133-564: Bomberg is a surname, borne, among others by This article related to Jewish history is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Jewish history Jewish history is the history of the Jews , their nation , religion , and culture , as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures. Jews originated from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah , two related kingdoms that emerged in
266-856: A Young Turk , and believed that the Jews of the Empire should be Turks first, and Jews second. Some Jews thrived in Baghdad , performing critical commercial functions such as money-lending and banking. Prior to the creation of the Yemen Vilayet in 1872, the Zaydi Imam of Yemen had implemented more restrictions on Jews than had been present in the Ottoman Empire, such as the Orphans' Decree , which required orphans of Jewish parents to be raised as Muslims. Once Ottoman rule began,
399-414: A printing culture . Jewish historians wrote accounts of their collective experiences, but also increasingly used history for political, cultural, and scientific or philosophical exploration. Writers drew upon a corpus of culturally inherited text in seeking to construct a logical narrative to critique or advance the state of the art. Modern Jewish historiography intertwines with intellectual movements such as
532-454: A Jewish military colony existed at Elephantine , established before the exile, where they built their own shrine. Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of Jeremiah , the Book of Ezekiel , the majority of Obadiah , and what is referred to in research as " Second Isaiah " were all written during this time period as well. According to
665-460: A ban on circumcision, later repealed by Antoninus Pius . The province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land. The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once
798-541: A civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of Judah ( Simeon was absorbed into Judah) and Benjamin in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power. During the days of the Omride dynasty , it controlled Samaria , Galilee ,
931-519: A focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation. Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions. The Sadducees and Essenes , two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity, while the traditions of the Pharisees , including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the Oral Torah , and belief in resurrection became
1064-587: A golden age in Spain , with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed. However, in 1492 the Jews were forced to leave Spain and migrated in great numbers to the Ottoman Empire and Italy . Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to Poland . The 18th century saw
1197-403: A majority of the city's population. In Salonica, Jews lived in communities around synagogues in which "Jewish organizations provided all the religious, legal, educational and social services". The concentration of Jews in the city as well as the binding social capital provided by Jewish organizations allowed Salonica to become an "almost autonomous" zone for Jews to flourish in. The strength of
1330-724: A mob in Demnat , Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in Jerusalem asked the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from Russia . In 1867, 1870, and 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in Tripolitania . An important instance of anti-Semitism around this time
1463-558: A new Jewish state instead of Palestine before the state of Israel was created. Sephardic Jews did not envision Palestine as the seat of Jewish governance and autonomy in the immediate aftermath of World War I. Sa'adi Levy, who lived in Salonica, owned a printing press in Amsterdam that published newspapers in Ladino and French covering the rival ideological claims and intellectual controversies of
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#17328941518491596-500: A point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern Mesopotamia ), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood Judah ben Bathyra , and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at Nehar-Pekod , founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of Joshua ben Hananiah , which school might have been
1729-503: A second revolt in Judah, besieged and destroyed Jerusalem . The First Temple was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils. The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia, marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the " Babylonian Captivity ". Zedekiah himself
1862-913: A year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall . In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt , provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty . In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian , the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered
1995-539: Is "overwhelming" and leaves "no room for an Exodus from Egypt or a 40-year pilgrimage through the Sinai wilderness". Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as "a fruitless pursuit". However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a "historical core" to it. A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to
2128-780: Is known from the Bible , extra-biblical sources, apocrypha and pseudoepigrapha , the writings of Josephus , Greco-Roman authors and church fathers , as well as archaeological finds, inscriptions, ancient documents (such as the Papyri from Elephantine and the Fayyum , the Dead Sea scrolls , the Bar Kokhba letters , the Babatha Archives and the Cairo Genizah documents ) supplemented by oral history and
2261-465: Is still in use, although the modern Jewish population of Bursa has shrunk to about 140 people. During the Classical Ottoman period, the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well as diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially,
2394-734: The Ashkenazim ( Central and Eastern Europe ), the Sephardim (initially in the Iberian Peninsula ), and the Mizrahim ( Middle East and North Africa ). Byzantine rule over the Levant was lost in the 7th century as the newly established Islamic Caliphate expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean , Mesopotamia , North Africa, and later into the Iberian Peninsula . Jewish culture enjoyed
