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82-568: Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky ( Ruthenian : Ѕѣнові Богданъ Хмелнiцкiи; modern Ukrainian : Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький , Polish : Bohdan Chmielnicki ; 1595 – 6 August 1657) was a Ruthenian nobleman and military commander of Zaporozhian Cossacks as Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host , which was then under the suzerainty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . He led an uprising against

164-508: A Jesuit college, possibly in Jarosław , but more likely in Lviv in the school founded by hetman Żółkiewski. He completed his schooling by 1617, acquiring a broad knowledge of world history and learning Polish and Latin. Later he learned Turkish, Tatar , and French. Unlike many of the other Jesuit students, he did not embrace Roman Catholicism but remained Orthodox. Khmelnytsky married Hanna Somkivna,

246-564: A book about Cossack uprising called Histoire de la guerre des Cosaques contre la Pologne , which he dedicated to Nicolas Léonor de Flesselles, count de Brégy, who was an ambassador to Poland in 1645. In the dedication he described the meeting de Brégy had with Khmelnytsky in France, and group of Cossacks he brought to France to fight against Spain in Flanders. Chevalier also claimed that he himself commanded Cossacks in Flanders. Although in distant parts of

328-462: A confrontation with local magnates. In the beginning of 1647, Daniel Czapliński started to harass Khmelnytsky in order to force him off the land. On two occasions the magnate had Subotiv raided: considerable property damage was done and Khmelnytsky's son Yuriy was badly beaten. Finally, in April 1647, Czapliński succeeded in evicting Khmelnytsky from the land, and he was forced to move with his large family to

410-566: A knowledge of Turkic languages . While there is no concrete evidence as to his return to Ukraine, most historians believe Khmelnytsky either escaped or was ransomed. Sources vary as to his benefactor – his mother, friends, the Polish king – but perhaps by Krzysztof Zbaraski , ambassador of the Commonwealth to the Ottomans. In 1622 he paid 30,000 thalers in ransom for all prisoners of war captured at

492-521: A more Slavonicised (southwestern) early Ukrainian variety. Meanwhile, Church Slavonic remained the literary and administrative standard in Russia until the late 18th century. Yuriy Khmelnytsky Yurii Khmelnytsky ((monastic name: Hedeon ), Ukrainian : Юрій Хмельницький , Polish : Jerzy Chmielnicki , Russian : Юрий Хмельницкий ) (1641 – 1685(?)), younger son of the famous Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and brother of Tymofiy Khmelnytsky ,

574-644: A national hero. A city and a region of the country bear his name. His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian banknotes and his monument in the centre of Kyiv is a focal point of the Ukrainian capital. There have also been several issues of the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky – one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union. However, with all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in Ukraine it

656-515: A new invasion of Ukraine. Though already ill, Khmelnytsky continued to conduct diplomatic activity, at one point even receiving the tsar's envoys from his bed. On 22 July, he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and became paralysed after his audience with the Kiev Colonel Zhdanovich. His expedition to Halychyna had failed because of mutiny within his army. Less than a week later, Bohdan Khmelnytsky died at 5 a.m. on 27 July 1657. His funeral

738-568: A positive attitude to Khmelnytsky. Khmelnytsky's role in the history of the Polish State has been viewed mostly in a negative light. The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the Golden Age of the Commonwealth and the beginning of its demise. Although it survived the rebellion and the following war, within less than two hundred years it was divided amongst Russia , Prussia , and Austria in

820-689: A primarily administrative language in the 14th and 15th centuries, shaped by the chancery of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in Vilnius ( Vilna ). He identified the Polissian (Polesian) dialect spoken on both sides of the modern Belarusian–Ukrainian border as the basis of both written Ruthenian ( rusьkij jazykъ or Chancery Slavonic) and spoken dialects of Ruthenian (проста(я) мова prosta(ja) mova or "simple speech"), which he called 'two stylistically differentiated varieties of one secular vernacular standard'. From

