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117-709: In 1767, the colonel of the Zaporozhian Cossacks , Andrii Keynash, reported to the Kish (Ukrainian Cossack administration) that the settlement of Bobrynets was founded near the Sugoklia River. According to the document of 1777, Vasyl Ostrovsky, a former Zaporozhian Cossack, was the capacious head. In 1816, 1910 people lived in the city. Settlement in the Yelisavetgradsky Uyezd of the Kherson Governorate of

234-421: A Slavicised Khazar ancestry . There were also groups of people who fled into these wild steppes from the cultivated lands of Kyivan Rus' in order to escape oppression or criminal pursuit. Their lifestyle largely resembled that of the people now called Cossacks. They survived chiefly from hunting and fishing and raiding Asiatic tribes for horses and food, but they also mixed with these nomads as well adopting

351-657: A nomadic lifestyle, Kazakhs keep an epic tradition of oral history which goes back centuries. It is most commonly relayed in the form of song ( kyi ) and poetry ( zhyr ), which typically tell the stories of Kazakh national heroes. The Kazakh oral tradition is sometimes has political themes. The highly influential Kazakh poet Abai Qunanbaiuly viewed it as the ideal way to transmit the pro- Westernization ideals of his colleagues. The Kazakh oral tradition has also overlapped with ethnic nationalism, and has been used to transmit pride in Kazakh identity. In modern Kazakhstan, tribalism

468-599: A broadly South Asian population. Overall, Kazakhs show their closest genetic affinity with other Central Asian populations, namely the Kalmyks , Karakalpaks , Kyrgyz , and Altaians , but also Mongolians and Tuvans . A total of 464 representatives of the Western Kazakh tribes of Kazakhstan (Western Kazakhs, n = 405) and Uzbekistan (Karakalpakstan Kazakhs, n = 59) were examined by the Yfiler Plus set. The data are available in

585-536: A common language (Turkic), political ideology (based on Mongol traditions), royal lineage (Chinggisid related), ethnic identity (“Mongol Turks” [Turk-i mughūl]), and religion (Sunni Islam), and who still dominated much of the vast region stretching from the Crimea in the west to the Tien Shan Mountains in the east, and from southern Siberia in the north to northern India in the south during the post-Mongol period. At

702-750: A conspiracy was formed with a group of 50 Cossacks to go fishing in the river Inhul next to the Southern Bug in Ottoman provinces. The pretext was enough to allow the Russians to let the Cossacks out of the siege, who were joined by five thousand others. The fleeing Cossacks traveled to the Danube Delta , where they formed the new Danubian Sich , under the protectorate of the Ottoman Empire . When Tekeli became aware of

819-455: A gabled cap on a head, in kaftan with buttons on a chest, with a sabre ( shablya ), powder flask on a side, and a self-made rifle ( samopal ) on the left shoulder. Around the seal was an inscription «Печать славного Війська Запорізького Низового» ("Seal of the glorious Zaporozhian Host"). Palanka's and kurin's seals were either round or rectangular with images of lions, deers, horses, moon, stars, crowns, lances, sabers, and bows. Khoruhva

936-599: A global frequency of 51.9%. The structure analysis of the 1164 individuals indicated the presence of 20 ancestral groups and a complex three-subclade organization of the C2-M217 haplogroup in Kazakhs, a result supported by the multidimensional scaling analysis. Additionally, while the majority of the haplotypes and tribes overlapped, a distinct cluster of the O2 haplogroup, mostly of the Naiman tribe,

1053-491: A lot of their cultural traits. In the 16th century, a great organizer, Dmytro Vyshnevetsky , a Ukrainian noble, united these different groups into a strong military organization. The Zaporozhian Cossacks had various social and ethnic origins but were predominantly made up of escaped serfs who preferred the dangerous freedom of the wild steppes, rather than life under the rule of Polish aristocrats. However, townspeople, lesser noblemen and even Crimean Tatars also became part of

1170-495: A military osavul ; the badges were given to all the 38 kurins in possession to the assigned badge comrades. All kleinody items (except for the kettledrum sticks) were stored in the Sich's Pokrova church treasury and were taken out only on a special order of kish otaman. The kettledrum sticks were kept in the kurin with the assigned dovbysh. Sometimes, part of kleidony was considered a great silver inkwell ( kalamar ), an attribute of

1287-767: A military scribe ( pysar ) of the Zaporozhian Host. Similar kleinods had the officership of the Cossack Hetmanate , cossacks of Kuban, Danube, and other cossack societies. Upon the destruction of the Sich and liquidation of Ukrainian Cossacks the kleinody were gathered and given away for storage in Hermitage and Transfiguration Cathedral in Saint Petersburg , Kremlin Armoury in Moscow as well as other places of storage. By

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1404-567: A military-political establishment developed based upon unique traditions and customs called the Cossack Code, which was formed mostly among the cossacks of Zaporozhian Host over decades. The host had its own military and territorially administrative division: 38 kurins ( sotnia ) and five to eight palanka s (territorial districts) as well as an original system of administration with three levels: military leaders, military officials, leaders of march and palankas. All officership (military starshyna)

1521-403: A number of Kazakh communities can be found in various cities and towns spread throughout the country. Some of the major population centers with a significant Kazakh presence include Ulaanbaatar (90% in khoroo #4 of Nalaikh düüreg ), Töv and Selenge provinces, Erdenet , Darkhan , Bulgan , Sharyngol (17.1% of population total) and Berkh cities. See Kazakh Americans page As of

1638-564: A number of educated Kazakh poets from Muslim madrasahs incited a revolt against Russia. Russia's response was to set up secular schools and devise a way of writing Kazakh with the Cyrillic alphabet, which was not widely accepted. By 1917, the Arabic script for Kazakh was reintroduced, even in schools and local government. In 1927, a Kazakh nationalist movement sprang up against the Soviet Union but

