture , and spread nomadism in areas where agriculture

9919-438: The story with details that contradict each other. All accounts of Bahira and his meeting with Muhammad have been considered fictitious by modern historians as well as by some medieval Muslim scholars such as al-Dhahabi . Sometime later in his life, Muhammad proposed marriage to his cousin and first love, Fakhitah bint Abi Talib . But likely owing to his poverty, his proposal was rejected by her father, Abu Talib, who chose

10028-567: The streets and engage in public debates without being physically harmed. At a later point, a faction within Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions, resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban. In 619, Muhammad faced a period of sorrow. His wife, Khadija , a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, died. In the same year, his uncle and guardian, Abu Talib , also died. Despite Muhammad's persuasions to Abu Talib to embrace Islam on his deathbed, he clung to his polytheistic beliefs until

10137-487: The time of their migration, Banu Hilal comprised six sub-tribes: Athbadj, Riyah, Jusham, Adi, Zughba, and Rabi'a. Its original habitat, like that of its related tribes, was the Najd , and its history during pre-Islamic times is bound with other tribes of Banu ʿ Āmir ibn Ṣaʿṣaʿa, especially in Ayyām al-ʿArab and in affairs related to the rise of Islam in the region, such as that of Biʾr Māʿūna . Banu Hilal likely did not accept

10246-466: The unclear passage about "the men of elephants" in Quran 105:1–5. The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant expedition as a myth. Muhammad's father, Abdullah , died almost six months before he was born. Muhammad then stayed with his foster mother, Halima bint Abi Dhu'ayb , and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan. For

10355-487: The wall. The financial security Muhammad enjoyed from Khadija , his wealthy wife, gave him plenty of free time to spend in solitude in the cave of Hira . According to Islamic tradition, in 610, when he was 40 years old, the angel Gabriel appeared to him during his visit to the cave. The angel showed him a cloth with Quranic verses on it and instructed him to read. When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel choked him forcefully, nearly suffocating him, and repeated

10464-562: The work of Waqidi's secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi ( d.  230  AH). Due to these early biographical efforts, more is known about Muhammad than almost any other founder of a major religion. Narratives of Islamic Origins Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic. However, Waqidi's biography has been widely criticized by Islamic scholars for his methods, in particular his decision to omit his sources. Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In

10573-593: Was Muhammad's promise to them in exchange for their loyalty. Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina. This event is known as the Hijrah , literally meaning 'severing of kinship ties'. The departures spanned approximately three months. To avoid arriving in Medina by himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant. Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in

10682-493: Was a legal covenant written by Muhammad. In the constitution, Medina's Arab and Jewish tribes promised to live peacefully alongside the Muslims and to refrain from making a separate treaty with Mecca. It also guaranteed the Jews freedom of religion. In the agreement, everyone under its jurisdiction was required to defend and protect the oasis if attacked. Politically, the agreement helped Muhammad better understand which people were on his side. Ibn Ishaq , following his narration of

10791-482: Was a confederation of Arab tribes from the Najd region of the central Arabian Peninsula that emigrated to the Maghreb region of North Africa in the 11th century. Masters of the vast plateaux of the Najd , they enjoyed a somewhat infamous reputation, possibly owing to their relatively late (for the Arabian tribes) conversion to Islam and accounts of their campaigns in the borderlands between Iraq and Syria . When

10900-422: Was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam . Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced persecution by Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijrah , marks

11009-464: Was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it. Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Medina. War would later break out between

11118-480: Was also known as "al-Amin" ( lit.   ' faithful ' ) when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given by people as a reflection of his nature or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e., a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina". Muhammad acquired the kunya of Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years afterwards. Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with

11227-526: Was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam . According to Islam , he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam , Noah , Abraham , Moses , Jesus , and other prophets . He is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets and last Ulu al-ʿAzm Prophet in Islam along with the Quran , his teachings and normative examples form

11336-402: Was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and implicated Satan as the culprit. In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce a ban on the Banu Hashim , prohibiting trade and marriage with them. Nevertheless, Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely. Despite facing increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate

11445-623: Was left to be settled by Banu Sulaym while the Hilalians marched westwards. As a result of the settlement by Arab tribes, Cyrenaica became the most Arab place in the Arab world after the interior of Arabia . According to Ibn Khaldun , the Banu Hilal were accompanied by their wives and their children when they came to the Maghreb . They settled in Ifriqiya after winning battles against Berber tribes, eventually going on to coexist with them. Abu Zayd al-Hilali led between 150,000 and 300,000 Arabs into

11554-484: Was not Satan but an angel visiting him. Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a jinn, a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding

11663-422: Was not a naturalistic angel , but rather a transcendent presence that resisted the ordinary limits of humanity and space. Frightened and unable to understand the experience, Muhammad hurriedly staggered down the mountain to his wife Khadija. By the time he got to her, he was already crawling on his hands and knees, shaking wildly and crying "Cover me!", as he thrust himself onto her lap. Khadija wrapped him in

11772-455: Was previously dominant. It played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara . Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert. Historians estimate the total number of Arab nomads who migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century to be 250,000 (only

11881-448: Was reported en masse and documented by nearly all of the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries, which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the hadith movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the Ismah , which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of

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