902-473: A relative's house in Chyhyryn. In May 1647, Khmelnytsky arranged a second audience with the king to plead his case but found him unwilling to confront a powerful magnate. In addition to losing the estate, Khmelnytsky suffered the loss of his wife Hanna, and he was left alone with their children. He promptly remarried, to Motrona ( Helena Czaplińska ), by that time wife of Daniel Czapliński, the so-called " Helen of

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984-526: A sister of a rich Pereyaslav Cossack; the couple settled in Subotiv . By the second half of the 1620s, they had three daughters: Stepanyda, Olena, and Kateryna. His first son Tymish (Tymofiy) was born in 1632, and another son Yuriy was born in 1640. Upon completion of his studies in 1617, Khmelnytsky entered into service with the Cossacks. As early as 1619, he was sent together with his father to Moldavia , when

1066-579: A strip of land near the town, where Mykhailo set up a khutor Subotiv. There has been controversy as to whether Bohdan and his father belonged to the Szlachta (Polish term for noblemen). Some sources state that in 1590 his father Mykhailo was appointed as a sotnyk for the Korsun-Chyhyryn starosta Jan Daniłowicz , who continued to colonize the new Ukrainian lands near the Dnieper river. Khmelnytsky attended

1148-774: A vassal of sultan Mehmed IV until 1681, when the Turks removed him from power due to his unstable mental health and unprecedented cruelty. Two years later, he was briefly re-instated by the Poles. In 1685 it was reported that the Turks captured Yurii and executed him (strangled ) in Kamianets-Podilskyi , which became the subject of hearsay. However, later researchers denounced this version as "apocryphal", based on one witness account, and noted other possibilities. Georgiy Konyssky , an 18th century Ukrainian author and religious figure, wrote on Yurii being taken to Istanbul, before eventual exile to

1230-432: A vast variety of ambiguous, overlapping or even contrary meanings, that were applied to particular terms by different scholars. That complex situation is addressed by most English and other western scholars by preferring the exonymic Ruthenian designations. Daniel Bunčić suggested a periodization of the literary language into: According to linguist Andrii Danylenko (2006), what is now called 'Ruthenian' first arose as

1312-461: Is far from being unanimous. He is criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country. Prominent Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko , was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics. Others criticize him for his alliance with the Crimean Tatars, which permitted the latter to take a large number of Ukrainian peasants as slaves, as

1394-681: Is more likely he was born on 9 November (feast day of St Zenoby, 30 October in Julian calendar ) and was baptized on 11 November (feast day of St. Theodore in the Catholic Church). In the work of Paul of Aleppo , "the Travels of Macarius: Patriarch of Antioch", Khmelnytsky is called as the Khatman Zenobius Akhmil. Khmelnytsky was probably born in the village of Subotiv , near Chyhyryn in the Crown of

1476-1130: Is not trace of it even in correspondence of count de Brègy. Although it is true that he was conducting a recruitment of soldiers in Poland for French army in years 1646–1648. In fact he succeeded and about 3000 of them travelled via Gdańsk to Flanders and took part in fights around Dunkirk. French sources describes them as infanterie tout Poulonnois qu'Allemand . They were commanded by colonels Krzysztof Przyjemski, Andrzej Przyjemski and Georges Cabray. Second recruitment that shipped off in 1647 were commanded by Jan Pleitner, Dutch military engineer in service of Władysław IV and Jan Denhoff, colonel of Royal Guard. 17th century French historian Jean-François Sarasіn in his Histoire de siège de Dunkerque when describing participation of Polish mercenaries in fights over Dunkirk, notes that they were commanded by some "Sirot". Some historians identify him as Ivan Sirko , Cossack Otaman . Claims that Khmelnytsky and Cossacks were actually in France are supported by some Ukrainian historians, while other and most Polish scholarship finds it unlikely. Upon

1558-803: The Cossack Hetmanate arose in the mid-17th century, Polish remained a language of administration in the Hetmanate, and most Cossack officers and Polish nobles (two groups which overlapped a lot) still communicated with each other using a combination of Latin, Polish and Ruthenian (Old Ukrainian). On the other hand, the language barrier between Cossack officers and Muscovite officials had become so great that they needed translators to understand each other during negotiations, and hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky 'had letters in Muscovite dialect translated into Latin, so that he could read them.' The 17th century witnessed

