The Black Sea Games was a multi-sport event intended to be held every four years, mainly for nations bordering the Black Sea .
133-530: The first such event was held in Trabzon , Turkey July 2 to July 8, 2007. A total of 1,277 athletes (937 men and 340 women) from 11 countries participated, with 186 medals won in 13 different sports. Subsequent games were originally scheduled for 2010 ( Constanța , Romania ) and 2014 ( Samsun , Turkey), but were not held. Countries that did not participate during the Games ;: Paralympic events were contested in
266-457: A galley slave in Algiers also influenced Quixote . Medical theories may have also influenced Cervantes' literary process. Cervantes had familial ties to the distinguished medical community. His father, Rodrigo de Cervantes, and his great-grandfather, Juan Díaz de Torreblanca, were surgeons. Additionally, his sister, Andrea de Cervantes, was a nurse. He also befriended many individuals involved in
399-527: A harbor at the port. When the Russians occupied Trabzon, a mole was built. They built a breakwater and were responsible for creating an extended pier, making loading and unloading easier. In 1920, Trabzon produced linen cloth, silver filagree , tanning and small amounts of cotton , silk and wool . Tobacco and hazelnuts were exported. The tobacco produced in Trabzon was called Trebizond-Platana . It
532-418: A knight-errant ( caballero andante ) to revive chivalry and serve his nation, under the name Don Quixote de la Mancha . He recruits as his squire a simple farm labourer, Sancho Panza , who brings a unique, earthy wit to Don Quixote's lofty rhetoric. In the first part of the book, Don Quixote does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story meant for
665-457: A melting pot of religions , languages and culture for centuries and a trade gateway to Persia in the southeast and the Caucasus to the northeast. The Venetian and Genoese merchants paid visits to Trabzon during the medieval period and sold silk , linen and woolen fabric. Both republics had merchant colonies within the city – Leonkastron and the former "Venetian castle" – that played
798-431: A brawl. Quixote explains to Sancho that the castle is enchanted. They decide to leave, but Quixote, following the example of the fictional knights, leaves without paying. Sancho ends up wrapped in a blanket and tossed in the air by several mischievous guests at the inn before he manages to follow. After further adventures involving a dead body, a barber's basin that Quixote imagines as the legendary helmet of Mambrino , and
931-433: A chapel. He then becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way. Quixote encounters a servant named Andres who is tied to a tree and beaten by his master over disputed wages. Quixote orders the master to stop beating Andres and untie him and makes
1064-437: A famed hand for salting pork) his lady love , renaming her Dulcinea del Toboso . As he travels in search of adventure, he arrives at an inn that he believes to be a castle, calls the prostitutes he meets there "ladies", and demands that the innkeeper, whom he takes to be the lord of the castle, dub him a knight. The innkeeper agrees. Quixote starts the night holding vigil at the inn's horse trough, which Quixote imagines to be
1197-430: A founding work of Western literature , it is often said to be the first modern novel . Don Quixote is also one of the most-translated books in the world and one of the best-selling novels of all time . The plot revolves around the adventures of a member of the lowest nobility, an hidalgo from La Mancha named Alonso Quijano , who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his mind and decides to become
1330-475: A group of galley slaves , they wander into the Sierra Morena . There they encounter the dejected and mostly mad Cardenio, who relates his story . Quixote decides to imitate Cardenio and live like a hermit. He sends Sancho to deliver a letter to Dulcinea, but instead Sancho finds the barber and priest from his village. They make a plan to trick Quixote into coming home, recruiting Dorotea, a woman they discover in
1463-537: A group of rare coins he believes was minted by Gabras and his successors. Although he was killed by the Turks in 1098, other members of his family continued his de facto independent rule into the next century. The Empire of Trebizond was formed after Georgian expedition in Chaldia , commanded by Alexios Komnenos a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Located at the far northeastern corner of Anatolia , it
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#17330855449751596-513: A pun on quijada (jaw) but certainly cuixot (Catalan: thighs), a reference to a horse's rump . As a military term, the word quijote refers to cuisses , part of a full suit of plate armour protecting the thighs. The Spanish suffix -ote denotes the augmentative—for example, grande means large, but grandote means extra large, with grotesque connotations. Following this example, Quixote would suggest 'The Great Quijano', an oxymoronic play on words that makes much sense in light of
1729-475: A reference to Matteo Maria Boiardo 's Orlando innamorato . The interpolated story in chapter 33 of Part four of the First Part is a retelling of a tale from Canto 43 of Orlando , regarding a man who tests the fidelity of his wife. Another important source appears to have been Apuleius's The Golden Ass , one of the earliest known novels, a picaresque from late classical antiquity. The wineskins episode near
1862-417: A result of the general development of the country, Trabzon has developed its economic and commercial life. The coastal highway and a new harbour have increased commercial relations with central Anatolia, which has led to some growth. However, progress has been slow in comparison to the western and the southwestern parts of Turkey. Trabzon is famous throughout Turkey for its anchovies called hamsi , which are
1995-455: A role to Trabzon similar to the one Galata played to Constantinople (modern Istanbul ). Trabzon formed the basis of several states in its long history and was the capital city of the Empire of Trebizond between 1204 and 1461 . During the early modern period , Trabzon, because of the importance of its port, again became a focal point of trade to Persia and the Caucasus . The Turkish name of
2128-762: A spurious Part Two, entitled Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha: by the Licenciado (doctorate) Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda , of Tordesillas , was published in Tarragona by an unidentified Aragonese who was an admirer of Lope de Vega , rival of Cervantes. It was translated into English by William Augustus Yardley, Esquire in two volumes in 1784. Some modern scholars suggest that Don Quixote's fictional encounter with Avellaneda's book in Chapter 59 of Part II should not be taken as
2261-403: A time and place for Anselmo to see the seduction. Before this rendezvous, however, Lothario learns that the man was the lover of Camilla's maid. He and Camilla then contrive to deceive Anselmo further: When Anselmo watches them, she refuses Lothario, protests her love for her husband, and stabs herself lightly in the breast. Anselmo is reassured of her fidelity. The affair restarts with Anselmo none