1755-662: A parliamentary system of government. During the course of the 16th, 17th and well into the 18th century, the Zaporozhian Cossacks were a strong political and military force that challenged the authority of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Tsardom of Russia , and the Crimean Khanate . The host went through a series of conflicts and alliances involving the three powers, including supporting an uprising in

1872-517: A powerful khanate of their own. The term Kazakh is used to refer to ethnic Kazakhs, while the term Kazakhstani refers to all citizens of Kazakhstan, regardless of ethnicity. The Kazakhs likely began using the name Kazakh during the 15th century. There are many theories on the origin of the word Kazakh or Qazaq. Some speculate that it comes from the Turkic verb qaz ("wanderer, brigand, vagabond, warrior, free, independent") or that it derives from

1989-663: A total of 237 Kazakhs from Altai Republic and found that they belonged to the following haplogroups: D(xD5) (15.6%), C (10.5%), F1 (6.8%), B4 (5.1%), G2a (4.6%), A (4.2%), B5 (4.2%), M(xC, Z, M8a, D, G, M7, M9a, M13) (3.0%), D5 (2.1%), G2(xG2a) (2.1%), G4 (1.7%), N9a (1.7%), G(xG2, G4) (0.8%), M7 (0.8%), M13 (0.8%), Y1 (0.8%), Z (0.4%), M8a (0.4%), M9a (0.4%), and F2 (0.4%) for a total of 66.7% mtDNA of Eastern Eurasian origin or affinity and H (10.5%), U(xU1, U3, U4, U5) (3.4%), J (3.0%), N1a (3.0%), R(xB4, B5, F1, F2, T, J, U, HV) (3.0%), I (2.1%), U5 (2.1%), T (1.7%), U4 (1.3%), U1 (0.8%), K (0.8%), N1b (0.4%), W (0.4%), U3 (0.4%), and HV (0.4%) for

2106-624: A total of 33.3% mtDNA of West-Eurasian origin or affinity. Comparing their samples of Kazakhs from Altai Republic with samples of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan and Kazakhs from Xinjiang, the authors have noted that "haplogroups A, B, C, D, F1, G2a, H, and M were present in all of them, suggesting that these lineages represent the common maternal gene pool from which these different Kazakh populations emerged." In every sample of Kazakhs, D (predominantly northern East Asian, such as Japanese, Okinawan, Korean, Manchu, Mongol, Han Chinese, Tibetan, etc. , but also having several branches among indigenous peoples of

2223-563: Is a member of the Turkic language family , as are Uzbek , Kyrgyz , Tatar , Uyghur , Turkmen , modern Turkish , Azerbaijani and many other living and historical languages spoken in Eastern Europe , Central Asia , Xinjiang , and Siberia . Kazakh belongs to the Kipchak (Northwestern) group of the Turkic language family. Kazakh is characterized, in distinction to other Turkic languages, by

2340-522: Is a word that also in Turkic language means a "free man" which shares its etymology with the ethnic name " Kazakh ". It later became a Ukrainian and Russian word for " freebooter ." The steppes to the north of the Black Sea were inhabited by nomadic tribes such as the Cumans , Pechenegs and Khazars . The role of these tribes in the ethnogenesis of the Cossacks is disputed, although later Cossack sources claimed

2457-672: Is estimated at 35% to 37.5% in two Kazakh populations. Another study estimated a lower average Western admixture of slightly less than 30%. These results are inline with historical demographic information on northern Central Asia. Neighboring Karakalpaks , Kyrgyz , Tubalar , and the Xinjiang Ölöd tribe, have the strongest resemblance to the Kazakh genome. A study on allele frequency and genetic polymorphism by Katsuyama et al. , found that Kazakhs cluster together with Japanese people , Hui people , Han Chinese , and Uyghurs in contrast to West Eurasian reference groups. A 2020 genetic study on

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2574-446: Is fading away in business and government life. However, it is still common for Kazakhs to ask each other about the tribe they belong to when they become acquainted with one another. Now, it is more of a tradition than a necessity, and there is no hostility between tribes. Kazakhs, regardless of their tribal origin, consider themselves one nation. Those modern-day Kazakhs who yet remember their tribes know that their tribes belong to one of

2691-564: Is near Chu, on the western limit of Moghulistán, where they dwelt in peace and content. On the death of Abulkhair Khán the Ulus of the Uzbegs fell into confusion, and constant strife arose among them. Most of them joined the party of Karáy Khán and Jáni Beg Khán. They numbered about 200,000 persons, and received the name of Uzbeg-Kazák. The Kazák Sultáns began to reign in the year 870 [1465–1466] (but God knows best), and they continued to enjoy absolute power in

2808-759: Is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture , the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and three Kazakh autonomous counties : Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County in Gansu , Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County and Mori Kazakh Autonomous County in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. At least one million Uyghurs , Kazakhs and other Muslims in Xinjiang have been detained in mass detention camps , termed " reeducation camps ", aimed at changing

2925-611: The 500th anniversary of the Zaporozhian Sich . Zaporozhian attire, songs, and music found their way into official state dance and music ensembles, and influenced the image of Ukraine in the years to come. Since the Independence of Ukraine in 1991 , attempts at restoring the Cossack lifestyle have concentrated on politics, horsemanship and cultural endeavours. In November, 2016, Cossack's songs of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast were inscribed on

3042-553: The Amur region . There is also evidence for contact with Iranian, Uralic and Yeniseian peoples. The Kazakhs emerged as an ethno-linguistic group during the early 15th century from a confederation of several, mostly Turkic-speaking pastoral nomadic groups of Northern Central Asia . The Kazakhs are the most northerly of the Central Asian peoples, inhabiting a large expanse of territory in northern Central Asia and southern Siberia known as