1640-623: The Cossack Rada elected the 17-year-old Yurii as their hetman in Bila Tserkva , replacing the deposed Ivan Vyhovsky . The young hetman faced problems: the uneasy alliance with the Tsardom of Russia and the ongoing wars against Poland–Lithuania and against the Crimean Khanate . During the conflict against Poland–Lithuania, Yurii Khmelntsky's Cossacks were defeated near the town of Korsun , he

1722-635: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including Belarus, but no longer Ukraine) gave up Chancery Slavonic (Ruthenian) and also switched to Middle Polish. Much of the Polish and Ruthenian nobility briefly converted to various kinds of Protestantism during the Reformation , but in the end all of them either returned or converted to Catholicism and increasingly used the Polish language; while Ukrainian nobles thus Polonised , most Ukrainian (and Belarusian) peasants remained Orthodox-believing and Ruthenian-speaking. When

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1804-539: The Pavlyuk uprising in the town Borowica on 24 December 1637, when field hetman Mikołaj Potocki appointed new Cossack eldership. He had to do it because some of the elders either joined Pavlyuk or were killed by him (like former military clerk, Teodor Onuszkowicz). Because of his new position Khmelnytsky was the one who prepared and signed an act of capitulation. Fighting didn't stop in Borowica, rebel Cossacks rose up again under

1886-670: The Treaty of Bila Tserkva , which favoured the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Warfare broke open again and, in the years that followed, the two sides were almost perpetually at war. Now, the Crimean Tatars played a decisive role and did not allow either side to prevail. It was in their interests to keep both Ukraine and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from getting too strong and becoming an effective power in

1968-557: The Zaporozhian Sich with a group of his supporters. While the Czapliński Affair is generally regarded as the immediate cause of the uprising, it was primarily a catalyst for actions representing rising popular discontent. Religion, ethnicity, and economics factored into this discontent. While the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a union of nations, a sizable population of Orthodox Ruthenians were ignored. Oppressed by

2050-546: The partitions of Poland . Many Poles blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth. Khmelnytsky has been a subject to several works of fiction in the 19th century Polish literature, but the most notable treatment of him in Polish literature is found in Henryk Sienkiewicz 's With Fire and Sword . The rather critical portrayal of him by Sienkiewicz has been moderated in the 1999 movie adaptation by Jerzy Hoffman . The official Russian historiography stressed

2132-477: The standardisation of the Ruthenian language that would later split into modern Ukrainian and Belarusian . From the 16th century onwards, two regional variations of spoken Ruthenian began to emerge as written Ruthenian gradually lost its prestige to Polish in administration. The spoken prosta(ja) mova disappeared in the early 18th century, to be replaced by a more Polonised (central) early Belarusian variety and

2214-459: The 10th through 13th centuries). Since the term Ruthenian language was exonymic (foreign, both in origin and nature), its use was very complex, both in historical and modern scholarly terminology. Contemporary names, that were used for this language from the 15th to 18th centuries, can be divided into two basic linguistic categories, the first being endonyms (native names, used by native speakers as self-designations for their language), and

2296-450: The 14th century). It is virtually impossible to differentiate Ruthenian texts into "Ukrainian" and "Belarusian" subgroups until the 16th century; with some variety, these were all functionally one language between the 14th and 16th century. The vernacular Ruthenian "business speech" ( Ukrainian : ділове мовлення , romanized :  dilove movlennya ) of the 16th century would spread to most other domains of everyday communication in

2378-612: The 17th century, with an influx of words, expressions and style from Polish and other European languages, while the usage of Church Slavonic became more restricted to the affairs of religion, the church, hagiography, and some forms of art and science. The 1569 Union of Lublin establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had significant linguistic implications: the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland (which now included Ukraine) had previously used Latin for administration, but switched to Middle Polish (standardised c. 1569–1648 ), while

2460-576: The Battle of Cecora. Upon return to Subotiv, Khmelnytsky took over operating his father's estate and became a registered Cossack in the Chyhyryn Regiment . He most likely did not take part in any of the Cossack uprisings that broke out in Ukraine at that time. His loyal service achieved him the rank of military clerk ( pisarz wojskowy ) of the registered Cossacks in 1637. It happened after the capitulation of