2394-482: Is a hidalgo nearing 50 years of age who lives in a deliberately unspecified region of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper. While he lives a frugal life, as an avid reader of chivalric romances, he is full of fantasies about chivalry. Eventually, he goes mad and decides to become a knight errant . To that end, he dons an old suit of armor, renames himself "Don Quixote", names his old workhorse " Rocinante ", and designates Aldonza Lorenzo (a slaughterhouse worker with
2527-611: Is also recorded that some Bosniaks were appointed by the Sublime Porte as the regional beylerbeys in Trabzon. The Eyalet of Trabzon had always sent troops for the Ottoman campaigns in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. Trebizond had a wealthy merchant class during the late Ottoman period, and the local Christian minority had a substantial influence in terms of culture, economy and politics. A number of European consulates were opened in
2660-629: Is called Τραπεζούντα ( Trapezounta ). In Ottoman Turkish and Persian , it is written as طربزون . During Ottoman times, Tara Bozan was also used. In Laz it is known as ტამტრა ( T'amt'ra ) or T'rap'uzani , in Georgian it is ტრაპიზონი ( T'rap'izoni ) and in Armenian it is Տրապիզոն ( Trapizon ). The 19th-century Armenian travelling priest Byjiskian called the city by other, native names, including Hurşidabat and Ozinis . Western geographers and writers used many spelling variations of
2793-453: Is challenged by an armed Basque travelling with the company. The combat ends with the lady leaving her carriage and commanding those travelling with her to "surrender" to Quixote. After a friendly encounter with some goatherds and a less friendly one with some Yanguesan porters driving Galician ponies , Quixote and Sancho return to the "castle" (inn), where a mix-up involving a servant girl's romantic rendezvous with another guest results in
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#17330855449752926-404: Is done [...] as Cervantes did it [...] by never letting the reader rest. You are never certain that you truly got it. Because as soon as you think you understand something, Cervantes introduces something that contradicts your premise. The novel's structure is episodic in form. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as ingenioso (Spanish) means "quick with inventiveness", marking
3059-405: Is from Modern English . The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant. In Don Quixote , there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish. The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies
3192-520: Is much debated among scholars. Since the 19th century, the passage has been called "the most difficult passage of Don Quixote ".) The scene of the book burning provides a list of Cervantes's likes and dislikes about literature. Cervantes makes a number of references to the Italian poem Orlando furioso . In chapter 10 of the first part of the novel, Don Quixote says he must take the magical helmet of Mambrino , an episode from Canto I of Orlando , and itself
3325-553: Is once more "Alonso Quixano the Good". Sources for Don Quixote include the Castilian novel Amadis de Gaula , which had enjoyed great popularity throughout the 16th century. Another prominent source, which Cervantes evidently admires more, is Tirant lo Blanch , which the priest describes in Chapter VI of Quixote as "the best book in the world." (However, the sense in which it was "best"
3458-432: Is preserved in the pronunciation of the adjectival form quixotic , i.e., / k w ɪ k ˈ s ɒ t ɪ k / , defined by Merriam-Webster as the foolishly impractical pursuit of ideals, typically marked by rash and lofty romanticism. Harold Bloom says Don Quixote is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud 's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying. Bloom says that
3591-494: Is reflected in languages such as Asturian , Leonese , Galician , Catalan , Italian , Portuguese , Turkish and French , where it is pronounced with a "sh" or "ch" sound; the French opera Don Quichotte is one of the best-known modern examples of this pronunciation. Today, English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation of Quixote ( Quijote ), as / k iː ˈ h oʊ t i / , although
3724-607: Is spoken mostly by the older generations. Trabzon Province has a total area of 4,685 square kilometres (1,809 sq mi) and is bordered by the provinces of Rize , Giresun , and Gümüşhane . The total area is 22.4% plateau and 77.6% hills. The Pontic Mountains pass through the Trabzon Province. Trabzon used to be an important reference point for navigators in the Black Sea during harsh weather conditions. The popular expression "perdere la Trebisonda" (losing Trebizond)
3857-448: Is still commonly used in the Italian language to describe situations in which the sense of direction is lost. The Italian maritime republics such as Venice and in particular Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries. Trabzon has four lakes: Uzungöl , Çakırgöl, Sera, and Haldizen Lakes. There are several streams, but no rivers in Trabzon. Trabzon has a climate typical of
3990-493: Is that Quixote has multiple interpretations [...] and how do I deal with that in my translation. I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it [...] so when I first started reading the Quixote I thought it was the most tragic book in the world, and I would read it and weep [...] As I grew older [...] my skin grew thicker [...] and so when I was working on the translation I was actually sitting at my computer and laughing out loud. This
4123-641: The Aq Qoyunlu , raided Trebizond. In 1348, he besieged Trebizond, however he failed and lifted the siege. Later on, Alexios III of Trebizond gave his sister to Kutlu Beg son of Tur Ali Beg, and established a kinship with them. Constantinople remained the Byzantine capital until it was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1453, who also conquered Trebizond eight years later, in 1461. Its demographic legacy endured for several centuries after
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4256-723: The British Museum , London. Cyrus the Great added the city to the Achaemenid Empire , and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea region into a single political entity (a satrapy ). Trebizond's trade partners included the Mossynoeci . When Xenophon and the Ten Thousand mercenaries were fighting their way out of Persia , the first Greek city they reached was Trebizond (Xenophon, Anabasis , 5.5.10). The city and
4389-585: The Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Trebizond came under Seljuk rule. This rule proved transient when an expert soldier and local aristocrat, Theodore Gabras took control of the city from the Turkish invaders, and regarded Trebizond, in the words of Anna Comnena , "as a prize which had fallen to his own lot" and ruled it as his own kingdom. Supporting Comnena's assertion, Simon Bendall has identified
4522-467: The Dardanelles , and nearby Kerasous . Like most Greek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later European sense of the word. As a colony, Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity is suggested to have occurred in the city already in the 4th century BC, according to a silver drachma coin from Trapezus in