3159-532: The Dnieper Rapids . Along with Registered Cossacks and Sloboda Cossacks , Zaporozhian Cossacks played an important role in the history of Ukraine and the ethnogenesis of Ukrainians . The Zaporozhian Sich grew rapidly in the 15th century from serfs fleeing the more controlled parts of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . It became established as a well-respected political entity with

3276-598: The Eastern Orthodox Church put them at odds with the Catholic -dominated Commonwealth. Tensions increased when Commonwealth policies turned from relative tolerance to the suppression of the Orthodox church, making the Cossacks strongly anti-Catholic, which at that time was synonymous with anti-Polish. The waning loyalty of the Cossacks and the szlachta's arrogance towards them resulted in several Cossack uprisings against

3393-475: The Eastern Orthodox Church was preferred and was a part of the national identity. In times of peace, Cossacks were engaged in their occupations, living with their families, studying strategy, languages and educating recruits. As opposed to other armies, Cossacks were free to choose their preferred weapon. Wealthy Cossacks preferred to wear heavy armour , while infantrymen preferred to wear simple clothes, although they also occasionally wore mail . At that time,

3510-460: The Habsburg monarchy sometimes covertly employed Cossack raiders to ease Ottoman pressure on their own borders. Many Cossacks and Tatars shared an animosity towards each other due to the damage done by raids from both sides. Cossack raids followed by Tatar retaliation, or Tatar raids followed by Cossack retaliation, were an almost regular occurrence. The ensuing chaos and string of conflicts often turned

3627-531: The Kazakh Steppe . The tribal groups formed a powerful confederation that grew wealthy on the trade passing through the steppe lands along the fabled Silk Road. Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia , generally with regard to individuals or groups who had taken or achieved independence from a figure of authority. Timur described his own youth without direct authority as his Qazaqliq ("freedom", "Qazaq-ness"). In Turco-Persian sources,

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3744-576: The Mongol Empire , the Golden Horde and the Kazakh Khanate , which was established in 1465. The exact place of origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion. Early Medieval Turkic peoples who migrated into Central Asia displayed genetic affinities with Ancient Northeast Asians , deriving around 62% of their ancestry from a gene pool maximized among Neolithic hunter-gatherers in

3861-508: The Proto-Turkic word * khasaq (a wheeled cart used by the Kazakhs to transport their yurts and belongings). Another theory on the origin of the word Kazakh (originally Qazaq ) is that it comes from the ancient Turkic word qazğaq , first mentioned on the 8th century Turkic monument of Uyuk-Turan. According to Turkic linguist Vasily Radlov and Orientalist Veniamin Yudin ,

3978-656: The Revolution of 1917 , corps of Free Cossacks were organized in Ukraine to defend the newly proclaimed Ukrainian People's Republic . During the Soviet era, the nationalist aspect was officially discouraged in order to quell the rise of nationalist sentiment and Zaporozhian Cossacks' historical role of defending Muscovy from Turks was celebrated instead. In 1990, the Soviet government and Ukrainian independence movement cooperated to celebrate

4095-727: The Russian Empire . At the beginning of the 20th century, the Jewish population of the town was 3,500 inhabitants. During the Russian civil war (1918–1920), 160 Jews were killed during pogroms . During the Holodomor in 1932–1933, at least 146 residents of the city died. Many left the city before the Germans occupied the area. In 1941, Jews were kept prisoners in a ghetto . At the beginning of 1942, 358 Jews were murdered in mass executions perpetrated in

4212-717: The Tsars . The name Zaporozhtsi comes from the location of their fortress, the Sich , in Zaporizhzhia "land beyond the rapids", from Ukrainian za "beyond" and poróhy " rapids ". It is not clear when the first Cossack communities on the Lower Dnieper began to form. There are signs and stories of similar people living in the Eurasian Steppe as early as the 12th century. At that time they were not called Cossacks, since cossack

4329-917: The UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. Currently the Zaporozhian Cossack stronghold Khortytsia is perceived to be a symbol of Ukrainian statehood. Kazakhs The Kazakhs ( Kazakh : қазақтар , qazaqtar , قازاقتار , [qazaq'tar] ) are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia and Eastern Europe . There are Kazakh communities in Kazakhstan 's border regions in Russia , northern Uzbekistan , northwestern China ( Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture ), western Mongolia ( Bayan-Ölgii Province ) and Iran ( Golestan province ). The Kazakhs arose from

4446-549: The "anti-Mazepist" polkovniks. While advocating for the preservation for the Hetmanate autonomy and privileges of the starshina, Skoropadsky was careful to avoid open confrontation and remained loyal to the union with Russia. To accommodate Russian military needs, Skoropadsky allowed for stationing of ten Russian regiments in the territory of the Hetmanate. At the same time, Cossacks took part in construction, fortification and channel development projects in Saint Petersburg , as part of

4563-705: The 13th and 14th centuries in the Mongol states of the Qipchaq Steppe. It was from this Jochid/ Uzbek ulus (Golden Horde) that the Kazakh identity emerged when the nomads of the eastern Qipchaq Steppe became divided into the Kazakhs and the Shibanid Uzbeks at the turn of the 16th century. Seen from a broader perspective, the Kazakhs belonged to the Chinggisid uluses, others being the Shibanid Uzbeks, Crimean Tatars, Manghits/Noghays, and Chaghatays (Moghuls and Timurids), who shared

4680-697: The 18th century after the Dzungar genocide resulted in the native Buddhist Dzungar Oirat population being massacred. Kazakhs, called " 哈萨克 族 " in Chinese ( pinyin : Hāsàkè Zú ; lit. 'Kazakh people" or "Kazakh tribe') are among 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China . According to the census data of 2020, Kazakhs had a population of 1,562,518, ranking 18th among all ethnic groups in China. Thousands of Kazakhs fled to China during

4797-668: The 18th century. Their leader signed a treaty with the Russians. This group was forcibly disbanded in the late 18th century by the Russian Empire , with much of the population relocated to the Kuban region on the south edge of the Russian Empire, while others founded cities in southern Ukraine and eventually became state peasants. The Cossacks served a valuable role of conquering the Caucasian tribes and in return enjoyed considerable freedom granted by

