70-562: Pinus heldreichii (synonym P. leucodermis ; family Pinaceae ), the Bosnian pine or Heldreich's pine , is a species of pine native to mountainous areas of the Balkans and southern Italy . It is an evergreen tree up to 25–35 metres (82–115 feet) in height, and 2 m ( 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 ft) in trunk diameter. It is a member of the hard pine group, Pinus subgenus Pinus , with leaves ('needles') in fascicles (bundles) of two, with
140-573: A 2–2.5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 –1 in) wing and are wind- dispersed . A tree in Northern Greece was dated as 1,075 years old in 2016. What is believed to be the oldest known living tree in Europe has been discovered in a remote mountainous area of the Pollino National Park in southern Italy. It is a Heldreich's pine estimated at 1,230 years. Much of its core has turned to dust, but there
210-577: A bad weed when it out-competes cultivated plants. A different group of weeds consists of those that are invasive, introduced, often unintentionally, to habitats to which they are not native but in which they thrive. Without their original competitors, herbivores, and diseases, they may increase and become a serious nuisance. One such plant is purple loosestrife , a native of Europe and Asia where it occurs in ditches, wet meadows and marshes; introduced into North America, it has no natural enemies to keep it in check and has taken over vast tracts of wetlands to
280-419: A means to disperse. The nematodes (eelworms) that attack plants are minute, often too small to be seen with the naked eye, but their presence is often apparent in the galls or "knots" they form in plant tissues. Vast numbers of nematodes are found in soil and attack roots, but others affect stems, buds, leaves, flowers and fruits. High infestations cause stunting, deformation and retardation of plant growth, and
350-477: A myriad of mechanical and chemical defenses, or a combination of the two, in order to protect themselves against antagonists. Pinaceae have the ability to up-regulate a combination of constitutive mechanical and chemical strategies to further their defenses. Pinaceae defenses are prevalent in the bark of the trees. This part of the tree contributes a complex defensive boundary against external antagonists. Constitutive and induced defenses are both found in
420-532: A nuisance around buildings, roadsides and recreation areas because of its uncomfortably sharp spiny burrs . Disease-causing pathogens such as fungi , oomycetes , bacteria , and viruses can cause damage to crops and garden plants. The term "plant pest", mainly applied to insect micropredators of plants, has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest
490-438: A persistent sheath. They are 4.5–10 centimetres ( 1 + 3 ⁄ 4 –4 inches) long and 1.5–2 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 16 – 3 ⁄ 32 in) thick. Cones are 5–9 cm (2– 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) long, with thin, fragile scales; they are dark blue-purple before maturation, turning brown when ripe about 16–18 months after pollination. The 6–7 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 9 ⁄ 32 in) long seeds have
560-430: A pest is a competitor to humanity. Pests include plants, pathogens, invertebrates, vertebrates, or any organism that harms an ecosystem. Animals are considered pests or vermin when they injure people or damage crops, forestry, or buildings. Elephants are regarded as pests by the farmers whose crops they raid and trample. Mosquitoes and ticks are vectors that can transmit ailments but are also pests because of
630-404: A pest plant "any plant that, in the local government authority's opinion, is likely to adversely affect the environment of the district, the value of property in the district, or the health, comfort or convenience of the district's inhabitants." An example of such a plant prescribed under this regulation is caltrop, Tribulus terrestris , which can cause poisoning in sheep and goats, but is mainly
700-556: A second time as P. leucodermis in 1864; the author of the second description (the Austrian botanist F. Antoine who found it on Orjen above the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro) being unaware of the slightly earlier publication by Christ. Some minor morphological differences have been claimed between the two descriptions (leading to the maintenance of both as separate taxa by a few botanists), but this
770-399: A suitable stocking density, and minimizing injury and stress to trees. Pest control in buildings can be approached in several ways, depending on the type of pest and the area affected. Methods include improving sanitation and garbage control, modifying the habitat, and using repellents, growth regulators, traps, baits and pesticides. For example, the pesticide Boron can be impregnated into