2527-605: The Al-Yahudu tablets , dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the First Temple , though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE. In Egypt, the documents from Elephantine reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to Josephus
2660-774: The Auschwitz camp complex alone. This genocide , in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as the Holocaust . Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion declared the creation of the State of Israel , a Jewish and democratic state in Eretz Israel (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet
2793-601: The Battle of Yarmuk , on 15–20 August 636, when the Levant passed into Muslim rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa , Sh’chem , Hebron , Ramleh , Gaza , Jerusalem , as well as many other cities. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the Shulchan Aruch was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. In addition to the already existent Jewish population in
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#17328941518492926-617: The Byzantine garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy. However, their autonomy was brief: the Jewish leader in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with
3059-618: The Hasmoneans , but it was conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE . Roman expansion was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate , supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as
3192-671: The Herodian dynasty . Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, Herod Archelaus ruled the tetrarchy of Judea as ethnarch , the Romans denying him the title of King. After the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was formed as a satellite of Roman Syria under the rule of a prefect (as was Roman Egypt ) until 41 CE, then procurators after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see Anti-Judaism in
3325-692: The Levant during the Iron Age . Although the earliest mention of Israel is inscribed on the Merneptah Stele around 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE. The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in around 720 BCE, and the Kingdom of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. Part of the Judean population
3458-649: The Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt , dated to about 1200 BCE. According to the modern archaeological account, the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples and their cultures through the development of a distinct monolatristic —and later monotheistic —religion centred on the national god Yahweh . They spoke an archaic form of the Hebrew language , known today as Biblical Hebrew . The traditional religious view of Jews and Judaism of their own history
3591-505: The Middle East . The experience of Jews in the Ottoman Empire is particularly significant because the region "provided a principal place of refuge for Jews driven out of Western Europe by massacres and persecution." At the time of the Ottoman conquests , Anatolia had already been home to communities of Byzantine Jews . The Ottoman Empire became a safe haven for Jews from the Iberian Peninsula fleeing persecution (see Alhambra Decree ). By
3724-697: The Negev . After the fall of Israel, Judah became a client state of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage , despite Hezekiah's revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib . Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of Hosea , Isaiah , Amos and Micah , along with Nahum , Zephaniah , most of Deuteronomy ,
3857-478: The Persian Empire , the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah ( Yehud Medinata ) with different borders, covering a smaller territory. Contemporary scholars point to a gradual return process that extended into the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE. The population of Persian Judah was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in
3990-571: The Seleucid Empire led to an independent Hasmonean kingdom , but it was gradually incorporated into Roman rule. The Jewish-Roman wars , a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple , and the expulsion of many Jews. The Jewish population in Syria Palaestina gradually decreased during
4123-630: The Twelve Tribes of Israel . The Israelites were later led out of slavery in Egypt and subsequently brought to Canaan by Moses ; they eventually conquered Canaan under the leadership of Joshua . Modern scholars agree that the Bible does not provide an authentic account of the Israelites' origins; the consensus supports that the archaeological evidence showing largely indigenous origins of Israel in Canaan, not Egypt,
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4256-454: The ingathering of exiles and the reconstruction of the Temple , these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to Judea and rebuilding Jerusalem. Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated. The Roman suppression of the revolt
4389-460: The menorah , which were then put on display in the new Temple of Peace . The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting Judaea Capta coins . The war concluded with the siege of Masada (73-74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land. The destruction of
4522-420: The 16th century, the Ottoman Empire saw an increased Jewish influence on the economy and commerce. There is no doubt among historians that "Spanish Jews contributed significantly to the development of the capital in the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century". Although many Sephardic Jews had large amounts of political and cultural capital, the Jewish community in the Ottoman Empire was decentralized for most of
4655-620: The 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to Ottoman Syria with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in Palestine . The Zionist movement was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924. The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in