2542-539: The Commonwealth and its magnates (1648–1654) that resulted in the creation of an independent Cossack state in Ukraine. In 1654, he concluded the Treaty of Pereiaslav with the Russian Tsar and allied the Cossack Hetmanate with Tsardom of Russia , thus placing central Ukraine under Russian protection. During the uprising the Cossacks led a massacre of thousands of Poles and Jews during 1648–1649, making it one of

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2624-646: The Commonwealth increasingly war-torn but also increasingly hostile and successful against the Swedes, the ruler of Transylvania , George II Rákóczi , also joined in. Charles X of Sweden had solicited his help because of the massive Polish popular opposition and resistance against the Swedes. Under blows from all sides, the Commonwealth barely survived. Russia attacked Sweden in July 1656, while its forces were deeply involved in Poland. That war ended in status quo two years later, but it complicated matters for Khmelnytsky, as his ally

2706-455: The Cossack army moved to battle positions following his plans, Cossacks were proactive and decisive in their manoeuvrers and attacks, and most importantly, he gained the support of both large contingents of registered Cossacks and the Crimean Khan , his crucial ally for the many battles to come. The Patriarch of Jerusalem Paiseus, who was visiting Kiev at this time, referred to Khmelnytsky as

2788-454: The Cossacks as a military caste did not protect the kholopy , the lowest stratum of the Ukrainian people. Folk songs capture this. On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, with some critics acknowledging that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times. In a 2018 Ukraine's Rating Sociological Group poll, 73% of Ukrainian respondents had

2870-573: The Imperial Russian theory of re-unification while adding the class struggle dimension to the story. Khmelnytsky was praised not only for re-unifying Ukraine with Russia, but also for organizing the class struggle of oppressed Ukrainian peasants against Polish exploiters. The assessment of Khmelnytsky in Jewish history is overwhelmingly negative because he used Jews as scapegoats and sought to eradicate Jews from Ukraine. The Khmelnytsky Uprising led to

2952-410: The Kingdom of Poland at the estate of his father Mykhailo Khmelnytsky . He was born into Ukrainian lesser nobility. His father was a courtier of Great Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski , but later joined the court of his son-in-law Jan Daniłowicz , who in 1597 became starosta of Korsuń and Chyhyryn and appointed Mykhailo as his deputy in Chyhyryn ( pidstarosta ). For his service, he was granted

3034-663: The Polish magnates, they took their wrath out on Poles, as well as the Jews, who often managed the estates of Polish nobles. The advent of the Counter-Reformation worsened relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Many Orthodox Ukrainians considered the Union of Brest as a threat to their Orthodox faith. At the end of 1647 Khmelnytsky reached the estuary of the Dnieper river. On 7 December, his small detachment (300–500 men), with

3116-417: The Polish woe all of the Ruthenian people! Before I was fighting for the insults and injustice caused to me, now I will fight for our Orthodox faith. And all people will help me in that all the way to Lublin and Krakow, and I won't back off from the people as they are our right hand. And for the purpose lest you won't attack cossacks by conquering peasants, I will have two, three hundred thousands of them. After

3198-706: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into war against the Ottoman Empire . During the battle of Cecora (Țuțora) on 17 September 1620, his father was killed, and young Khmelnytsky, among many others including future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski , was captured by the Turks. He spent the next two years in captivity in Constantinople as a prisoner of an Ottoman Kapudan Pasha (presumably Parlak Mustafa Pasha ). Other sources claim that he spent his slavery in Ottoman Navy on galleys as an oarsman , where he picked up

3280-569: The Prince of Rus. In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation headed by Senator Adam Kysil , Khmelnytsky declared that he was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, Podilia , and Volhynia ... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Kholm (modern Chełm ), and Halych ." I already did more than was thinking before, now I will obtain what I revised recently. I will liberate out of

3362-627: The Rada demanded that the Commonwealth restore the Cossacks' ancient rights, stop the advance of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church , yield the right to appoint Orthodox leaders of the Sich and of the Registered Cossack regiments, and to remove Commonwealth troops from Ukraine. The Polish magnates considered the demands an affront, and an army headed by Stefan Potocki moved in the direction of