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4914-644: The 1932–1933 famine in Kazakhstan. In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left. From Northern Xinjiang, over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating Kazakhs to designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in

5031-411: The 20th century. For Russians, the Treaty of Pereyaslav gave the Tsardom of Russia and later Russian Empire the impulse to take over the Ruthenian lands, claim rights as the sole successor of the Kievan Rus', and for the Russian Tsar to be declared the protector of all Russias, culminating in the Pan-Slavism movement of the 19th century. Today , most of the Kuban Cossacks, modern descendants of

5148-560: The Americas ) is the most frequently observed haplogroup (with nearly all of those Kazakhs belonging to the D4 subclade), and the second-most frequent haplogroup is either H (predominantly European) or C (predominantly indigenous Siberian, though some branches are present in the Americas, East Asia, and northern and eastern Europe ). In a sample of 54 Kazakhs and 119 Altaian Kazakh, the main paternal lineages of Kazakhs are: C (66.7% and 59.5%), O (9% and 26%), N (2% and 0%), J (4% and 0%), R (9% and 1%) respectively. In Russia ,

5265-465: The Cossack host. They had to accept Eastern Orthodoxy as their religion and adopt its rituals and prayers. The nomadic hypothesis was that the Cossacks came from one or more nomadic peoples who at different times lived in the territory of the Northern Black Sea. According to this hypothesis the Cossacks' ancestors were the Scythians , Sarmatians , Khazars , Polovtsy (Cumans) , Circassians ( Adygs ), Tatars , and others. The nomadic hypothesis of

5382-469: The Cossacks submit to his authority. Consecutive treaties between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth called for both parties to keep the Cossacks and Tatars in check, but enforcement was almost non-existent on both sides. In internal agreements, forced by the Poles , the Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding . However, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the Cossack lifestyle glorified raids and looting. During this time,

5499-424: The Cossacks were one of the finest military organizations in Europe , and were employed by Russian, Polish, and French empires. Beside the above-mentioned kurins there also was a great number of other kurins outside the Host. The most important items of the host were the Cossack Kleinody (always in plural; related to Imperial Regalia ) that consisted of valuable military distinctions, regalia, and attributes of

5616-415: The Cossacks' once fairly strong loyalty towards the Commonwealth. Cossack ambitions to be recognised as equal to the szlachta were constantly rebuffed, and plans for transforming the Polish–Lithuanian Two-Nations Commonwealth into a Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth (with the Ukrainian Cossack people) made little progress, owing to the Cossacks' unpopularity. The Cossacks' strong historic allegiance to

5733-455: The Danube delta region of Ukraine and Romania , where they pursue the traditional Cossack lifestyle of hunting and fishing and are known as Rusnaks . Although in 1775 the Zaporozhian Host formally ceased to exist, it left a profound cultural, political and military legacy on Ukraine , Russia , Poland , Turkey and other states that came in contact with it. The shifting alliances of the Cossacks have generated controversy, especially during

5850-400: The Kazakh genome, by Seidualy et al., found that the Kazakh people formed from highly mixed historical Central Asian populations. Ethnic Kazakhs were modeled to derive about 63.2% ancestry from an East Asian-related population, specifically from a Northeast Asian source sample ( Devil’s Gate 1 ), 30.8% ancestry from European-related populations (presumably from Scythians ), and ~6% ancestry from

5967-490: The Kazakh population lives primarily in the regions bordering Kazakhstan. According to latest census (2002) there are 654,000 Kazakhs in Russia, most of whom are in the Astrakhan , Volgograd , Saratov , Samara , Orenburg , Chelyabinsk , Kurgan , Tyumen , Omsk , Novosibirsk , Altai Krai and Altai Republic regions. Though ethnically Kazakh, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, those people acquired Russian citizenship. Kazakhs migrated into Dzungaria in

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6084-433: The Latin alphabet. Kazakh is a state (official) language in Kazakhstan . It is also spoken in the Ili region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China , where the Arabic script is used, and in western parts of Mongolia ( Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd province ), where Cyrillic script is in use. European Kazakhs use the Latin alphabet. Genomic research confirmed that Kazakhs originated from

6201-479: The Middle Jüz Kazakhs came to Mongolia and were allowed to settle down in Bayan-Ölgii, Western Mongolia and for most of the 20th century they remained an isolated, tightly knit community. Ethnic Kazakhs (so-called Altaic Kazakhs or Altai-Kazakhs) live predominantly in Western Mongolia in Bayan-Ölgii Province (88.7% of the total population) and Khovd Province (11.5% of the total population, living primarily in Khovd city , Khovd sum and Buyant sum). In addition,

6318-514: The Oleshky Sich on the lower Dnieper. Although some of the Zaporozhian cossacks returned to Moscow's protection, their popular leader Kost Hordiienko was resolute in his anti-Russian attitude and no rapprochement was possible until his death in 1733. Over the years the friction between the Cossacks and the Russian tsarist government lessened, and privileges were traded for a reduction in Cossack autonomy. The Ukrainian Cossacks who did not side with Mazepa elected as Hetman Ivan Skoropadsky , one of

6435-407: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by signing the Treaty of Hadiach (1658). The treaty was ratified by the Sejm but was rejected at the Hermanivka Rada by the Cossack rank and file, who would not accept a union with Catholic Poland, which they perceived as an oppressor of Orthodox Christianity. The angered cossacks executed Polkovniks Prokip Vereshchaka and Stepan Sulyma, Vyhovsky's associates at

6552-435: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century. Finally, the King's adamant refusal to bow to the Cossacks' demand to expand the Cossack Registry was the last straw that prompted the largest and most successful of these: the Khmelnytsky Uprising , which started in 1648. The uprising became one of a series of catastrophic events known as the Deluge , which greatly weakened the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and set