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#1732869246825840-518: A thick cuticle or waxy deposits, with the second line of defence being toxic or distasteful secondary metabolites . Mechanical injury to the plant tissues allows the entry of pathogens and stimulates the plant to mobilise its chemical defences. The plant soon seals off the wound to reduce further damage. Plants sometimes take active steps to reduce herbivory. Macaranga triloba for example has adapted its thin-walled stems to create ideal housing for an ant Crematogaster spp., which, in turn, protects
910-471: Is oleoresin . Oleoresin had been found to be a valuable part of the conifer defense mechanism against biotic attacks . They are found in secretory tissues in tree stems, roots, and leaves. Oleoresin is also needed in order to classify conifers. The topic of defense mechanisms within family Pinaceae is a very active area of study with numerous studies being conducted. Many of these studies use methyl jasmonate (MJ) as an antagonist. Methyl jasmonate
980-423: Is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation; the term has no botanical significance. Often, weeds are simply those native plants that are adapted to grow in disturbed ground, the disturbance caused by ploughing and cultivation favouring them over other species. Any plant is a weed if it appears in a location where it is unwanted; Bermuda grass makes a good lawn plant under hot dry conditions but become
1050-492: Is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. Worldwide, agricultural pest impacts are increased by higher degrees of interconnectedness. This is due to the increased risk that any particular pest problem anywhere in the world (as a system ) will propagate across the entire system. Plants have developed strategies that they use in their own defence, be they thorns (modified stems) or spines (modified leaves), stings,
1120-1082: Is by wind. Seed dispersal is mostly by wind, but some species have large seeds with reduced wings, and are dispersed by birds. Analysis of Pinaceae cones reveals how selective pressure has shaped the evolution of variable cone size and function throughout the family. Variation in cone size in the family has likely resulted from the variation of seed dispersal mechanisms available in their environments over time. All Pinaceae with seeds weighing less than 90 milligrams are seemingly adapted for wind dispersal. Pines having seeds larger than 100 mg are more likely to have benefited from adaptations that promote animal dispersal, particularly by birds. Pinaceae that persist in areas where tree squirrels are abundant do not seem to have evolved adaptations for bird dispersal. Boreal conifers have many adaptions for winter. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs help them shed snow, and many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing, called "hardening". Classification of
1190-575: Is enough new growth to confirm it is still alive. A notable specimen in the Pirin Mountains of Bulgaria, known as Baikushev's pine , is 24 m (79 ft) tall, 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) in diameter, and is estimated to be over 1300 years old. The species was first described as Pinus heldreichii by the Swiss botanist K. Hermann Christ in honour of Theodor von Heldreich in 1863 from specimens collected on Mount Olympus , and then described
1260-417: Is further able to withstand wind, ice and heavy snow. These abilities makes it suitable for reforestation of extensive dry and high-altitude areas. In the south of Italy it is planted because it is less susceptible to pests than other pine species. Pinaceae The Pinaceae ( / p ɪ ˈ n eɪ s iː ˌ iː , - s i ˌ aɪ / ), or pine family , are conifer trees or shrubs, including many of
1330-421: Is known to be able to induce defense responses in the stems of multiple Pinaceae species. It has been found that MJ stimulated the activation of PP cells and formation of xylem traumatic resin ducts (TD). These are structures that are involved in the release of phenolics and resins, both forms of defense mechanism. Pest (organism) A pest is any organism harmful to humans or human concerns. The term
1400-608: Is not supported by modern studies of the species, which show that both names refer to the same taxon. The discrepancies in the descriptions are largely due to Christ's cone specimens being immature and shrunken after drying, having been collected in July, four months before maturity. It can be found in the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia, southwestern Bulgaria, Albania, North Macedonia , Kosovo , northern Greece (Valia Kalda, Smolikas and Vasilitsa, Mount Olympus and in other high mountains), and locally in southern Italy (it
1470-576: Is particularly used for creatures that damage crops, livestock, and forestry or cause a nuisance to people, especially in their homes. Humans have modified the environment for their own purposes and are intolerant of other creatures occupying the same space when their activities impact adversely on human objectives. Thus, an elephant is unobjectionable in its natural habitat but a pest when it tramples crops. Some animals are disliked because they bite or sting; wolves , snakes , wasps , ants , bed bugs , fleas and ticks belong in this category. Others enter