4788-441: The 5th to 4th centuries BCE. The final Torah is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (539–333 BCE, probably 450–350 BCE). This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra , the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation. Three prophets, considered the last in Jewish tradition— Haggai , Zechariah , and Malachi —were active during this period. After
4921-430: The Book of Ezra, Persian Cyrus the Great , king of the Achaemenid Empire , brought an end to the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE, a year after his conquest of Babylon. The return from exile was led by Zerubbabel , a prince from the royal line of David, and Joshua the Priest, descended from former High Priests of the Temple. They oversaw the construction of the Second Temple , completed between 521 and 516 BCE. As part of
5054-433: The Chief Rabbi of Edirne and wrote a letter inviting the European Jewry to settle in the Ottoman Empire , in which he stated " Turkey is a land wherein nothing is lacking" and asked "Is it not better for you to live under Muslims than under Christians?" Many had taken the Rabbi up on his offer, including the Jews who were expelled from the German Duchy of Bavaria by Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria in 1470. Even before then, as
5187-408: The Conquerors's successor, Beyazid II (1481–1512), after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal . The expulsion came about as a result of the Alhambra Decree in 1492, declared by the Spanish King and Queen Ferdinand II and Isabelle I as part of a larger trend of antisemitism resurging throughout Europe that the Ottomans would exploit. The Sephardic Jews were allowed to settle in
5320-438: The Empire for several decades, until that position would be lost to a wave of new Jewish arrivals . The number of native Jews was soon bolstered by small groups of Ashkenazi Jews that immigrated to the Ottoman Empire between 1421 and 1453. Among these new Ashkenazi immigrants was Rabbi Yitzhak Sarfati ( Hebrew : צרפתי , lit. 'French'), a German -born Jew whose family had lived in France. He became
5453-577: The Empire. This was especially true for the Sephardic Jews, who had large amounts of political and cultural influence in the Ottoman Empire. The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire had political and cultural influence because they "were perceived as Westerners who had extensive contacts with Europe, who knew European languages, and brought new knowledge and technologies". Additionally, some Sephardic Jews "were...prominent merchants with European markets" who were even regarded as "potential allies, diplomats, and spies" during times of war against Christians. Throughout
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5586-402: The European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment but drew upon earlier works in the Late Middle Ages and into diverse sources in antiquity. Today, the history of the Jews and Judaism is often divided into six periods: The history of the early Jews, and their neighbours, centres on the Fertile Crescent and east coast of the Mediterranean Sea . It begins among those people who occupied
5719-399: The Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that Iron Age Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt: The culture of the earliest Israelite settlements is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god El , the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and
5852-400: The Great of Macedon defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the Seleucid Kingdom was formed. The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by Hellenistic philosophy developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the Jewish diaspora in Alexandria , culminating in
5985-401: The Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor Vespasian quelled the rebellion in Galilee by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds. He was succeeded by his son Titus , who led the brutal siege of Jerusalem , culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. The Roman victory was celebrated with a triumph in Rome, showcasing Jewish artifacts like
6118-414: The Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to Sherira Gaon , was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of Sura was Samuel ben Hofni , who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was Hezekiah Gaon , who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years. One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was Nehardea , which
6251-429: The Jewish Temple rebuilt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363 and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time. Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene ". Julian's fatal wound in
6384-399: The Jewish banking families in the 16th-century Ottoman Empire was the Marrano banking house of Mendès, which moved to and settled in Istanbul in 1552 under the protection of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . When Alvaro Mendès arrived in Istanbul in 1588, he is reported to have brought with him 85,000 gold ducats. The Mendès family soon acquired a dominating position in the state finances of
6517-409: The Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by Alexander the Great . By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (" Babylonia " in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in Asia Minor , Greece , Macedonia , Cyrene , and, beginning in the middle of
6650-489: The Jewish community in Salonica can even be seen after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman Empire fell, the city of Salonica was not depicted as a Greek or Turkish city, but instead was considered a Jewish city. Additionally, some historians claim Salonica was seen as the "New Jerusalem" and has been named the "Mother of Israel" where the Jewish Sabbath "was most vigorously observed". Also, there were many international organizations that thought about creating
6783-401: The Jews rose to prominence under the millets , the apogee of Jewish influence could arguable be the appointment of Joseph Nasi to Sanjak-bey ( governor , a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of the island of Naxos . Also in the first half of the 17th century the Jews were distinct in winning Tax farms , Haim Gerber describes it as: "My impression is that no pressure existed, that it