6669-421: The Qazaqs, as they possessed the cities for only part of the 17th century. The theory suggests that the Qazaqs then divided among a wider territory after expanding from Zhetysu into most of the Dasht-i Qipchaq , with a focus on the trade available through the cities of the middle Syr Darya , to which Sayram and Yasi belonged. The Junior juz originated from the Nogais of the Nogai Horde . The Kazakh language

6786-418: The Russian hussar and dragoon regiments. The destruction of the Sich created difficulties for the Russian Empire. Supporting the increase in the privileges gained by the higher ranking leadership put a strain in the budget, whilst the stricter regulations of the regular Russian Army prevented many other Cossacks from integrating. The existence of the Danubian Sich , which would support the Ottoman Empire in

6903-414: The Russian infantry would destroy them after they were surrounded. To trick the Cossacks, a rumour was spread that the army was crossing Cossack lands en route to guard the borders. The surprise encirclement was a devastating blow to the morale of the Cossacks. Petro Kalnyshevsky was given two hours to decide on the Empress's ultimatum . Under the guidance of a starshyna Lyakh, behind Kalnyshevky's back

7020-474: The Sejm, and Vyhovsky himself narrowly escaped death. The Zaporozhians maintained a largely separate government from the Hetmanate . The Zaporozhians elected their own leaders, known as Kish otaman , for one-year terms. In this period, friction between the cossacks of the Hetmanate and the Zaporozhians escalated. The Cossacks had fought in the past for independence from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and they were later involved in several uprisings against

7137-399: The Sich. With the death of Mazepa in Bessarabia in 1709, his council elected his former general chancellor, Pylyp Orlyk , as his successor. Orlyk issued the project of the Constitution , where he promised to limit the authority of the Hetman, preserve the privileged position of the Zaporozhians, take measures towards achieving social equality among them, and steps towards the separation of

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7254-648: The Ukrainian Cossacks and were used until the 19th century. Kleinody were awarded to Zaporozhian Cossacks by the Polish king Stephen Báthory on 20 August 1576 to Bohdan Ruzhynsky, among which were khoruhva, bunchuk , bulawa "mace" and a seal with a coat of arms on which was depicted a cossack with a samopal "rifle". The kleinody were assigned to hetman's assistants for safekeeping, thus there have appeared such ranks as chorąży ("flag-bearer"), bunchuzhny ("staff-keeper"), etc. Later part of Cossack kleinody became pernaches , timpani ( lytavry ), kurin banners (badges), batons, and others. The highest symbol of power

7371-531: The YHRD under accession numbers YA006010 and YA006009. Genetic analysis (AMOVA and MDS) did not show significant differences between the two groups (Kazakhstan and Karakalpakstan Kazakhs) in terms of Y-chromosome diversity. Both groups are characterized by haplogroup C2a1a2 as a founder effect, which dominated two of the three tribes: Alimuly (67%), Baiuly (74.6%), and Zhetiru (25.8%). The study analyzed haplotype variation at 15 Y-chromosomal short-tandem-repeats obtained from 1171 individuals from 24 tribes representing

7488-401: The Zaporizhian Host from the Russian State—should he manage to obtain power in the Cossack Hetmanate. With the support of Charles XII, Orlyk made an alliance with the Crimean Tatars and Ottomans against Russia, but following the early successes of their 1711 attack on Russia, their campaign was defeated, and Orlyk returned into exile. The Zaporozhians built a new Sich under Ottoman protection,

7605-412: The Zaporozhian Cossacks were mostly, if tentatively, regarded by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as their subjects. Registered Cossacks were a part of the Commonwealth army until 1699. Around the end of the 16th century, relations between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire , which were not cordial to begin with, were further strained by increasing Cossack aggression. From

7722-436: The Zaporozhian Sich as a "cossack republic", as the highest power in it belonged to the assembly of all its members, and because its leaders ( starshina ) were elected. Officially the leader of Zaporozhian Host never carried the title of hetman , while all leaders of cossacks formations were unofficially referred to as one. The highest body of administration in the Zaporozhian Host was the Sich Rada (council). The council

7839-434: The Zaporozhians, remain loyal towards Russia. Many fought in the local conflicts following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and today, just like before the revolution when they made up the private guard of the Emperor, the majority of the Kremlin Presidential Regiment is made up of Kuban Cossacks. For the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the fall of the Zaporozhian Cossacks effectively marked

7956-562: The administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kirovohrad Oblast to four. The area of Bobrynets Raion was merged into Kropyvnytskyi Raion. Zaporozhian Cossacks The Zaporozhian Cossacks , Zaporozhian Cossack Army , Zaporozhian Host , ( Ukrainian : Військо Запорозьке , romanized :  Viisko Zaporozke , or Військо Запорізьке , Viisko Zaporizke ) or simply Zaporozhians ( Ukrainian : Запорожці , romanized :  Zaporozhtsi ) were Cossacks who lived beyond (that is, downstream from)

8073-488: The admixture of several tribes. Kazakhs have predominantly East Eurasian ancestry , and harbor two East Asian-derived components: one dominant component commonly found among Northeastern Asian populations (associated with the Northeast Asian " Devil’s Gate Cave " sample from the Amur region ), and another minor component associated with historical Yellow River farmers, peaking among northern Han Chinese . According to one study, West Eurasian related admixture among Kazakhs

8190-406: The anger of Russian Empress Catherine II . As a result, by 1775 the number of runaway serfs from the Hetmanate and Polish-ruled Ukraine to Zaporizhiya rose to 100,000. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) annexed the Crimean Khanate into Russia, so the need for further southern frontier defence (which the Zaporozhians carried out) no longer existed. Colonisation of Novorossiya began; one of