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#17328692468251540-691: Is the case with the emerald ash borer , an insect native to north-eastern Asia, which, since its arrival in North America, has killed millions of ash trees. Another example of a beetle species that exhibits pest behavior are Melolontha Hippocastrani , that cause severe, long-term damage on young trees by feeding on roots. Animals able to live in the dry conditions found in buildings include many arthropods such as beetles, cockroaches, moths, and mites. Another group, including termites , woodworm , longhorn beetles , and wood ants cause structural damage to buildings and furniture. The natural habitat of these
1610-424: Is the decaying parts of trees. The deathwatch beetle infests the structural timbers of old buildings, mostly attacking hardwood , especially oak . The initial attack usually follows the entry of water into a building and the subsequent decay of damp timber. Furniture beetles mainly attack the sapwood of both hard and soft wood , only attacking the heartwood when it is modified by fungal decay. The presence of
1680-457: Is the symbol of the Pollino National Park ), growing at 1,500–2,500 m (4,900–8,200 ft) altitude. It reaches the alpine tree line in these areas. Bosnian pine is a popular ornamental tree in parks and large gardens, giving reliable, steady, though not fast, growth on a wide range of sites, and with a very neat, conical crown. It is also noted for its very decorative purple cones. The cultivars ‘Smidtii’ and ‘Compact Gem’ have been given
1750-542: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . It is hardy down to at least −45 °C (−49 °F), and tolerant of severe wind exposure. Many in cultivation are still grown under the name Pinus leucodermis or Pinus heldreichii var. leucodermis . P. heldreichii is able to adapt to extreme environmental conditions and is also a great colonizer. It is resistant to sulphur dioxide , hydrogen fluoride , nitrogen dioxide and ozone pollution and
1820-635: The drugstore beetle , the sawtoothed grain beetle and the Indianmeal moth being found worldwide. The insects may be present in the warehouse or maybe introduced during shipping, in retail outlets, or in the home; they may enter packets through tiny cracks or may chew holes in the packaging. The longer a product is stored, the more likely it is to become contaminated, with the insects often originating from dry pet foods. Some mites, too, infest foodstuffs and other stored products. Each substance has its own specific mite, and they multiply with great rapidity. One of
1890-429: The 10th century Greek monk Tryphon of Constantinople is said to have prayed "Snails, earwigs and all other creatures, hurt not the vines, nor the land nor the fruit of the trees, nor the vegetables ... but depart into the wild mountains." The 11th-century Old English medical text Lacnunga contained charms and spells to ward off or treat pests such as wid smeogan wyrme , " penetrating worms ", in this case requiring
1960-623: The Pinaceae, the first good records of which are in the Middle-Late Triassic , with abundant records during the Jurassic across Eurasia. The oldest crown group (descendant of the last common ancestor of all living species) member of Pinaceae is the cone Eathiestrobus , known from the Upper Jurassic (lower Kimmeridgian , 157.3-154.7 million years ago) of Scotland, which likely belongs to
2030-609: The ants. Pest ranges are heavily determined by climate . The most common example for the longest time has been rainfall : Although drought stress weakens crop disease resistance , drought also retards contagion and infection; and some variability in precipitation is universal. More recently climate change has been rapidly altering ranges, mostly by pushing them towards the poles (both North and South ). From 1960-2013 ranges have shifted poleward by 2.7 ± 0.8 km (1.68 ± 0.50 mi) per year - albeit with significant differences between taxa . (Especially in
2100-421: The bark. Constitutive defenses are typically the first line of defenses used against antagonists and can include sclerified cells, lignified periderm cells, and secondary compounds such as phenolics and resins. Constitutive defenses are always expressed and offer immediate protection from invaders but could also be defeated by antagonists that have evolved adaptations to these defense mechanisms. One of
2170-474: The beetles only becomes apparent when the larvae gnaw their way out, leaving small circular holes in the timber. Carpet beetles and clothes moths cause non-structural damage to property such as clothing and carpets. It is the larvae that are destructive, feeding on wool, hair, fur, feathers and down. The moth larvae live where they feed, but the beetle larvae may hide behind skirting boards or in other similar locations between meals. They may be introduced to