4655-646: The Russian Revolution of 1917 Russian soldiers in the city turned to rioting and looting, with officers commandeering Trebizonian ships to flee the scene. Governor Chrysantos was able to calm the Russian soldiers down, and the Russian Army ultimately retreated from the city and the rest of eastern and northeastern Anatolia . In March and April of 1918 the city hosted the Trebizond Peace Conference , where
4788-597: The Silk Road caravans carrying goods from Asia stopped at the port of Trebizond, where the European merchants purchased these goods and carried them to the port cities of Europe with ships. This trade provided a source of revenue to the state in the form of custom duties, or kommerkiaroi , levied on the goods sold in Trebizond. The Greeks protected the coastal and inland trade routes with a vast network of garrison forts. Following
4921-571: The picaresque figures encountered by the Don and Sancho during their travels. The longest and best known of these is "El Curioso Impertinente" ( The Ill-Advised Curiosity ), found in Part One, Book Four. This story, read to a group of travelers at an inn, tells of a Florentine nobleman, Anselmo, who becomes obsessed with testing his wife's fidelity and talks his close friend Lothario into attempting to seduce her, with disastrous results for all. In Part Two ,
5054-484: The 1605 book of further adventures yet to be told was totally conventional, did not indicate any authorial plans for a continuation, and was not taken seriously by the book's first readers. Cervantes, in a metafictional narrative, writes that the first few chapters were taken from "the archives of La Mancha", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish historian Cide Hamete Benengeli . Alonso Quixano
5187-430: The 19th century. The city got a post office in 1845. New churches and mosques were built in the second half of the 19th century, as well as the first theater, public and private printing houses, multiple photo studios and banks. The oldest known photographs of the city center date from the 1860s and depict one of the last camel trains from Persia. Between one and two thousand Armenians are believed to have been killed in
5320-641: The Armenian community, while the vast majority of Christians were Greeks. However, a significant portion of the local Christians were Islamized by the end of the 17th century - especially those outside the city - according to a research by Prof. Halil İnalcık on the Ottoman tax books ( tahrir defterleri ). Between 1461 and 1598 Trabzon remained the administrative center of the wider region; first as 'sanjac center' of Rum Eyalet , later of Erzincan-Bayburt eyalet , Anadolu Eyalet , and Erzurum Eyalet . In 1598 it became
5453-463: The Black Sea trade, the Genoese bought the coastal fortification "Leonkastron", just west of the winter harbour, in the year 1306. The Venetians likewise built a trading outpost in the city, a few hundred meters to the west of the Genoese. In between these two Italian colonies settled many other European traders, and it thus became known as the "European Quarter". Small groups of Italians continued to live in
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5586-807: The Caucasus arrived in the city, especially after 1864, in what is known as the Circassian genocide . Next to Constantinople, Smyrna (now İzmir ) and Salonika (now Thessaloniki ), Trebizond was one of the cities where western cultural and technological innovations were first introduced to the Ottoman Empire. In 1835, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions opened the Trebizond Mission station that it occupied from 1835 to 1859 and from 1882 to at least 1892. Hundreds of schools were constructed in
5719-642: The Empire of Trebizond consisted of little more than a narrow strip along the southern coast of the Black Sea , and not much further inland than the Pontic Mountains . However, the city gained great wealth from the taxes it levied on the goods traded between Persia and Europe via the Black Sea. The Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258 diverted more trade caravans towards the city. Genoese and to a lesser extent Venetian traders regularly came to Trebizond. To secure their part of
5852-795: The Karadere river valley in modern-day Araklı , 25 kilometers east of the city - the local Muslim population tried to protect the Christian Armenians. The coastal region between the city and the Russian frontier became the site of key battles between the Ottoman and Russian armies during the Trebizond Campaign , as part of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I. The Russian army landed at Atina , east of Rize on March 4, 1916. Lazistan Sanjak fell within two days. However, due to heavy guerrilla resistance around Of and Çaykara some 50 km to
5985-565: The Knight of the White Moon (a young man from Quixote's hometown who had earlier posed as the Knight of Mirrors) on the beach in Barcelona . Defeated, Quixote submits to prearranged chivalric terms: the vanquished must obey the will of the conqueror. He is ordered to lay down his arms and cease his acts of chivalry for a period of one year, by which time his friends and relatives hope he will be cured. On
6118-422: The Ottoman conquest in 1461, as a substantial number of Greek Orthodox inhabitants, usually referred to as Pontic Greeks , continued to live in the area during Ottoman rule, up until 1923, when they were deported to Greece. A few thousand Greek Muslims still live in the area, mostly in the Çaykara - Of dialectical region to the southeast of Trabzon. Most are Sunni Muslim, while there are some recent converts in
6251-609: The Ottomans agreed to give up their military gains in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the eastern borders of the empire in Anatolia by the Transcaucasian Seim (a short-lived transcaucasian government). In December 1918 Trabzon deputy governor Hafız Mehmet gave a speech at the Ottoman parliament in which he blamed the former governor of Trebizond province Cemal Azmi – a non-native appointee who had fled to Germany after
6384-511: The Pontic Alps. Furthermore, during the time the Köppen climate classification was created, the city center had a borderline oceanic-humid subtropical climate, falling just under the 22 °C (72 °F) threshold for the hottest month of the year, yet climate change and the city's urban heat island contributed to its reclassification as humid subtropical in recent decades. This and the fact that
6517-689: The Pontic Mountains south of the city, where they established Vazelon Monastery in 270 AD and Sumela Monastery in 386 AD. As early as the First Council of Nicea , Trebizond had its own bishop. Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to the Metropolitan Bishop of Poti . Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop of Lazica . By
6650-539: The Russian invasion – for orchestrating the Armenian Genocide in the city in 1915, by means of drowning. Subsequently, a series of war crimes trials were held in Trebizond in early 1919 (see Trebizond during the Armenian Genocide ). Among others, Cemal Azmi was sentenced to death in absentia. During the Turkish War of Independence several Christian Pontic Greek communities in the Trebizond province rebelled against