8307-424: The beginning of 2021, more than 821,000 ethnic Kazakhs lived in Uzbekistan. They live mostly in Karakalpakstan and northern Uzbekistan. During the Qajar period, Iran bought Kazakh slaves who were falsely masqueraded as Kalmyks by slave dealers from Khiva and Turkmens. Kazakhs of the Aday tribe inhabited the border regions of the Russian Empire with Iran since the 18th century. The Kazakhs made up 20% of

8424-765: The beginning of its end with the Deluge , which led to the gradual demise of the Commonwealth ending with the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. A similar fate awaited both the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire; having endured numerous raids and attacks from them both, the Zaporozhian Cossacks aided the Russian Army in ending Turkey's ambitions of expanding into northern and Central Europe , and like Poland, after

8541-717: The blessing of the Chagatayid khan of Moghulistan, Esen Buqa II , who hoped for a buffer zone of protection against the expansion of the Oirats . Regarding these events, Haidar Dughlat in his Tarikh-i-Rashidi reports: At that time, Abulkhair Khan exercised full power in Dasht-i-Kipchak. He had been at war with the Sultánis of Juji; while Jáni Beg Khán and Karáy Khán fled before him into Moghulistán. Isán Bughá Khán received them with great honor, and delivered over to them Kuzi Báshi, which

8658-631: The border of Moghulistan , and was called Uzbeg-Kazák . In 15th-century Central Asia, the nomads of the Jochid Ulus (Golden Horde), including those who founded the Kazakh Khanate, were collectively called Uzbeks due to their conversion to Islam under Uzbek Khan (r. 1313–1341). These Uzbeks (also called Tatars by the Muscovites and Ottomans) arose from the merging of the Mongols and various Turkic groups in

8775-504: The colonies, located just next to the lands of the Zaporozhian Sich, was New Serbia . This escalated conflicts over land ownership with the Cossacks, which often turned violent. The decision to disband the Sich was adopted at the court council of Catherine the Great on 7 May 1775. General Peter Tekeli received orders to occupy and liquidate the main Zaporozhian fortress, the Sich. The plan

8892-580: The command of a Russian Army stationed in Kiev . A new sich ( Nova Sich ) was built to replace the one that had been destroyed by Peter the Great. Concerned about the possibility of Russian interference in Zaporozhia's internal affairs, the Cossacks began to settle their lands with Ukrainian peasants fleeing serfdom in Poland and Russia proper. By 1762, 33,700 Cossacks and over 150,000 peasants populated Zaporozhia. By

9009-489: The effort by Peter the Great to establish the new Russian capital. Many did not return, and it is often stated that St. Peterburg "was built on bones". In 1734, as Russia was preparing for a new war against the Ottoman Empire , an agreement was made between Russia and the Zaporozhian cossacks, the Treaty of Lubny. The Zaporozhian Cossacks regained all of their former lands, privileges, laws and customs in exchange for serving under

9126-682: The end of 19th century the Hermitage stored 17 kurin banners and one khoruhva, the Transfiguration Cathedral contained 20 kurin banners, three bunchuks, one silver bulawa, and one silver gold-covered baton. Today the fate of those national treasures of Ukrainian people is unknown. After the February Revolution in 1917 the Russian Provisional Government adopted the decisions of returning them to Ukraine, however, due to

9243-544: The entire south-eastern Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth border into a low-intensity war zone and led to an escalation of Commonwealth–Ottoman warfare, from the Moldavian Magnate Wars to the Battle of Cecora (1620) and wars in 1633–34. Cossack numbers expanded, with Ukrainian peasants running from serfdom in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Attempts by the szlachta to turn the Zaporozhian Cossacks into serfs eroded

9360-574: The escape, there was little left to do for the remaining 12,000 Cossacks. The Sich was razed to the ground. The Cossacks were disarmed in a mostly bloodless operation, while their treasury and archives were confiscated. Kalnyshevsky was arrested and exiled to the Solovki , where he lived in confinement to 112 years of age. Most upper level Cossack Council members, such as Pavlo Holovaty and Ivan Hloba, were repressed and exiled as well, although lower level commanders and rank and file Cossacks were allowed to join

9477-562: The events of the October Revolution of the same year the decision was not executed. With the proclamation of independence, the Ukrainian government has raised the issue of returning the national cultural valuables before the leadership of Russia ; no specific agreements have ever been reached, however. After the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654, the Zaporozhian Host became a suzerainty under

9594-716: The greater part of Uzbegistán, till the year 940 [1533–1534 A. D.]. In the 17th century, Russian convention seeking to distinguish the Qazaqs of the steppes from the Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army suggested spelling the final consonant with "kh" instead of "q" or "k", which was officially adopted by the USSR in 1936. The Ukrainian term Cossack probably comes from the same Kipchak etymological root, meaning wanderer, brigand, or independent free-booter. Like many people who live

9711-558: The heart of the Ottoman Empire, which were just two days away by boat from the mouth of the Dnieper River . By 1615 and 1625, Cossacks had managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Constantinople , forcing the Ottoman Sultan Murad IV to flee his palace. His nephew, Sultan Mehmed IV , fared little better as the recipient of the legendary Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks , a ribald response to Mehmed's insistence that

9828-564: The late 18th century, much of the Cossack officer class in Ukraine was incorporated into the Russian nobility, but many of the rank and file Cossacks, including a substantial portion of the old Zaporozhians, were reduced to peasant status. They were able to maintain their freedom and continued to provide refuge for those fleeing serfdom in Russia and Poland, including followers of the Russian Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev , which aroused

9945-484: The loss of Crimea, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The historical legacy of the Zaporozhian Cossacks shaped and influenced the idea of Ukrainian nationalism in the latter half of the 19th century. Ukrainian historians, such as Adrian Kashchenko (1858–1921), Olena Apanovich and others suggest that the final abolishment of the Zaporozhian Sich in 1775 was the demise of a historic Ukrainian stronghold. After