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2240-622: The birth of civilisation. Plagues of locusts caused devastation in the ancient Middle East, and were recorded in tombs in Ancient Egypt from as early as 2470 BC, and in the Book of Exodus in the Bible, as taking place in Egypt around 1446 BC. Homer 's Iliad mentions locusts taking to the wing to escape fire. Given the impact of agricultural pests on human lives, people have prayed for deliverance. For example,
2310-676: The break up of the super-continent Pangea , its distribution was limited to northern Laurasia . During the Cenozoic, Pinaceae had higher rates of species turnover than Southern Hemisphere conifers, thought to be driven by range shifts in response to glacial cycles. External stresses on plants have the ability to change the structure and composition of forest ecosystems . Common external stress that Pinaceae experience are herbivore and pathogen attack which often leads to tree death. In order to combat these stresses, trees need to adapt or evolve defenses against these stresses. Pinaceae have evolved
2380-510: The case of viruses and nematodes which show the opposite trend, toward the equator . This may be due to their lack of airborne dispersal , so their trend conforms with the trend of human-aided dispersal ; or identification difficulties in the field.) In Europe, crop pests are expected to burgeon as the vertebrate predators which control them are expected to be suppressed by future climatic conditions. Together pests and diseases cause up to 40% yield losses every year. The animal groups of
2450-412: The common secondary compounds used by Pinaceae are phenolics or polyphenols. These secondary compounds are preserved in vacuoles of polyphenolic parenchyma cells (PP) in the secondary phloem . Induced defense responses need to be activated by certain cues, such as herbivore damage or other biotic signals. A common induced defense mechanism used by Pinaceae is resins. Resins are also one of
2520-572: The conifers, Gnetophyta may in fact be the sister group to the Pinaceae, with both lineages having diverged during the early-mid Carboniferous . This is known as the "gnepine" hypothesis. Pinaceae is estimated to have diverged from other conifer groups during the late Carboniferous ~313 million years ago. Various possible stem-group relatives have been reported from as early as the Late Permian ( Lopingian ) The extinct conifer cone genus Schizolepidopsis likely represent stem-group members of
2590-455: The cooling systems of power and desalination plants which draw their water from the sea. Many of the animals that we regard as pests live in our homes. Before humans built dwellings, these creatures lived in the wider environment, but co-evolved with humans, adapting to the warm, sheltered conditions that a house provides, the wooden timbers, the furnishings, the food supplies and the rubbish dumps. Many no longer exist as free-living organisms in
2660-416: The damage done by molluscs becomes of greater significance. Terrestrial molluscs need moist environments; snails may be more noticeable because their shells provide protection from desiccation, while most slugs live in soil and only come out to feed at night. They devour seedlings, damage developing shoots and feed on salad crops and cabbages, and some species tunnel into potatoes and other tubers. A weed
2730-408: The difficulty of examining entire trees, and the certainty that pesticides would damage many forest organisms other than the intended pests. Forest integrated pest management therefore aims to use a combination of prevention, cultural control measures, and direct control (such as pesticide use). Cultural measures include choosing appropriate species, keeping competing vegetation under control, ensuring
2800-663: The direct injury they cause to the plants and from the indirect consequences of the fungal, bacterial or viral infections they transmit. Plants have their own defences against these attacks but these may be overwhelmed, especially in habitats where the plants are already stressed, or where the pests have been accidentally introduced and may have no natural enemies. The pests affecting trees are predominantly insects, and many of these have also been introduced inadvertently and lack natural enemies, and some have transmitted novel fungal diseases with devastating results. Humans have traditionally performed pest control in agriculture and forestry by
2870-494: The distress caused by their bites. Grasshoppers are usually solitary herbivores of little economic importance until the conditions are met for them to enter a swarming phase , become locusts and cause enormous damage. Many people appreciate birds in the countryside and their gardens, but when these accumulate in large masses, they can be a nuisance. Flocks of starlings can consist of hundreds of thousands of individual birds, their roosts can be noisy and their droppings voluminous;