6783-510: The Trebizond vilayet during the Hamidian massacres of 1895. While this number was low in comparison to other Ottoman provinces, its impact on the Armenian community in the city was large. Many prominent Armenian residents, among them scholars, musicians, photographers and painters, decided to migrate towards the Russian Empire or France. The large Greek population of the city was not affected by
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#17330855449756916-515: The Turkish parliament. Ali Şükrü Bey, who had studied in Deniz Harp Okulu (Turkish Naval Academy) and worked as a journalist in the United Kingdom, is seen as a hero by the people of Trabzon, while in neighboring Giresun there is a statue of his murderer Topal Osman. Three years later Trabzon deputy Hafız Mehmet - who had testified to his knowledge of, and opposition to, the Armenian Genocide -
7049-697: The annals of all time. However, as Salvador de Madariaga pointed out in his Guía del lector del Quijote (1972 [1926]), referring to "the Sanchification of Don Quixote and the Quixotization of Sancho", as "Sancho's spirit ascends from reality to illusion, Don Quixote's declines from illusion to reality". The book had a major influence on the literary community, as evidenced by direct references in Alexandre Dumas 's The Three Musketeers (1844), and Edmond Rostand 's Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) as well as
7182-423: The archery, athletics, and swimming programmes. * Host nation ( Turkey ) This Black Sea -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Trabzon Trabzon , historically known as Trebizond , is a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province . Trabzon, located on the historical Silk Road , became
7315-420: The area, but the old ethnic Greek , Laz and Armenian communities remained. According to the Ottoman tax books ( tahrir defterleri ), the total population of taxable adult males (only those with a household) in the city was 1,473 in the year 1523. The total population of the city was much higher. Approximately 85% of the population was Christian, and 15% Muslim. Thirteen percent of the adult males belonged to
7448-454: The attempts by Lothario and asking him to return. Anselmo makes no reply and does not return. Lothario then falls in love with Camilla, who eventually reciprocates; an affair between them ensues, but is not disclosed to Anselmo, and their affair continues after Anselmo returns. One day, Lothario sees a man leaving Camilla's house and jealously presumes she has taken another lover. He tells Anselmo that, at last, he has been successful and arranges
7581-452: The author acknowledges the criticism of his digressions in Part One and promises to concentrate the narrative on the central characters (although at one point he laments that his narrative muse has been constrained in this manner). Nevertheless, "Part Two" contains several back narratives related by peripheral characters. Several abridged editions have been published which delete some or all of
7714-558: The book. It stands in a unique position between medieval romance and the modern novel. The former consists of disconnected stories featuring the same characters and settings with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character. The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters. In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment. By Part II, people know about him through "having read his adventures", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image. By his deathbed, he has regained his sanity, and
7847-619: The capital of its own province - the Eyalet of Trebizond - which in 1867 became the Vilayet of Trebizond . During the reign of Sultan Bayezid II , his son Prince Selim (later Sultan Selim I ) was the Sanjak-bey of Trabzon, and Selim I's son Suleiman the Magnificent was born in Trabzon in 1494. The Ottoman government often appointed local Chepni Turks and Laz beys as the regional beylerbey . It
7980-564: The character's delusions of grandeur. Cervantes wrote his work in Early Modern Spanish , heavily borrowing from Old Spanish , the medieval form of the language. The language of Don Quixote , although still containing archaisms , is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the Poema de mio Cid , a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English
8113-579: The city and possibly a few Crypto-Christians in the Tonya / Gümüşhane area to the southwest of the city. Compared to most previously Greek cities in Turkey, a large amount of its Greek Byzantine architectural heritage survives as well. The last Emperor of Trebizond, David , surrendered the city to Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1461. Following this takeover, Mehmed II sent many Turkish settlers into
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#17330855449758246-619: The city by armed Turkish port-workers. Governor Chrysantos travelled to the Paris Peace Conference , where he proposed the establishment of the Republic of Pontus , which would protect its different ethnic groups. For this he was condemned to death by the Turkish Nationalist forces, and he could not return to his post in Trebizond. Instead, the city was to be handed to ' Wilsonian Armenia ', which likewise never materialized. Following
8379-415: The city due to its importance in regional trade and commerce. In the first half of the 19th century, Trebizond even became the main port for Persian exports. The opening of the Suez Canal greatly diminished the international trading position of the city, but did not halt the economic development of the region. In the last decades of the 19th century, the city saw some demographic changes. As the population of
8512-453: The city is Trabzon. The first recorded name of the city is the Greek Tραπεζοῦς ( Trapezous ), referencing the table-like central hill between the Zağnos (İskeleboz) and Kuzgun streams on which it was founded ( τράπεζα meant "table" in Ancient Greek ; note the table on the coin in the figure). In Latin , Trabzon is called Trapezus , which is a latinization of its ancient Greek name. Both in Pontic Greek and Modern Greek , it
8645-426: The city to Western Europe. Trebizond played a mythical role in European literature of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Miguel de Cervantes and François Rabelais gave their protagonists the desire to possess the city. Next to literature, the legendary history of the city – and that of the Pontus in general – also influenced the creation of paintings , theatre plays and operas in Western Europe throughout
8778-424: The city until the early decades of the 20th century. One of the most famous persons to have visited the city in this period was Marco Polo , who ended his overland return journey at the port of Trebizond, and sailed to his hometown Venice with a ship; passing by Constantinople ( Istanbul ) on the way, which was retaken by the Byzantines in 1261. Together with Persian goods, Italian traders brought stories about