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#17328941518496916-412: The Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city. During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan insurrections broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. Especially violent were
7049-528: The Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.'" Throughout the 1860s, the Jews of Libya were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fezin Morocco . In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis , and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on Jerba Island . In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by
7182-443: The Orphan's Decree was revoked, although a "Dung-Gatherers' Decree," which tasked Jews with cleaning sewers, remained in effect. Also, the Ottoman authorities raised the jizya tax burden on Jews and often did not respect Jewish holidays. Starting around 1881, many Yemeni Jews began to move to Jerusalem. In 1881, in response to rising antisemitism in mainland Europe, as well as a number of proposals made by various parties regarding
7315-415: The Ottoman Empire and in commerce with Europe. Ottoman Jews were obliged to pay special taxes to the Ottoman authorities. These taxes included the cizye , the ispençe , the haraç , and the rav akçesi ("rabbi tax"). Sometimes, local rulers would also levy taxes for themselves, in addition to the taxes sent to the Sublime Porte . The Jews of Salonica were well known for the spinning wool for
7448-459: The Ottoman Empire was engaged in a military conflict with the Christian nations at the time, Jews were trusted and regarded "as potential allies, diplomats, and spies". There were also Jews that possessed special skills in a wide range of fields that the Ottomans took advantage of, including David and Samuel ibn Nahmias, who established a printing press in 1493. That was then a new technology and accelerated production of literature and documents, which
7581-539: The Ottoman Turkish version of this constitution. This constitution was the culmination of a struggle between progressive lay bourgeoisie and conservative rabbis over leadership in the Jewish community, as well as pressure from the Porte to codify Jewish affairs in the empire. The constitution was ultimately a temporary victory for the laity, as the constitution was quickly eroded by renewed rabbinical control and corruption. This state of affairs continued until Abdul Hamid II 's accession. The hahambaşı , or Grand Rabbi,
7714-399: The Ottoman authorities and when given the choice between death and conversion , he opted for the latter. His remaining disciples also converted to Islam. Their descendants are today known as Donmeh . The first major event in Jewish history under Ottoman rule took place after the Empire gained control over Constantinople . After Sultan Mehmed II 's conquest of Constantinople , he found
7847-490: The Ottoman treasury. Some Jews who reached high positions in the Ottoman court and administration include Mehmed II 's minister of Finance ("Defterdar") Hekim Yakup Pasha, his Portuguese physician Moses Hamon , Murad II 's physician Is'hak Pasha, and Abraham de Castro , who was the master of the mint in Egypt. The first Jewish synagogue linked to Ottoman rule is Etz ha-Hayyim ( Hebrew : עץ החיים ) in Bursa which passed to Ottoman authority in 1324. The synagogue
7980-407: The Ottomans conquered Anatolia and Greece, they encouraged Jewish immigration from the European lands from which they were expelled. The Ashkenazi Jews mixed with the already large Romaniot Jewish communities that had become part of the Ottoman Empire as they had conquered lands from the Byzantine Empire. An influx of Jews into Asia Minor and the Ottoman Empire, occurred during the reign of Mehmed
8113-401: The Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims. In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site , the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of
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#17328941518498246-400: The Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship. The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the Hasmonean dynasty , which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE. Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the Hasmoneans later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power. Under
8379-441: The Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism. With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards prayer , Torah study , and communal gatherings in synagogues . According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in Yavneh , which then served as
8512-516: The United States and to the Soviet Union . In 1939, World War II began and until 1941 Hitler occupied almost all of Europe . In 1941, following the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Final Solution began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa . In Poland, three million were murdered in gas chambers in all concentration camps combined, with one million at
8645-470: The West and their trading diaspora ". An exception to this is Daniel de Fonseca , who was chief court physician and played a political role. He is mentioned by Voltaire , who speaks of him as an acquaintance whom he esteemed highly. Fonseca was involved in negotiations with Charles XII of Sweden . Ottoman Jews held a variety of views on the role of Jews in the Ottoman Empire, from loyal Ottomanism to Zionism . Emanuel Karasu of Salonika , for example,
8778-542: The alphabet used is early Canaanite. The almost sole marker distinguishing the "Israelite" villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute. According to the Biblical narrative , the Land of Israel was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of Judges for several hundred years. Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: Israel and Judah . The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as