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3444-741: The Sejm earlier this year, when deputies accepted the project presented by the grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski. Cossacks were forced to accept harsh new terms at the next council in Masłowy Staw, at the Ros river . According to one of the articles of the Ordynacya Woyska Zaporowskiego ("Ordinance of the Zaporozhian Army") registered Cossacks lost the right to elect their own officers and a commander, called elder ( starszy ) or commissar. From now on,

3526-595: The Sich. Had the Cossacks stayed at Khortytsia, they might have been defeated, as in many other rebellions. However, Khmelnytsky marched against the Poles. The two armies met on 16 May 1648 at Zhovti Vody , where, aided by the Tatars of Tugay Bey , the Cossacks inflicted their first crushing defeat on the Commonwealth. It was repeated soon afterwards, with the same success, at the Battle of Korsuń on 26 May 1648. Khmelnytsky used his diplomatic and military skills: under his leadership,

3608-964: The Sultan's ally, Petro Doroshenko , surrendered to the Russians — the Porte decided to use Khmelnytsky's famous name to reinforce their claim to the Right-bank Ukraine starting the Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681) . In 1678, the Turkish army captured Chyhyryn and declared Yurii Khmelnytsky as a new hetman of Ukraine, although in reality he was only a puppet for the Ottoman Sultan . Ottoman Turkish army with Yuri in tow captured and burned down Kaniv and other Ukrainian towns. He then retired to his Sultan dictated capital at Nemyriv in Turkish occupied parts of Ukraine, as

3690-474: The Tatars. Thereupon, Yurii gave up his hetman title and became a monk at the Mharsky Monastery in the autumn of 1662. Between 1664 and 1667, the hetman Pavlo Teteria imprisoned him in Lviv . After his release in 1672, he participated in a campaign against the Tatars and was captured near Uman and brought to Constantinople , where he was allowed to live in a Greek Orthodox monastery. In 1676 — after

3772-557: The Tsar's army, took revenge on Polish possessions in Belarus , and in the spring of 1654, the Cossacks drove the Poles from much of the country. Sweden entered the mêlée. Old adversaries of both Poland and Russia, they occupied a share of Lithuania before the Russians could get there. The occupation displeased Russia because the tsar sought to take over the Swedish Baltic provinces. In 1656, with

3854-525: The autumn of 1647 Khmelnytsky travelled from one regiment to another, and had numerous consultations with Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine. His activity raised suspicion among the local Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts; he was promptly arrested. Koniecpolski issued an order for his execution, but the Chyhyryn Cossack polkovnyk , who held Khmelnytsky, was persuaded to release him. Not willing to tempt fate any further, Khmelnytsky headed for

3936-410: The book Chevalier doesn't mention either Cossacks or Khmelnytsky even once. In his other writing, Relation des Cosaques (avec la vie de Kmielniski, tirée d'un Manuscrit) , published the same year, which also contains a biography of Khmelnytsky, there is no mention about his or any other Cossacks stay in France or Flanders. Moreover, first Chevalier book is the only source that mention such an event, there

4018-461: The church and threatened to cancel the entire treaty. The Cossacks decided to rescind the demand and abide by the treaty. As a result of the 1654 Treaty of Pereiaslav , the geopolitical map of the region changed. Russia entered the scene, and the Cossacks' former allies, the Tatars, had switched sides and gone over to the Polish side, initiating warfare against Khmelnytsky and his forces. Tatar raids depopulated whole areas of Sich. Cossacks, aided by

4100-516: The death of magnate Stanisław Koniecpolski (March 1646) his successor, Aleksander , redrew the maps of his possessions. He laid claim to Khmelnytsky's estate, claiming it as his. Trying to find protection from this grab by the powerful magnate, Khmelnytsky wrote numerous appeals and letters to different representatives of the Polish crown but to no avail. At the end of 1645 the Chyhyryn starosta Daniel Czapliński officially received authority from Koniecpolski to seize Khmelnytsky's Subotiv estate. In