8911-419: The city was first handed to the Galatians , but it was soon returned to the grandson of Mithradates, and subsequently became part of the new client Kingdom of Pontus. When the kingdom was finally annexed to the Roman province of Galatia two centuries later, the fleet passed to new commanders, becoming the Classis Pontica . The city received the status of civitas libera , extending its judicial autonomy and
9044-418: The city was reestablished with a quadrivium curriculum. The university drew students not just from the Byzantine Empire , but from Armenia as well. The city regained importance when it became the seat of the theme of Chaldia . Trebizond also benefited when the trade route regained importance in the 8th to 10th centuries; 10th-century Muslim authors note that Trebizond was frequented by Muslim merchants, as
9177-464: The city was taken without a fight by the Russian Caucasus Army under command of Grand Duke Nicholas and Nikolai Yudenich . There was also a massacre of Armenians and Greeks in Trabzon just before the Russian takeover of the city. Many adult Turkish males left the city out of fear for reprisals, even though governor Chrysantos included them in his administration. According to some sources the Russians banned Muslim mosques , and forced Turks , who were
9310-403: The city; the holy springs of Mt. Minthrion to the east of the old town were devoted to the Persian-Anatolian Greek god Mithra . In the 2nd century BC, the city with its natural harbours was added to the Kingdom of Pontus by Pharnaces I . Mithridates VI Eupator made it the home port of the Pontic fleet, in his quest to remove the Romans from Anatolia. After the defeat of Mithridates in 66 BC,
9443-436: The dominant Caucasian groups to the east were the Laz , who were part of the monarchy of the Colchis , together with other related Georgian peoples. The city was founded in classical antiquity in 756 BC as Tραπεζούς ( Trapezous ), by Milesian traders from Sinope . It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesian emporia or trading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea. Others included Abydos and Cyzicus in
9576-467: The east of Trabzon, it took a further 40 days for the Russian army to advance west. The Ottoman administration of Trabzon foresaw the fall of the city and called for a meeting with community leaders, where they handed control of the city to Greek metropolitan bishop Chrysantos Philippidis . Chrysantos promised to protect the Muslim population of the city. Ottoman forces retreated from Trabzon, and on April 15
9709-411: The eastern Black Sea region, a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cfa, Trewartha : Cf ) near the coast. A very small percentage of the province can be classified as subtropical, however, as slightly elevated rural areas near the coast are oceanic ( Cfb/Do ), the mountainous offshores are humid continental ( Dfb/Dc ) and subarctic ( Dfc/Eo ); and tundra ( ET/Ft ) can be found in the peaks of
9842-527: The election of Mustafa Kemal as the leader of the Turkish revolution at the Erzurum Congress . The governor and mayor of Trebizond were appalled by the violence against Ottoman Greek subjects, and the government of Trabzon thus refused arms to Mustafa Kemal's henchman Topal Osman , who was responsible for mass murders in the western Pontus which were part of the Greek Genocide . Osman was forced out of
9975-494: The end of the interpolated tale "The Curious Impertinent" in chapter 35 of the first part of Don Quixote is a clear reference to Apuleius, and recent scholarship suggests that the moral philosophy and the basic trajectory of Apuleius's novel are fundamental to Cervantes' program. Similarly, many of both Sancho's adventures in Part II and proverbs throughout are taken from popular Spanish and Italian folklore. Cervantes' experiences as
10108-578: The extra tales in order to concentrate on the central narrative. The story within a story relates that, for no particular reason, Anselmo decides to test the fidelity of his wife, Camilla, and asks his friend, Lothario, to seduce her. Thinking that to be madness, Lothario reluctantly agrees, and soon reports to Anselmo that Camilla is a faithful wife. Anselmo learns that Lothario has lied and attempted no seduction. He makes Lothario promise to try in earnest and leaves town to make this easier. Lothario tries and Camilla writes letters to her husband telling him of
10241-400: The following centuries. The city also played a role in the early Renaissance ; the western takeover of Constantinople, which formalized Trebizond's political independence, also led Byzantine intellectuals to seek refuge in the city. Especially Alexios II of Trebizond and his grandson Alexios III were patrons of the arts and sciences. After the great city fire of 1310, the ruined university
10374-467: The forest, to pose as the Princess Micomicona, a damsel in distress. The plan works and Quixote and the group return to the inn, though Quixote is now convinced, thanks to a lie told by Sancho when asked about the letter, that Dulcinea wants to see him. At the inn, several other plots intersect and are resolved. Meanwhile, a sleepwalking Quixote does battle with some wineskins which he takes to be
10507-481: The giant who stole the princess Micomicona's kingdom. An officer of the Santa Hermandad arrives with a warrant for Quixote's arrest for freeing the galley slaves, but the priest begs for the officer to have mercy on account of Quixote's insanity. The officer agrees and Quixote is locked in a cage which he is made to think is an enchantment. He has a learned conversation with a Toledo canon he encounters by chance on
10640-497: The grandfather of Ahmet Ertegün . These migrants were active in a wide range of trades including baking, confection, tailoring, carpentry, education, advocacy, politics and administration. The influence of this diaspora has since continued, and can still be seen in the many restaurants and shops in cities around the Black Sea in the 21st century such as in Istanbul, Odesa and Mariupol . At the same time, thousands of Muslim refugees from
10773-454: The harm he has caused. He dictates his will, which includes a provision that his niece will be disinherited if she marries a man who reads books of chivalry. After Quixano dies, the author emphasizes that there are no more adventures to relate and that any further books about Don Quixote would be spurious. Don Quixote, Part One contains a number of stories which do not directly involve the two main characters, but which are narrated by some of
10906-666: The individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped lead literary practice beyond the narrow convention of the chivalric romance . He spoofs the chivalric romance through a straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero. The character of Don Quixote became so well known in its time that the word quixotic was quickly adopted by many languages. Characters such as Sancho Panza and Don Quixote's steed, Rocinante , are emblems of Western literary culture. The phrase " tilting at windmills " to describe an act of attacking imaginary enemies (or an act of extreme idealism), derives from an iconic scene in