8911-419: The area lying between the river Nile and Mesopotamia . Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in Egypt and Babylonia , by the deserts of Arabia , and by the highlands of Asia Minor , the land of Canaan (roughly corresponding to modern Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Jordan, and Lebanon) was a meeting place of civilizations. The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in
9044-428: The beginning of the 16th century, and that of Safed increased from 300 to 2,000 families. Damascus had a Sephardic congregation of 500 families. Istanbul had a Jewish community of 30,000 individuals with 44 synagogues . Bayezid allowed the Jews to live on the banks of the Golden Horn . Egypt, especially Cairo , received a large number of the exiles, who soon outnumbered the pre-existing Musta'arabi Jews . Gradually,
9177-446: The benefit of the empire, they would be rewarded well. Compared to European laws, which restricted life for all Jews, that was a significant opportunity, which drew Jews from across the Mediterranean. The Jews satisfied various needs in the Ottoman Empire. The Muslim population of the Empire was largely uninterested in business enterprises and accordingly left commercial occupations to members of minority religions. Additionally, since
9310-432: The cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition. Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and caesaropapism of the Byzantine Empire did not treat Jews well, and
9443-497: The centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the Pumbedita Academy and the Sura Academy . Major yeshivot were also located at Nehardea and Mahuza. The Talmudic Yeshiva Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around
9576-614: The chief centre of the Sephardic Jews became Salonica , where they soon outnumbered the pre-existing Romaniote Jewish community. In fact, the Sephardic Jews eclipsed and absorbed the Romaniot Jews and changed the culture and the structure of Jewish communities in the Ottoman Empire. In the centuries that followed, the Ottomans reaped the benefits of the Jewish communities that they adopted. In exchange for Jews contributing their talents for
9709-487: The city in a state of disarray. After suffering many sieges , a devastating conquest by Catholic Crusaders in 1204, and the outbreak of the Black Death in 1347, the city was a shadow of its former glory. As Mehmed wanted the city as his new capital, he decreed the rebuilding of the city. And in order to revivify Constantinople he ordered that Muslims , Christians and Jews from all over his empire be resettled in
9842-449: The city of Safed , with a substantial Jewish community, was destroyed by Druzes over a struggle for power. The history of Jews in the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is principally a chronicle of decline in influence and power. They lost their influential positions in trade mainly to the Greeks , who were able to "capitalize on their religio-cultural ties with
9975-528: The collection of commentaries in the Midrash and Talmud . With the rise of the printing press and movable type in the early modern period , Jewish histories and early editions of the Torah/Tanakh were published which dealt with the history of the Jewish religion, and increasingly, national histories of the Jews , Jewish peoplehood and identity . This was a move from a manuscript or scribal culture to
10108-582: The compilation of the Septuagint . An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is Philo . Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the Maccabean Revolt erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of Mattathias . His son, Judas Maccabeus , recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying
10241-514: The condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically. It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity , and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their Governor, Constantius Gallus . Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where
10374-546: The death of the last Jewish prophet and while still under Persian rule, the leadership of the Jewish people passed into the hands of five successive generations of zugot ("pairs of") leaders. They flourished first under the Persians and then under the Greeks. As a result, the Pharisees and Sadducees were formed. Under the Persians then under the Greeks, Jewish coins were minted in Judea as Yehud coinage . In 332 BCE, Alexander
10507-491: The destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the Bar Kokhba revolt and in the centuries after. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life all the way up to the 13th century. By the first century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million between
10640-615: The early 16th century. Salonica was considered the main center of Jewish life in the Ottoman Empire. Jewish people maintained a strong presence in Salonica until the outbreak of World War II and the Holocaust, when "there were around 56,000 Jews living in" the city. Salonica became the Jewish center of the Ottoman Empire after 1492. At this time, the Spanish Inquisition began in Spain and Portugal and Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or emigrate. Religious persecution caused many Sephardic Jews to immigrate to Salonica and make up
10773-534: The empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion. In March 597 BCE, Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon. This defeat is documented in the Babylonian Chronicles . Zedekiah , Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians. In 587 or 586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II , responding to
10906-406: The end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire had the largest Jewish population in the world, with 150,000 compared to Poland 's and non-Ottoman Ukraine 's combined figure of 75,000. The First and Second Aliyah brought an increased Jewish presence to Ottoman Palestine . The Ottoman successor state of modern Turkey continues to be home to a small Jewish population today . At the time of
11039-469: The establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of Simon Bar Kokhba , styled as nasi or prince of Israel. The rebel state's coinage proclaimed "Freedom of Israel" and "For the Freedom of Jerusalem," using ancient Hebrew script for nationalistic symbolism. However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under Julius Severus , who then brutally crushed