10062-510: The merging of various medieval tribes of Turkic and Mongolic origin in the 15th century. Kazakh identity was shaped following the foundation of the Kazakh Khanate between 1456 and 1465, when following the disintegration of the Turkified state of Golden Horde , several tribes under the rule of the sultans Janibek and Kerei departed from the Khanate of Abu'l-Khayr Khan in hopes of forming

10179-574: The nearby forest. In 1968, the population was 11 600 people. In 1989, the population was 12 869 people. In 2000, the parishioners of St. Nicholas Church joined the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate. In 2013, the population was 10 991 people. Until 18 July 2020, Bobrynets was the administrative center of Bobrynets Raion . The raion was abolished in July 2020 as part of

10296-625: The next war, was also troublesome for the Russians. In 1784 Potemkin formed the Host of the Loyal Zaporozhians (Войско верных Запорожцев) and settled them between the Southern Bug and Dniester rivers. For their invaluable service during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792), they were rewarded with the Kuban land and migrated there in 1792. In 1828, the Danubian Sich ceased to exist after it

10413-635: The noun qazğaq derives from the same root as the verb qazğan ("to obtain", "to gain"). Therefore, qazğaq defines a type of person who wanders and seeks gain. Throughout history, Kazakhstan has been home to many nomadic societies of the Eurasian Steppe , including the Sakas ( Scythian -related), the Xiongnu , the Western Turkic Khaganate , the Kimek–Kipchak Confederation ,

10530-562: The origin of the Cossacks was formed under the influence of the Polish historical school of the 16th-17th centuries and was connected with the theory of the Sarmatian origin of the gentry. According to the tradition of deriving the origin of the state or people from a certain people of antiquity, the Cossack chroniclers of the 18th century advocated the Khazar origin of the Cossacks . With the expansion of

10647-402: The otaman; the khoruhva - to the whole host although carried by a khorunzhy; the bunchuk also was given to otaman, but carried by a bunchuzhny or bunchuk comrade; the seal was preserved by a military judge, while the seals of the kurin - to the kurin otaman, and the seals of the palanka - to the colonel of a certain palanka; the kettledrums were in possession of a dovbysh (drummer); the staffs - to

10764-464: The political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. But authorities in China have defended that the detention centers were in fact vocational education & training centers set up to deradicalize radicalized residents against the "3 evil forces" of religious extremism, terrorism and separatism. In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed Kazakhs to neighboring countries. In around 1860, part of

10881-626: The population of the Trans-Caspian region according to the 1897 census. As a result of the Kazakhs' rebellion against the Russian Empire in 1870, a significant number of Kazakhs became refugees in Iran. Iranian Kazakhs live mainly in Golestan Province in northern Iran . According to ethnologue.org, in 1982 there were 3000 Kazakhs living in the city of Gorgan . Since the fall of the Soviet Union ,

10998-400: The presence of /s/ in place of reconstructed proto-Turkic */ʃ/ and /ʃ/ in place of */tʃ/ ; furthermore, Kazakh has / d͡ʒ / where other Turkic languages have / j / . Kazakh, like most of the Turkic language family lacks phonemic vowel length , and as such there is no distinction between long and short vowels. Kazakh was written with the Arabic script until the mid-19th century, when

11115-430: The protection of the tsar of Russia , although for a considerable period of time it enjoyed nearly complete autonomy . After the death of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in 1657, his successor Ivan Vyhovsky initiated a turn towards Poland, alarmed by the growing Russian interference in the affairs of the Hetmanate. An attempt was made to return to the three-constituent Commonwealth of nations with the Zaporozhian cossacks joining

11232-537: The region continued to clash against each other. Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai. In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers, and the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh. Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 640 kilometres (400 miles) east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet. In 1934, 1935, and from 1936 to 1938, Qumil Elisqan led approximately 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu, entering Gansu and Qinghai. In China there

11349-546: The second part of the 16th century, the Cossacks started raiding Ottoman territories. The Polish government could not control the fiercely independent Cossacks but, since they were nominally subjects of the Commonwealth, it was held responsible for raids by their victims. Reciprocally, the Tatars living under the Ottoman rule launched raids in the Commonwealth, mostly in the sparsely inhabited south-east territories of Ukraine. Cossacks, however, were raiding wealthy merchant port cities in

11466-469: The source base and the formation of historical science, nomadic hypotheses were rejected by official historiography. For the first time, Alexander Rigelman pointed out the imperfection of the hypothesis. In the 20th century, the Russian scientist Gumilyov was an apologist for the Polovtsian origin of the Cossacks. In the 16th century, with the dominance of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth extending south,

11583-455: The stage for its disintegration one hundred years later. Even though Poland probably had the best cavalry in Europe, their infantry was inferior. However, Ukrainian Cossacks possessed the best infantry during the middle 17th century. Since Poland recruited most of its infantry from Ukraine, once this became free from Polish rule, the army of the Commonwealth suffered greatly. The Zaporozhian Host as

11700-458: The term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the middle of the 16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat , a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir . In this manuscript, the author locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq . According to Tarikh-i-Rashidi, the first Kazakh union was created c. 1465/1466 AD. The state was formed by nomads who settled along

11817-470: The three Zhuz (juz, roughly translatable as "horde" or "hundred"): There is much debate surrounding the origins of the Hordes. Their age is unknown so far in extant historical texts, with the earliest mentions in the 17th century. The Turkologist Velyaminov-Zernov believed that it was the capture of the important cities of Tashkent , Yasi , and Sayram in 1598 by Tevvekel (Tauekel/Tavakkul) Khan that separated

11934-462: The three socio-territorial subdivisions (Senior, Middle and Junior zhuz) in Kazakhstan to comprehensively characterize the patrilineal genetic architecture of the Kazakh Steppe. In total, 577 distinct haplotypes were identified belonging to one of 20 haplogroups; 16 predominant haplogroups were confirmed by SNP-genotyping. The haplogroup distribution was skewed towards C2-M217, present in all tribes at