11039-527: The language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated. (English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English .) In Old Castilian,
11172-417: The largest ethnic group living in the city, to leave Trabzon. However, already during the Russian occupation many Turks who had fled to surrounding villages started to return to the city, and governor Chrysantos helped them to re-establish their facilities such as schools, to the dismay of the Russians. In early 1917 Chrysantos tried to broker a peace between the Russians and the Ottomans, to no avail. During
11305-524: The letter x represented the sound written sh in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced [kiˈʃote] . However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative [ x ] sound (like the Scots or German ch ), and today the Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" is [kiˈxote] . The original pronunciation
11438-671: The local Mossynoeci had become estranged from the Mossynoecian capital, to the point of civil war. Xenophon's force resolved this in the rebels' favor, and so in Trebizond's interest. Up until the conquests of Alexander the Great the city remained under the dominion of the Achaemenids. While the Pontus was not directly affected by the war, its cities gained independence as a result of it. Local ruling families continued to claim partial Persian heritage, and Persian culture had some lasting influence on
11571-478: The lowest average minimum temperature is almost 5 °C (41 °F) in February. Precipitation is heaviest in autumn and winter, with a marked reduction in the summer months, a microclimatic condition of the city center compared to the rest of the region. Snowfall is somewhat common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two, and it can be heavy once it snows. The water temperature, like in
11704-507: The main meal in many restaurants in the city. Major exports from Trabzon include hazelnuts and tea . The city still has a sizable community of Greek-speaking Muslims , most of whom are originally from the vicinities of Tonya , Sürmene and Çaykara . However, the variety of the Pontic Greek language - known as " Romeika " in the local vernacular, Pontiaka in Greek, and Rumca in Turkish -
11837-437: The main source transshipping Byzantine silks into eastern Muslim countries. According to the 10th century Arab geographer Abul Feda it was regarded as being largely a Lazian port. The Italian maritime republics such as the Republic of Venice and in particular the Republic of Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries, using Trebizond as an important seaport for trading goods between Europe and Asia. Some of
11970-462: The massacre. Ivan Aivazovsky made the painting Massacre of the Armenians in Trebizond 1895 based on the events. Due to the high number of Western Europeans in the city, news from the region was being reported on in many European newspapers. These western newspapers were in turn also very popular among the residents of the city. Ottoman era paintings and drawings of Trebizond In 1901 the harbour
12103-417: The master swear to treat Andres fairly. However, the beating is resumed, and redoubled, as soon as Quixote leaves. Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo . He demands that they agree that Dulcinea del Toboso is the most beautiful woman in the world. One of them demands to see her picture so that he can decide for himself. Enraged, Quixote charges at them but his horse stumbles, causing him to fall. One of
12236-591: The meaning "hullabaloo, imbroglio". Before the city was founded as a Greek colony the area was dominated by Colchians (west Georgian) and Chaldian (Anatolian) tribes. The Hayasa , who had been in conflict with the Central-Anatolian Hittites in the 14th century BC, are believed to have lived in the area south of Trabzon. Later Greek authors mentioned the Macrones and the Chalybes as native peoples. One of
12369-926: The medical field, in that he knew medical author Francisco Díaz, an expert in urology, and royal doctor Antonio Ponce de Santa Cruz who served as a personal doctor to both Philip III and Philip IV of Spain. Apart from the personal relations Cervantes maintained within the medical field, Cervantes' personal life was defined by an interest in medicine. He frequently visited patients from the Hospital de Inocentes in Sevilla. Furthermore, Cervantes explored medicine in his personal library. His library contained more than 200 volumes and included books like Examen de Ingenios , by Juan Huarte and Practica y teórica de cirugía , by Dionisio Daza Chacón that defined medical literature and medical theories of his time. Researchers Isabel Sanchez Duque and Francisco Javier Escudero have found that Cervantes
12502-596: The name throughout the Middle Ages. These versions of the name, which have incidentally been used in English literature as well, include: Trebizonde ( Fr. ), Trapezunt ( German ), Trebisonda ( Sp. ), Trapesunta ( It. ), Trapisonda , Tribisonde , Terabesoun , Trabesun , Trabuzan , Trabizond and Tarabossan . In Spanish the name was known from chivalric romances and Don Quixote . Because of its similarity to trápala and trapaza , trapisonda acquired
12635-467: The new army of Mustafa Kemal (notably in Bafra and Santa ), but when nationalist Greeks came to Trabzon to proclaim revolution, they were not received with open arms by the local Pontic Greek population of the city. At the same time the Muslim population of the city, remembering their protection under Greek governor Chrysantos, protested the arrest of prominent Christians. Liberal delegates of Trebizond opposed
12768-412: The novel has an endless range of meanings, but that a recurring theme is the human need to withstand suffering. Edith Grossman , who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time. Grossman has stated: The question
12901-454: The only way to release Dulcinea from her spell is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes. Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master. Under the duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets his promised governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be a wise and practical ruler before all ends in humiliation. Near the end, Don Quixote reluctantly sways towards sanity. Quixote battles
13034-404: The peasant girls, Sancho goes on to pretend that an enchantment of some sort is at work. A duke and duchess encounter the duo. These nobles have read Part One of the story and are themselves very fond of books of chivalry. They decide to play along for their own amusement, beginning a string of imagined adventures and practical jokes. As part of one prank, Quixote and Sancho are led to believe that
13167-455: The poor farm labourer Sancho Panza , to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship. Sancho agrees and they sneak away at dawn. Their adventures together begin with Quixote's attack on some windmills which he believes to be ferocious giants. They next encounter two Benedictine friars and, nearby, an unrelated lady in a carriage. Quixote takes the friars to be enchanters who are holding the lady captive, knocks one of them from his horse, and