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2940-715: The droppings are acidic and can cause corrosion of metals, stonework, and brickwork as well as being unsightly. Pigeons in urban settings may be a health hazard, and gulls near the coast can become a nuisance, especially if they become bold enough to snatch food from passers-by. All birds are a risk at airfields where they can be sucked into aircraft engines. Woodpeckers sometimes excavate holes in buildings, fencing and utility poles, causing structural damage; they also drum on various reverberatory structures on buildings such as gutters, down-spouts, chimneys, vents and aluminium sheeting. Jellyfish can form vast swarms which may be responsible for damage to fishing gear, and sometimes clog
3010-630: The exclusion of native species. In forestry, pests may affect various parts of the tree, from its roots and trunk to the canopy far overhead. The accessibility of the part of the tree affected may make detection difficult, so that a pest problem may already be far advanced before it is first observed from the ground. The larch sawfly and spruce budworm are two insect pests prevalent in Alaska and aerial surveys can show which sections of forest are being defoliated in any given year so that appropriate remedial action can be taken. Some pests may not be present on
3080-416: The family was divided into two tribes based on the occurrence and type of long–short shoot dimorphism. A more recent classification divided the subfamilies and genera based on the consideration of features of ovulate cone anatomy among extant and fossil members of the family. Below is an example of how the morphology has been used to classify Pinaceae. The 11 genera are grouped into four subfamilies, based on
3150-764: The fibres of cellulose insulation to kill self-grooming insects such as ants and cockroaches. Clothes moths can be controlled with airtight containers for storage, periodic laundering of garments, trapping, freezing, heating and the use of chemicals. Traditional mothballs deter adult moths with strong-smelling naphthalene ; modern ones use volatile repellents such as 1,4-Dichlorobenzene . Moth larvae can be killed with insecticides such as permethrin or pyrethroids . However, insecticides cannot safely be used in food storage areas; alternative treatments include freezing foods for four days at 0 °F (−18 °C) or baking for half an hour at 130 °F (54 °C) to kill any insects present. Pests have attracted human attention from
3220-560: The general collection. There are over four thousand species of cockroach worldwide, but only four species are commonly regarded as pests, having adapted to live permanently in buildings. Considered to be a sign of unsanitary conditions, they feed on almost anything, reproduce rapidly and are difficult to eradicate. They can passively transport pathogenic microbes on their body surfaces, particularly in environments such as hospitals, and are linked with allergic reactions in humans. Various insects attack dry food products, with flour beetles ,
3290-401: The greatest importance as agricultural pests are (in order of economic importance) insects , mites , nematodes and gastropod molluscs . Insects are responsible for two major forms of damage to crops. First, there is the direct injury they cause to the plants as they feed on the tissues; a reduction in leaf surface available for photosynthesis, distortion of growing shoots, a diminution of
3360-527: The home in any product containing animal fibres including upholstered furniture; the moths are feeble fliers but the carpet beetles may also enter houses through open windows. Furniture beetles, carpet beetles and clothes moths are also capable of creating great damage to museum exhibits, zoological and botanical collections, and other cultural heritage items. Constant vigilance is required to prevent an attack, and newly acquired items, and those that have been out on loan, may need quarantining before being added to
3430-469: The home; these include houseflies, which land on and contaminate food; beetles, which tunnel into the woodwork; and other animals that scuttle about on the floor at night, like rats and cockroaches , which are often associated with unsanitary conditions. Agricultural and horticultural crops are attacked by a wide variety of pests, the most important being rodents , insects , mites , nematodes and gastropod molluscs . The damage they do results both from
3500-868: The microscopical anatomy and the morphology of the cones, pollen, wood, seeds, and leaves: A revised 2018 phylogeny places Cathaya as sister to the pines rather than in the Laricoidae subfamily with Larix and Pseudotsuga . Cedrus (cedars 4 sp.) Pseudolarix (golden larch 1 sp.) Nothotsuga (1 sp.) Tsuga (hemlock 9 sp.) Keteleeria (3 sp.) Abies (firs c.50 sp.) Pseudotsuga (Douglas-firs 5 sp.) Larix (larches 14 sp.) Picea (spruces c 35 sp.) Cathaya (1 sp.) Pinus (pines c.115 sp.) Cedrus Pseudolarix Nothotsuga Tsuga Keteleeria Abies Pseudotsuga Larix Cathaya Picea Pinus Multiple molecular studies indicate that in contrast to previous classifications placing it outside