11172-582: The extent of its power. Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under Saul , and continued under David and his son, Solomon . David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and conquered Jerusalem from the Jebusites , turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the First Temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE,
11305-578: The fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were Albert Einstein and Ludwig Wittgenstein . Many Nobel Prize winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case. In 1933, with the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany , the Jewish situation became severe. Economic crises, racial antisemitic laws , and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to Mandatory Palestine , to
11438-631: The first century BCE, in the city of Rome . In the first centuries CE, as a result of the Jewish-Roman Wars , a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to
11571-467: The first edition of the Deuteronomistic history (the books of Joshua / Judges / Samuel / Kings ), and Habakkuk . With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the Levant , leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King Jehoiakim of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against
11704-582: The following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated Judea to Galilee and then to Babylon , with smaller communities spread out across the Roman Empire . During the same period, the Mishnah and the Talmud , central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled:
11837-524: The foundation of Rabbinic Judaism . The Jewish diaspora existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations. In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in Joachin's ration tablets , listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by Nebuchadnezzar II , and further evidence are
11970-630: The framework of the millet, Jews had a considerable amount of administrative autonomy and were represented by the Hakham Bashi , the Turkish term for the Chief Rabbi. There were no restrictions in the professions Jews could practice, analogous to the restrictions common in Western Christian countries. There were restrictions, however, regarding the areas Jews could live in or work, which were similar to
12103-574: The harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt. The book of Acts in the New Testament , as well as other Pauline texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of Hellenised Jews in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenised Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of
12236-431: The lands the Ottomans conquered, many more Jews were given refuge after the expulsion of Jews from Spain under the reign of Beyezid II . Although the status of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire may have been exaggerated, it is undeniable that some tolerance was enjoyed. Under the millet system , non-Muslims were organized as autonomous communities on the basis of religion (viz. Orthodox millet , Armenian millet , etc.). In
12369-612: The large array of connections to other Jewish communities across the Mediterranean. Two violent incidences took place in Safed and Hebron after the Ottomans had ousted the Mamluks and taken Levant during the Ottoman–Mamluk War in 1517. Accounts of the attack against the Jews in Safed were recorded by historian Rabbi Elijah Capsali of Candia , ( Crete ) and Rabbi Joseph Garson, who
12502-664: The man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine . To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mohammedan. The overwhelming majority of the Ottoman Jews lived in the European provinces of the Empire. As the empire lost control over its European provinces in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, these Jewish communities found themselves under Christian rule. The Bosnian Jews for example came under Austro-Hungarian rule after
12635-476: The manufacture of broadcloth . However, the city was also served by large port, making it easily susceptible to infectious agents from abroad. Incidents of plague often affected the production of broadcloth as residents of Salonica repeatedly became ill, died or fled during outbreaks. Friction between Jews and Turks was less common than in the Arab territories. Some examples: In 1660 or 1662, under Mehmet IV (1649–87),
12768-532: The new capital. Within months most of the Empire's Romaniote Jews , from the Balkans and Anatolia , were concentrated in Constantinople , where they made up 10% of the city's population. But at the same time the forced resettlement, though not intended as an anti-Jewish measure , was perceived as an "expulsion" by the Jews. Despite this interpretation however, the Romaniotes would be the most influential community in
12901-650: The newly formed IDF resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of Aliyah from all over Europe and Middle Eastern countries . As of 2022, Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are Jewish . The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the United States , while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and Germany . For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics, see Jewish population . Ancient Jewish history
13034-470: The occupation of the region in 1878. The independence of Greece , Bulgaria and Serbia further lowered the number of Jews within the borders of the Ottoman Empire. In the Ottoman Empire, Jews and Christians were considered dhimmi by the majority Muslim population. Muslims in the Ottoman Empire used the Qur'anic concept of dhimmi to place certain restrictions on Jews living in the region. For example, some of
13167-509: The onslaught was initiated by Turkish troops led by Murad Bey, the deputy of the Sultan from Jerusalem. In the sixteenth century, the leading financiers in Istanbul were Greeks and Jews. Many of the Jewish financiers were originally from Iberia and had fled during the period leading up to the expulsion of Jews from Spain . Many of these families brought great fortunes with them. The most notable of