13300-473: The population exchange. Şükrü argued that recognition of ethnic diversity was not a threat to the Turkish nation. Topal Osman's men would eventually murder parliamentarian Şükrü for his criticism of the nationalist government of Mustafa Kemal in March 1923. Topal Osman was later sentenced to death and killed while resisting arrest. After pressure from the opposition, his headless body was hanged by his foot in front of
13433-407: The province during the first half of the 19th century, giving the region one of the highest literacy rates of the empire. First, the Greek community set up their schools, but soon the Muslim and Armenian communities followed. International schools were also established in the city; An American school, five French schools, a Persian school and a number of Italian schools were opened in the second half of
13566-611: The province greatly expanded due to increased living standards, many families and young men - mostly Christians , but also some Jews and Greek or Turkish speaking Muslims - chose to migrate to the Crimea and southern Ukraine, in search for farmland or employment in one of the cities which had been newly established there. Among these migrants were the grandparents of Bob Dylan and Greek politicians and artists. Many Christian and Muslim families from Trabzon also moved to Constantinople, where they established businesses or sought employment - such as
13699-489: The rest of Anatolia continued to exist throughout the 20th century, and still influences Turkish politics today. Even in the 21st century, politicians who hail from Trabzon are often faced with xenophobic attacks from both nationalist and conservative circles. During World War II shipping activity was limited because the Black Sea had again become a war zone. Hence, the most important export products, tobacco and hazelnuts , could not be sold and living standards degraded. As
13832-619: The rest of the Black Sea coast of Turkey, is generally mild, and fluctuates between 8 °C (46 °F) and 20 °C (68 °F) throughout the year. As of 1920, the port at Trabzon was considered "the most important of the Turkish Black Sea ports" by the British . It traded as far as Tabriz and Mosul . As of 1911, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey signed an agreement to develop
13965-460: The right to mint its own coin. Trebizond gained importance for its access to roads leading over the Zigana Pass to the Armenian frontier or the upper Euphrates valley. New roads were constructed from Persia and Mesopotamia under the rule of Vespasian . In the next century, the emperor Hadrian commissioned improvements to give the city a more structured harbor. The emperor visited the city in
14098-413: The road, in which the canon expresses his scorn for untruthful chivalric books, but Don Quixote defends them. The group stops to eat and lets Quixote out of the cage; he gets into a fight with a goatherd and with a group of pilgrims, who beat him into submission, before he is finally brought home. The narrator ends the story by saying that he has found manuscripts of Quixote's further adventures. Although
14231-489: The story, but dies of grief before he can finish. Lothario is killed in battle soon afterward and Camilla dies of grief. The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness. Character-naming in Don Quixote makes ample figural use of contradiction, inversion, and irony, such as the names Rocinante (a reversal) and Dulcinea (an allusion to illusion), and the word quixote itself, possibly
14364-489: The subtropical microclimate zone along the shore occupies a very narrow band due to the continuous parallel mountain range starting right at the coast is why local authorities still classify the city as oceanic, as this climate subtype is better representative of the entire coastal region of the province. Summers are warm, the average maximum temperature is around 28 °C (82 °F) in August, while winters are generally cool,
14497-410: The tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy , veracity and even nationalism. In exploring
14630-407: The time of Justinian , the city served as an important base in his Persian Wars, and Miller notes that a portrait of the general Belisarius "long adorned the church of St. Basil." An inscription above the eastern gate of the city, commemorated the reconstruction of the civic walls at Justinian's expense following an earthquake. At some point before the 7th century the university (Pandidakterion) of
14763-560: The topic of national identity and global citizenship . They were so influential that Bessarion was considered for the position of Pope , and George could survive as an academic even after being defamed for his heavy criticism of Plato. The Black Death arrived at the city in September 1347, probably via Kaffa . At that time the local aristocracy was engaged in the Trapezuntine Civil War . In 1340, Tur Ali Beg, an early ancestor of
14896-411: The traders beats up Quixote, who is left at the side of the road until a neighboring peasant brings him back home. While Quixote lies unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate , and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books. They seal up the room which contained the library, later telling Quixote that it was done by a wizard. Don Quixote asks his neighbour,
15029-487: The traditional English spelling-based pronunciation with the value of the letter x in modern English is still sometimes used, resulting in / ˈ k w ɪ k s ə t / or / ˈ k w ɪ k s oʊ t / . In Australian English , the preferred pronunciation amongst members of the educated classes was / ˈ k w ɪ k s ə t / until well into the 1970s, as part of a tendency for the upper class to "anglicise its borrowing ruthlessly". The traditional English rendering
15162-492: The transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity. The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general. Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss . The contrasts between
15295-463: The two parts are now published as a single work, Don Quixote, Part Two was a sequel published ten years after the original novel. In an early example of metafiction , Part Two indicates that several of its characters have read the first part of the novel and are thus familiar with the history and peculiarities of the two protagonists. Don Quixote and Sancho are on their way to El Toboso to meet Dulcinea, with Sancho aware that his story about Dulcinea
15428-480: The vicinity, who moved to Greece (founding the new towns of Nea Trapezounta, Pieria and Nea Trapezounta, Grevena amongst others). During the war Trebizond parliamentarian Ali Şükrü Bey had been one of the leading figures of the first Turkish opposition party . In his newspaper Tan , Şükrü and colleagues publicized critiques of the Kemalist government, such as towards the violence perpetrated against Greeks during
15561-502: The war, the Treaty of Sèvres was annulled and replaced with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). As part of this new treaty, Trebizond became part of the new Turkish Republic . The efforts of the pro- Ottoman , anti-nationalist population of Trebizond only postponed the inevitable, because the national governments of Turkey and Greece agreed to a mutual forced population exchange . This exchange included well over 100,000 Greeks from Trebizond and