3570-662: The most damaging is the flour mite , which is found in grain and may become exceedingly abundant in poorly stored material. In time, predatory mites usually move in and control the flour mites. The control of pests in crops is as old as civilisation. The earliest approach was mechanical, from ploughing to picking off insects by hand. Early methods included the use of sulphur compounds, before 2500 BC in Sumeria. In ancient China, insecticides derived from plants were in use by 1200 BC to treat seeds and to fumigate plants. Chinese agronomy recognised biological control by natural enemies of pests and
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#17328692468253640-744: The mountains of southwest China , Mexico, central Japan, and California . Members of the family Pinaceae are trees (rarely shrubs ) growing from 2 to 100 metres (7 to 300 feet) tall, mostly evergreen (except the deciduous Larix and Pseudolarix ), resinous , monoecious , with subopposite or whorled branches, and spirally arranged, linear (needle-like) leaves. The embryos of Pinaceae have three to 24 cotyledons . The female cones are large and usually woody, 2–60 centimetres (1–24 inches) long, with numerous spirally arranged scales, and two winged seeds on each scale. The male cones are small, 0.5–6 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 in) long, and fall soon after pollination; pollen dispersal
3710-680: The nematodes can transmit viral diseases from one plant to another. When its populations are high, the potato cyst nematode can cause reductions of 80% in yield of susceptible potato varieties. The nematode eggs survive in the soil for many years, being stimulated to hatch by chemical cues produced by roots of susceptible plants. Slugs and snails are terrestrial gastropod molluscs which typically chew leaves, stems, flowers, fruit and vegetable debris. Slugs and snails differ little from each other and both do considerable damage to plants. With novel crops being grown and with insect pests having been brought more under control by biological and other means,
3780-441: The open for brief periods as adults, primarily to mate and disperse. The import and export of timber has inadvertently assisted some insect pests to establish themselves far from their country of origin. An insect may be of little importance in its native range, being kept under control by parasitoid wasps, predators, and the natural resistance of the host trees, but be a serious pest in a region into which it has been introduced. This
3850-532: The outside world, and can therefore be considered to be domesticated. The St Kilda house mouse rapidly became extinct when the last islander left the island of St Kilda, Scotland in 1930, but the St Kilda field mouse survived. Plants may be considered pests, for example, if they are invasive species or weeds . There is no universal definition of what makes a plant a pest. Some governments, such as that of Western Australia, permit their authorities to prescribe as
3920-634: The pinoid grouping of the family. Pinaceae rapidly radiated during the Early Cretaceous . Members of the modern genera Pinus (pines), Picea (spruce) and Cedrus (cedar) first appear during the Early Cretaceous. The extinct Cretaceous genera Pseudoaraucaria and Obirastrobus appear to be members of Abietoideae, while Pityostrobus appears to be non-monophyletic, containing many disparately related members of Pinaceae. While Pinaceae, and indeed all of its subfamilies, substantially predate
3990-452: The plant from herbivores. In addition to providing housing, the plant also provides the ant with its exclusive food source in the form of food bodies located on the leaf stipules. Similarly, several Acacia tree species have developed stout spines that are swollen at the base, forming a hollow structure that provides housing for ants which protect the plant. These Acacia trees also produce nectar in nectaries on their leaves as food for
4060-417: The plant's growth and vigour, and the wilting of shoots and branches caused by the insects' tunneling activities. Secondly there is the indirect damage, where the insects do little direct harm, but either transmit or allow entry of fungal, bacterial or viral infections. Although some insects are polyphagous, many are restricted to one specific crop, or group of crops. In many cases it is the larva that feeds on
4130-456: The plant, building up a nutritional store that will be used by the short-lived adult; sawfly and lepidopteran larvae feed mainly on the aerial portions of plants while beetle larvae tend to live underground, feeding on roots, or tunnel into the stem or under the bark. The true bugs, Hemiptera , have piercing and sucking mouthparts and live by sucking sap from plants. These include aphids , whiteflies and scale insects . Apart from weakening
4200-442: The plant, they encourage the growth of sooty mould on the honeydew the insects produce, which cuts out the light and reduces photosynthesis, stunting the plant's growth. They often transmit serious viral diseases between plants. The mites that cause most trouble in the field are the spider mites . These are less than 1 mm (0.04 in) in diameter, can be very numerous, and thrive in hot, dry conditions. They mostly live on