4182-431: The deaths of an estimated 18,000–100,000 Jews. Atrocity stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. The pogroms contributed to a revival of the ideas of Isaac Luria , who revered the Kabbalah , and the identification of Sabbatai Zevi as the Messiah. Orest Subtelny writes: Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given

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4264-421: The elder was to be nominated by the Sejm, from the Grand Hetman's recommendation. The Grand Hetman also got the right to appoint all officers. Commissars, colonels and osauls had to be a noblemen, while sotniks and atamans had to be Cossacks, who were "distinguished in a service for Us and the Commonwealth". Khmelnytsky became one of the sotniks of Chyhryn regiment. In 1663 in Paris Pierre Chevalier published

4346-483: The fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with an expressed desire to "re-unify" Ukraine with Russia. This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow as an heir of the Kievan Rus' , which appropriately gathered its former territories. Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the "eternal union" of all the Russias – Great (Russia), Little (Ukraine) and White (Belarus) Russia. As such, he

4428-404: The forefront: Ivan Vyhovsky , Pavlo Teteria , Danylo Nechai and Ivan Nechai , Ivan Bohun , Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky . From Cossack polkovnyks, officers, and military commanders, a new elite within the Cossack Hetman state was born. Throughout the years, the elite preserved and maintained the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate in the face of Russia's attempt to curb it. It was also instrumental in

4510-530: The help of registered Cossacks who went over to his side, disarmed the small Polish detachment guarding the area and took over the Zaporozhian Sich. The Poles attempted to retake the Sich but were decisively defeated as more registered Cossacks joined the forces. At the end of January 1648, a Cossack Rada was called and Khmelnytsky was unanimously elected a hetman . A period of feverish activity followed. Cossacks were sent with hetman's letters to many regions of Ukraine calling on Cossacks and Orthodox peasants to join

4592-407: The history of Ukraine. He not only shaped the future of Ukraine but affected the balance of power in Europe, as the weakening of Poland-Lithuania was exploited by Austria, Saxony, Prussia, and Russia. His actions and role in events were viewed differently by different contemporaries, and even now there are greatly differing perspectives on his legacy. In Ukraine, Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as

4674-439: The idea of a union with the Muslim monarch was not acceptable to the general populace and most Cossacks. The other possible ally was the Tsardom of Russia . However, despite appeals for help from Khmelnytsky in the name of the shared Orthodox faith, the tsar preferred to wait, until the threat of a Cossack-Ottoman union in 1653 finally forced him to action. The idea that the tsar might be favourable to taking Ukraine under his hand

4756-401: The intentions of the tsar and Khmelnytsky in signing this agreement. The treaty legitimized Russian claims to the capital of Kievan Rus' and strengthened the tsar's influence in the region. Khmelnytsky needed the treaty to gain a legitimate monarch's protection and support from a friendly Orthodox power. Historians have differed in their reading of Khmelnytsky's goal with the union: whether it

4838-462: The king and the state and swear not to seek revenge against each other. The Hetman also agreed to their request to send emissaries to the king to seek royal grace and preserve Cossack rights. They were elected on a council on 9 September 1638 in Kiev. Bohdan Khmelnytsky was one of them; the other three were Iwan Bojaryn, colonel of Kaniów, Roman Połowiec and Jan Wołczenko. The emissaries didn't achieve much, mostly because all decisions were already made by

4920-739: The lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history. Bohdan Khmelnytsky Ruthenian language Several linguistic issues are debated among linguists: various questions related to classification of literary and vernacular varieties of this language; issues related to meanings and proper uses of various endonymic (native) and exonymic (foreign) glottonyms (names of languages and linguistic varieties); questions on its relation to modern East Slavic languages, and its relation to Old East Slavic (the colloquial language used in Kievan Rus' in

5002-501: The most traumatic events in the history of the Jews and antisemitism in Ukraine . Although there is no definite proof of the date of Khmelnytsky's birth, Ukrainian-born historian Mykhailo Maksymovych suggests that it is likely 27 December 1595 Julian ( St. Theodore 's day). As was the custom in the Orthodox Church , he was baptized with one of his middle names, Theodore , translated into Ukrainian as Bohdan . A biography of Khmelnytsky by Smoliy and Stepankov, however, suggests that it