15694-546: The way back home, Quixote and Sancho "resolve" the disenchantment of Dulcinea. Upon returning to his village, Quixote announces his plan to retire to the countryside as a shepherd, but his housekeeper urges him to stay at home. Soon after, he retires to his bed with a deathly illness, and later awakes from a dream, having fully become Alonso Quixano once more. Sancho tries to restore his faith and his interest in Dulcinea, but Quixano only renounces his previous ambition and apologizes for
15827-528: The winter of 1914–15, while during those same months the Russian navy bombarded the city a total of five times, taking 1300 lives. Especially the port quarter Çömlekçi and surrounding neighborhoods were targeted. In July 1915 most of the adult male Armenians of the city were marched off south in five convoys, towards the mines of Gümüşhane, never to be seen again. Other victims of the Armenian genocide were reportedly taken out to sea in boats which were then capsized. In some areas of Trebizond province - such as
15960-432: The wiser. Later, the maid's lover is discovered by Anselmo. Fearing that Anselmo will kill her, the maid says she will tell Anselmo a secret the next day. Anselmo tells Camilla that this is to happen, and Camilla expects that her affair is to be revealed. Lothario and Camilla flee that night. The maid flees the next day. Anselmo searches for them in vain before learning from a stranger of his wife's affair. He starts to write
16093-409: The word quixotic . Mark Twain referred to the book as having "swept the world's admiration for the mediaeval chivalry-silliness out of existence". It has been described by some as the greatest work ever written. For Cervantes and the readers of his day, Don Quixote was a one-volume book published in 1605, divided internally into four parts, not the first part of a two-part set. The mention in
16226-502: The year 129 as part of his inspection of the eastern border ( limes ). A mithraeum now serves as a crypt for the church and monastery of Panagia Theoskepastos ( Kızlar Manastırı ) in nearby Kizlara, east of the citadel and south of the modern harbor. Septimius Severus punished Trebizond for having supported his rival Pescennius Niger during the Year of the Five Emperors . In 257 the city
16359-411: Was "not an obscure town." Christianity had reached Trebizond by the third century, for during the reign of Diocletian occurred the martyrdom of Eugenius and his associates Candidius, Valerian, and Aquila. Eugenius had destroyed the statue of Mithras which overlooked the city from Mount Minthrion (Boztepe), and became the patron saint of the city after his death. Early Christians sought refuge in
16492-438: Was a complete fabrication. They reach the city at daybreak and decide to enter at nightfall. However, a bad omen frightens Quixote into retreat and they quickly leave. Sancho is instead sent out alone by Quixote to meet Dulcinea and act as a go-between. Sancho's luck brings three peasant girls along the road and he quickly tells Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting and as beautiful as ever. Since Quixote only sees
16625-547: Was a friend of the family Villaseñor, which was involved in a combat with Francisco de Acuña. Both sides combated disguised as medieval knights in the road from El Toboso to Miguel Esteban in 1581. They also found a person called Rodrigo Quijada, who bought the title of nobility of "hidalgo", and created diverse conflicts with the help of a squire. It is not certain when Cervantes began writing Part Two of Don Quixote , but he had probably not proceeded much further than Chapter LIX by late July 1614. In about September, however,
16758-536: Was also executed, for his alleged involvement in the İzmir plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal. The literal decapitation of the Turkish political opposition - which was in large part based in the Trabzon region - decreased the city's national influence, and led to a long-standing animosity between the Kemalists and the population of Trabzon. A political and cultural divide between the Eastern Black Sea Region and
16891-449: Was described as having "large leaves and a bright colour." Trabzon was known for producing poor quality cereals , mostly for local use. Trabzon produced a white green bean , which was sold in Europe. It was, as of 1920, the only vegetable exported out of the province. Poultry farming was also popular in Trabzon. Sericulture was seen in the area before 1914. The area produced copper , silver , zinc , iron and manganese . Copper
17024-592: Was equipped with cranes by Stothert & Pitt of Bath in England. In 1912 the Sümer Opera House was opened on the central Meydan square, being one of the first in the empire. The start of the First World War brought an abrupt end to the relatively peaceful and prosperous period the city had seen during the previous century. First Trebizond would lose many of its young male citizens at the Battle of Sarikamish in
17157-459: Was kept for local use by coppersmiths . During the Balkan Wars production ceased due to poor exportation and fuel supplies. Trabzon Airport opened in 1957. Don Quixote Don Quixote , the full title being The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha , is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes . It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615. Considered
17290-517: Was pillaged by the Goths , despite reportedly being defended by "10,000 above its usual garrison" and two bands of walls. Trebizond was subsequently rebuilt, pillaged again, by the Persians , in 258, and then rebuilt once more. It did not soon recover. Only in the reign of Diocletian does an inscription allude to the restoration of the city; Ammianus Marcellinus had nothing to say of Trebizond except that it
17423-434: Was probably used mostly for astrological purposes for the emperor and/or the church. Scientists and philosophers of Trebizond were among the first western thinkers to compare contemporaneous theories with classical Greek texts. Basilios Bessarion and George of Trebizond travelled to Italy and taught and published works on Plato and Aristotle , starting a fierce debate and literary tradition that continues to this day on
17556-499: Was reestablished. As part of the university Gregory Choniades opened a new academy of astronomy, which housed the best observatory outside Persia. Choniades brought with him the works of Shams al-Din al-Bukhari, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini from Tabriz, which he translated into Greek. These works later found their way to western Europe, together with the astrolabe . The observatory Choniades built would become known for its accurate solar eclipse predictions, but
17689-595: Was the longest surviving of the Byzantine successor states. Byzantine authors, such as Pachymeres , and to some extent Trapezuntines such as Lazaropoulos and Bessarion , regarded the Trebizond Empire as being no more than a Lazian border state. Thus from the point of view of the Byzantine writers connected with the Lascaris and later with the Palaiologos , the rulers of Trebizond were not emperors. Geographically,
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