4270-770: The primary defenses used against attack. Resins are short term defenses that are composed of a complex combination of volatile mono - (C 10 ) and sesquiterpenes (C 15 ) and nonvolatile diterpene resin acids (C 20 ). They are produced and stored in specialized secretory areas known as resin ducts, resin blisters, or resin cavities. Resins have the ability to wash away, trap, fend off antagonists, and are also involved in wound sealing. They are an effective defense mechanism because they have toxic and inhibitory effects on invaders, such as insects or pathogens. Resins could have developed as an evolutionary defense against bark beetle attacks. One well researched resin present in Pinaceae
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#17328692468254340-407: The roots or the aerial parts of plants and transmit viruses. Some examples are the big bud mite that transmits the reversion virus of blackcurrants , the coconut mite which can devastate coconut production, and the cereal rust mite which transmits several grass and cereal viruses. Being exceedingly minute, many plant mites are spread by wind, although others use insects or other arthropods as
4410-404: The second half of the 19th century, starting with the vedalia beetle against cottony cushion scale . All these methods have been refined and developed since their discovery. Forest pests inflict costly damage, but treating them is often unaffordable, given the relatively low value of forest products compared to agricultural crops. It is also generally impossible to eradicate forest pests, given
4480-542: The second-largest (after Cupressaceae ) in geographical range, found in most of the Northern Hemisphere , with the majority of the species in temperate climates, but ranging from subarctic to tropical. The family often forms the dominant component of boreal , coastal, and montane forests . One species, Pinus merkusii , grows just south of the equator in Southeast Asia. Major centres of diversity are found in
4550-403: The subfamilies and genera of Pinaceae has been subject to debate in the past. Pinaceae ecology, morphology, and history have all been used as the basis for methods of analyses of the family. An 1891 publication divided the family into two subfamilies, using the number and position of resin canals in the primary vascular region of the young taproot as the primary consideration. In a 1910 publication,
4620-455: The tree all year round, either because of their life cycle or because they rotate between different host species at different times of the year. In forestry, pests may affect various parts of the tree, from its roots and trunk to the canopy far overhead. The larvae of wood-boring beetles , for example, are notorious for spending years excavating tunnels under the bark of trees, leading to significant structural damage. These larvae only emerge into
4690-448: The underside of leaves and puncture the plant cells to feed, with some species forming webbing. They occur on nearly all important food crops and ornamental plants, both outdoors and under glass, and include some of the most economically important pests. Another important group of mites is the gall mites which affect a wide range of plants, several mite species being major pests causing substantial economic damage to crops. They can feed on
4760-470: The use of pesticides ; however, other methods exist such as mechanical control , and recently developed biological controls . A pest is any living thing which humans consider troublesome to themselves, their possessions, or the environment. Pests can cause issues with crops, human or animal health, buildings, and wild areas or larger landscapes. An older usage of the word "pest" is of a deadly epidemic disease, specifically plague . In its broadest sense,
4830-637: The varying of planting time to reduce pests before the first century AD. The agricultural revolution in Europe saw the introduction of effective plant-based insecticides such as pyrethrum , derris , quassia , and tobacco extract. The phylloxera (a powdery mildew ) damage to the wine industry in the 19th century resulted in the development of resistant varieties and grafting , and the accidental discovery of effective chemical pesticides, Bordeaux mixture (lime and copper sulphate ) and Paris Green (an arsenic compound), both very widely used. Biological control also became established as an effective measure in
4900-535: The well-known conifers of commercial importance such as cedars , firs , hemlocks , piñons , larches , pines and spruces . The family is included in the order Pinales , formerly known as Coniferales . Pinaceae have distinctive cones with woody scales bearing typically two ovules , and are supported as monophyletic by both morphological trait and genetic analysis. They are the largest extant conifer family in species diversity, with between 220 and 250 species (depending on taxonomic opinion) in 11 genera, and
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