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5084-492: The negotiations. Khmelnytsky wrote an irate letter to the tsar accusing him of breaking the Pereiaslav agreement. He compared the Swedes to the tsar and said that the former were more honourable and trustworthy than the Russians. In Poland, the Cossack army and Transylvanian allies suffered a number of setbacks. As a result, Khmelnytsky had to deal with a Cossack rebellion on the home front. Troubling news also came from Crimea, as Tatars, in alliance with Poland, were preparing for

5166-414: The new command of Ostryanyn and Hunia in the spring next year. Mikołaj Potocki was successful again and after a six week long siege, the rebel Cossacks were forced to capitulate on 3 August 1638. Like the year before, some registered Cossacks joined the rebels, while some of them remained loyal. Unlike the last time, Potocki decided not to punish the rebel Cossacks, but forced all of them to swear loyalty to

5248-449: The onset of the period of Ruin that followed, eventually destroying most of the achievements of the Khmelnytsky era. Khmelnytsky's initial successes were followed by a series of setbacks as neither Khmelnytsky nor the Commonwealth had enough strength to stabilise the situation or to inflict a defeat on the enemy. What followed was a period of intermittent warfare and several peace treaties, which were seldom upheld. From spring 1649 onward,

5330-509: The period of initial military successes, the state-building process began. His leadership was demonstrated in all areas of state-building: military, administration, finance, economics and culture. Khmelnytsky made the Zaporozhian Host the supreme power in the new Ukrainian state and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. Khmelnytsky built a new government system and developed military and civilian administration. A new generation of statesmen and military leaders came to

5412-400: The pro-Moscow Cossacks against Yurii and his new Polish allies. At the battle near the town of Pereiaslav in the summer of 1662, Somko's Cossacks and the Russians under Grigory Romodanovsky defeated Yurii Khmelnytsky. After the defeat, Khmelnytsky entered an alliance with the Crimean Khanate , but this resulted in little beyond massive looting and raiding of Ukrainian towns and villages by

5494-436: The rebellion, Khortytsia was fortified, efforts were made to acquire and make weapons and ammunition, and emissaries were sent to the Khan of Crimea , İslâm III Giray . Initially, Polish authorities took the news of Khmelnytsky's arrival at the Sich and reports about the rebellion lightly. The two sides exchanged lists of demands: the Poles asked the Cossacks to surrender the mutinous leader and disband, while Khmelnytsky and

5576-473: The region. Khmelnytsky started looking for another foreign ally. Although the Cossacks had established their de facto independence from Poland, the new state needed legitimacy, which could be provided by a foreign monarch. In search of a protectorate, Khmelnytsky approached the Ottoman sultan in 1651, and formal embassies were exchanged. The Turks offered vassalship, like their other arrangements with contemporary Crimea , Moldavia and Wallachia . However,

5658-572: The second exonyms (names in foreign languages). Common endonyms: Common exonyms: Modern names of this language and its varieties, that are used by scholars (mainly linguists), can also be divided in two basic categories, the first including those that are derived from endonymic (native) names, and the second encompassing those that are derived from exonymic (foreign) names. Names derived from endonymic terms: Names derived from exonymic terms: Terminological dichotomy , embodied in parallel uses of various endoymic and exonymic terms, resulted in

5740-414: The second half of the 15th century through the 16th century, when present-day Ukraine and Belarus were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the Renaissance had a major impact on shifting culture, art and literature away from Byzantine Christian theocentrism as expressed in Church Slavonic . Instead, they moved towards humanist anthropocentrism , which in writing was increasingly expressed by taking

5822-463: The situation turned for the worse for the Cossacks; as Polish attacks increased in frequency, they became more successful. The resulting Treaty of Zboriv on 18 August 1649 was unfavourable for the Cossacks. It was followed by another defeat at the battle of Berestechko on 18 June 1651 in which the Tatars betrayed Khmelnytsky and held the hetman captive. The Cossacks suffered a crushing defeat, with an estimated 30,000 casualties. They were forced to sign