13300-686: The potential settlement of Jews within the empire, the Council of Ministers declared that "[Jewish] immigrants [would] be able to settle as scattered groups throughout Turkey, excluding Palestine." The Jewish millet agreed upon a constitution which was enacted in 1865, Konstitusyon para la nasyon yisraelita de la Turkia or the Hahamname Nizamnamesi , originally written in Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino). Writer M. Franco stated that Ottoman government employee and translator Yehezkel Gabay (1825-96) wrote
13433-479: The pre-Christian Roman Empire ). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), Jesus of Nazareth , an itinerant rabbi from Galilee , and the central figure of Christianity , was put to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of Judaea , Pontius Pilate . Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War , also known as
13566-545: The provinces were added to the assembly. The Jewish millet constitution is noted for its similarity with the Armenian millet constitution . A key difference was the lack of clergy; The hahambaşı still held absolute spiritual authority over Jews of Istanbul, but provincial Jews were free to organize their local affairs as they wished. Istanbul was also the only city represented in the chamber. Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it
13699-518: The region's history. This changed, however, when the Sultan appointed a Hakham-bashi or a chief rabbi to exercise jurisdiction in the community regarding issues of "marriage, divorce, engagement, and inheritance" in addition to delivering "his community's share of the taxes and keeping order" in the community. Although Jews were spread throughout the Ottoman Empire, the cities of Constantinople (Istanbul) and Salonica , also called Thessaloniki , had Jewish populations of about 20,000 Jewish people by
13832-409: The release of the condemned. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to
13965-423: The restrictions placed on Jews in the Ottoman Empire were included, but not limited to, a special tax, a requirement to wear special clothing, and a ban on carrying guns, riding horses, building or repairing places of worship, and having public processions or public worship. Even though Jews were placed under special restrictions in the Ottoman Empire, there was still a vibrant Jewish culture in certain regions of
14098-404: The restrictions placed on Ottoman subjects of other religions. Like all non-Muslims, Jews had to pay the haraç ("head tax") and faced other restrictions in clothing, horse riding, army service, slave ownership, etc. Although many of these restrictions were decreed, they were not always enforced. Jizya collected from Christian and Jewish communities was among the main sources of tax income of
14231-516: The revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered. History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire By the time the Ottoman Empire rose to power in the 14th and 15th centuries, there had been Jewish communities established throughout the region. The Ottoman Empire lasted from the early 12th century until the end of World War I and covered parts of Southeastern Europe , Anatolia , and much of
14364-572: The rise of the Haskalah intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for Jewish emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. In the 19th century, when Jews in Western Europe were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the Pale of Settlement faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread pogroms . During
14497-507: The rule of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra , the kingdom reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea. Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under
14630-537: The same function as the ancient Sanhedrin —that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under
14763-656: The sealing of the Talmud (220CE – 500CE), and following the Savoraim ("reasoners")—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the Geonim . The Geonim (Hebrew: גאונים) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of
14896-426: The successors of an earlier United Kingdom of Israel , although its historicity is disputed . Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern Kingdom of Israel existed from ca. 900 BCE and that the Kingdom of Judah existed from ca. 700 BCE. The Tel Dan Stele , discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate
15029-574: The survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when Umar ibn al-Khattab completed the conquest of Akko. After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia (modern day Iraq) would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by Jehoiachin in 597 BCE as well as after
15162-608: The third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan Revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion. In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Persians , who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed
15295-683: The upper Jordan Valley , the Sharon and large parts of the Transjordan . Samaria , the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant. The kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire . The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem , controlled the Judaean Mountains , the Shephelah , the Judaean Desert and parts of
15428-593: The uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease. Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in Judea proper , where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee. The Romans also suffered heavy losses. Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts, including
15561-526: The wealthier cities of the empire, especially in the European provinces (cities such as Istanbul , Sarajevo , Salonica , Adrianople and Nicopolis ), Western and Northern Anatolia ( Bursa , Aydın , Tokat and Amasya ) but also in the Mediterranean coastal regions (such as Jerusalem , Safed , Damascus and Egypt ). İzmir was not settled by Spanish Jews until later. The Jewish population at Jerusalem increased from 70 families in 1488 to 1,500 at