12051-493: The time of the Uzbek conquest of Central Asia, Abu'l-Khayr Khan , a descendant of Shiban , had disagreements with the sultans Kerei and Janibek , descendants of Urus Khan . These disagreements probably resulted from the crushing defeat of Abu'l-Khayr Khan at the hands of the Kalmyks . Kerei and Janibek moved with a large following of nomads to the region of Zhetysu on the border of Moghulistan and set up new pastures there with

12168-407: The tsar, in fear of losing their privileges and autonomy. In 1709, for example, the Zaporozhian Host led by Kost Hordiienko joined Hetman Ivan Mazepa against Russia. Mazepa was previously a trusted adviser and close friend to Tsar Peter the Great but allied himself with Charles XII of Sweden against Peter I. After the defeat at the Battle of Poltava Peter ordered a retaliatory destruction of

12285-474: The will of our Imperial Majesty. In May 1775, General Tekeli's forces went from the Fortress of St. Elizabeth , at that time it was the main headquarters of the Russian army in Ukraine, and on 5 June 1775 divided into five detachments and surrounded the Sich with artillery and infantry. The lack of southern borders and enemies in the past years had a profound effect on the combat-ability of the Cossacks, who realised

12402-481: The worst crimes etc. The Zaporozhian Host, while being closely associated with the Cossack Hetmanate , had its own administration and orders. For military operations, cossacks of the host organized into Kish . Kish is an old term for a reinforced camp that was used in the 11th-16th centuries and later adopted by cossacks. Kish was the central body of government in Sich under jurisdiction of which were administrative, military, financial, legal, and other affairs. Kish

12519-473: Was elected by the General Military Council for a year on January 1. Based on the same customs and traditions the rights and duties of officers were explicitly codified. The Zaporozhian Host developed an original judicial system, at the base of which lay the customary Cossack Code. The norms of the code were affirmed by those social relations that have developed among cossacks. Some sources refer to

12636-643: Was elected on annual bases at the Sich Rada (Black Rada). Black Rada was a council of all cossacks. Kish election were taken place either on 1 January, 1 October ( Intercession of the Theotokos holiday - Pokrova), or on the 2nd-3rd day of Easter. There was a cossack military court, which severely punished violence and stealing among compatriots, bringing women to the Sich, consumption of alcohol in periods of conflict, etc. There were also churches and schools , providing religious services and basic education . Principally,

12753-417: Was given a direct order from Empress Catherine II, which she explained in her Decree of 8 August 1775: With this we would like to let our Empire and our faithful subjects be known that the Zaporozhian Sich is now destroyed and the name of Zaporozhian Cossacks is to be no more as well, mentioning of whom will be considered no less as an affront to our Imperial Majesty for their deeds and insolence for disobeying

12870-466: Was kept secret and regiments returning from the Russo-Turkish war, in which Cossacks also participated, were mobilized for the operation. They included 31 regiments (65,000 men in total). The attack took place on 15 May and continued until 8 June. The order was given by Grigory Potemkin , who had formally become an honorary Zaporozhian Cossack under the name of Hrytsko Nechesa a few years prior. Potemkin

12987-407: Was made out of tissue in two colors: yellow and blue. Kettledrums (lytavry) were large copper boilers that were fitted with a leather which served for transmission of various signals (calling cossacks to a council, raising an alarm etc.). Each item of kleinody was granted to a clearly assigned member of cossack starshina (officership). For example, in the Zaporozhian Host, the bulawa was given to

13104-415: Was mostly of a crimson color embroidered with coats of arms, saints, crosses, and others. It was always carried in front of the army next to the hetman or otaman. A badge ( znachok ) was a name for a kurin's or company's ( sotnia ) banners. There was a tradition when the newly elected colonel was required at his own expense prepare palanka's banner. One of the banners was preserved until 1845 in Kuban and

13221-411: Was observed. According to mitochondrial DNA studies (where sample consisted of only 246 individuals), the main maternal lineages of Kazakhs are: D (17.9%), C (16%), G (16%), A (3.25%), F (2.44%) of East-Eurasian origin (55%), and haplogroups H (14.1), T (5.5), J (3.6%), K (2.6%), U5 (3%), and others (12.2%) of West-Eurasian origin (41%). Gokcumen et al. (2008) tested the mtDNA of

13338-754: Was pardoned by Emperor Nicholas I, and under amnesty its members settled on the shores of the Northern Azov between Berdyansk and Mariupol , forming the Azov Cossack Host . Finally in 1862 they too migrated to the Kuban and merged with the Kuban Cossacks . The Kuban Cossacks served Russia's interests right up to the October Revolution , and their descendants are now undergoing active regeneration both culturally and militarily. The 30,000 descendants of those Cossacks who refused to return to Russia in 1828 still live in

13455-549: Was soon suppressed. As a result, the Arabic script for writing Kazakh was banned and the Latin alphabet was imposed as a new writing system. In an effort to Russianize the Kazakhs, the Latin alphabet was in turn replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940 by Soviet interventionists. Today, there are efforts to return to the Latin script, and in January 2021 the government announced plans to switch to

13572-423: Was the bulawa or mace carried by hetmans and kish-otamans. For example, Bohdan Khmelnytsky already from 1648 carried a silver gold-covered bulawa decorated with pearls and other valuable gem stones. The cossack colonels had pernachs ( shestoper s) - smaller ribbed bulawas which were carried behind a belt. The seal of the Zaporozhian Host was produced in a round form out of silver with a depiction of cossack in

13689-409: Was the highest legislative, administrative, and judicial body of the Zaporozhian Host. Decisions of the council were considered the opinion of the whole host and obligated to its execution each member of the cossack comradeship. At Sich Rada were reviewed issues of internal and foreign policies, conducted elections of military starshina , division of assigned land, punishment of criminals who committed

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