5904-515: The steppe". He was less successful in real estate, and was unable to regain the land and property of his estate or financial compensation for it. During this time, he met several higher Polish officials to discuss the Cossacks' war with the Tatars, and used this occasion again to plead his case with Czapliński, still unsuccessfully. While Khmelnytsky found no support from the Polish officials, he found it in his Cossack friends and subordinates. His Chyhyryn regiment and others were on his side. All through

5986-514: The summer of 1646, Khmelnytsky arranged an audience with King Władysław IV to plead his case, as he had favourable standing at the court. Władysław, who wanted Cossacks on his side in the wars he planned, gave Khmelnytsky a royal charter, protecting his rights to the Subotiv estate. But, because of the structure of the Commonwealth at that time and the lawlessness of Ukraine, even the King was not able to prevent

6068-400: The vernacular language of the common people as the basis of texts. New literary genres developed that were closer to secular topics, such as poetry, polemical literature, and scientific literature, while Church Slavonic works of previous times were translated into what became known as Ruthenian, Chancery Slavonic, or Old Ukrainian (also called проста мова prosta mova or "simple language" since

6150-446: Was a Zaporozhian Cossack political and military leader. Although he spent half of his adult life as a monk and archimandrite , he also was Hetman of Ukraine on several occasions — in 1659-1660 and 1678–1681 and starost of Hadiach , becoming one of the most well-known Ukrainian politicians of the "Ruin" period for the Cossack Hetmanate . Yurii Khmelnytsky was born in 1641 in Subotiv near Chyhyryn in central Ukraine. In 1659,

6232-403: Was captured by the Poles and later pledged loyalty to king Jan II Kazimierz of Poland–Lithuania (reigned 1648-1668). In 1659, the parliament ( sejm walny ) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth granted him the status of nobility. On 24 March 1661, he became starost of Hadiach . Yurii's perceived treason provoked a civil war within Ukraine in 1661, when the new ataman Yakym Somko led

6314-551: Was communicated to the hetman and so diplomatic activity intensified. After a series of negotiations, it was agreed that the Cossacks would accept overlordship by the Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich . To finalize the treaty, a Russian embassy led by boyar Vasily Buturlin came to Pereiaslav , where, on 18 January 1654, the Cossack Rada was called and the treaty concluded. Historians have not come to consensus in interpreting

6396-412: Was held on 23 August, and his body was taken from his capital, Chyhyryn, to his estate, at Subotiv, for burial in his ancestral church. In 1664 a Polish hetman Stefan Czarniecki recaptured Subotiv and, according to some Ukrainian historians, ordered the bodies of the hetman and his son, Tymish , to be exhumed and desecrated, while others claim that is not the case. Khmelnytsky had a crucial influence on

6478-562: Was much respected and venerated during the existence of the Russian Empire. His role was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow: to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia. This view was expressed in a monument commissioned by the Russian nationalist Mikhail Yuzefovich , which was installed in the centre of Kiev in 1888. Russian authorities decided the original version of the monument (created by Russian sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin )

6560-427: Was now fighting his overlord. In addition to diplomatic tensions between the tsar and Khmelnytsky, a number of other disagreements between the two surfaced. In particular, they concerned Russian officials' interference in the finances of the Cossack Hetmanate and in the newly captured Belarus. The tsar concluded a separate treaty with the Poles in Vilnius in 1656. The Hetman's emissaries were not even allowed to attend

6642-453: Was to be a military union, a suzerainty , or a complete incorporation of Ukraine into the Tsardom of Russia . The differences were expressed during the ceremony of the oath of allegiance to the tsar: the Russian envoy refused to reciprocate with an oath from the ruler to his subjects, as the Cossacks and Ruthenians expected since it was the custom of the Polish king. Khmelnytsky stormed out of

6724-557: Was too xenophobic ; it was to depict a vanquished Pole, Jew, and a Catholic priest under the hooves of the horse. The inscription on the monument reads "To Bohdan Khmelnytsky from one and indivisible Russia." Mikeshin also created the Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod , which has Khmelnytsky shown as one of Russia's prominent figures. Soviet historiography followed in many ways

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