15694-665: The world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel , continues today. These Talmudic Yeshiva academies of Babylonia followed the era of the Amoraim ("expounders")—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the Mishnah and until the times of
15827-655: The world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the Mishnah and Talmud . During the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE), Jewish diaspora communities across several eastern provinces of the Roman Empire engaged in widespread rebellion. Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for
15960-513: The worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the Resh Galuta (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the Resh Galuta were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of Parthia would treat them with much honour. For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much
16093-645: The years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era. It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: Hebrew and Aramaic . The Jews established Talmudic Academies in Babylonia , also known as the Geonic Academies ("Geonim" meaning "splendour" in Biblical Hebrew or "geniuses"), which became
16226-433: Was based on the narrative of the ancient Hebrew Bible . In this view, Abraham , signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, is the first Jew. Later, Isaac was born to Abraham, and Jacob was born to Isaac. Following a struggle with an angel , Jacob was given the name Israel . Following a severe drought, Jacob and his twelve sons fled to Egypt , where they eventually formed
16359-747: Was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon. Others fled to Egypt . The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland. Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire. During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their return to Zion under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across Babylonia , Elam , and Egypt , while others remained in Judea . Jeremiah refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in Migdol , Tahpanhes , Noph , and Pathros . Moreover,
16492-871: Was especially important for religious texts and bureaucratic documents. Other Jewish specialists employed by the empire included physicians and diplomats that emigrated from their homelands. Some of them were granted landed titles for their work, including Joseph Nasi, who was named Duke of Naxos. Although the Ottomans did not treat Jews differently from other minorities in the country, the policies seemed to align well with Jewish traditions, which allowed communities to flourish. The Jewish people were allowed to establish their own autonomous communities, which included their own schools and courts. Those rights were extremely controversial in other regions in Muslim North Africa and absolutely unrealistic in Europe. The communities would prove to be centers of education and trade because of
16625-521: Was exiled to Babylon . The Assyrian and Babylonian captivities are regarded as representing the start of the Jewish diaspora . After the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region, the exiled Jews were allowed to return and rebuild the temple ; these events mark the beginning of the Second Temple period . After several centuries of foreign rule, the Maccabean Revolt against
16758-539: Was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. According to Mark Cohen in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies , most scholars conclude that Arab anti-Semitism in the modern world arose in the nineteenth century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently
16891-620: Was it "Islamized"). There was a massacre of Jews in Baghdad in 1828. There was a massacre of Jews in Barfurush in 1867. In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, Ahmed Cevdet Pasha , a high-ranking official observed, "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then
17024-443: Was living in Damascus at the time. The Safed attack may have been initiated by retreating Mamluk soldiers who accused the Jews of treacherously aiding the Turkish invaders, with Arabs from the surrounding villages joining the melee. In Hebron, Jews were attacked, beaten and raped, and many were killed as their homes and businesses were looted and pillaged. An account of the event, recorded by Japheth ben Manasseh in 1518, mentions how
17157-443: Was marked by severe measures, including ethnic cleansing , leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in Libya , Cyprus and Egypt , including the significant and influential community in Alexandria . From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the Bar Kokhba revolt , triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem. Early successes led to
17290-419: Was merely performαnce that counted." An additional problem was the lack of unity among the Jews themselves. They had come to the Ottoman Empire from many lands, bringing with them their own customs and opinions, to which they clung tenaciously, and had founded separate congregations. Another tremendous upheaval was caused when Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed himself to be the Messiah . He was eventually caught by
17423-413: Was still the civil and spiritual ethnarch of Ottoman Jews, and he was now constrained by the creation of two councils, one spiritual ( meclis-i umumi-ruhani ) and one civil. These councils were elected by a general assembly ( meclis-i cismani ) of 80 deputies, composed of 20 rabbis and 60 laymen, themselves elected by Istanbul Jews. The hahambaşı was now an elected position, whereupon 40 extra deputies from
17556-481: Was the Damascus affair , in which many Jews in Damascus (which was then under the leadership of Muhammad Ali of Egypt ) were arrested after being accused of murdering the Christian Father Thomas and his servant in an instance of blood libel . While the authorities under Sharif Pasha, Egyptian governor of Damascus, tortured the accused until they confessed to the crime, and killed two Jews who refused to confess, prominent European Jews such as Adolphe Crémieux demanded
17689-408: Was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews. A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on
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