Misplaced Pages

#174825

60-757: Black Kettle ( Cheyenne : Mo'ohtavetoo'o ) ( c.  1803  – November 27, 1868) was a leader of the Southern Cheyenne during the American Indian Wars . Born to the Northern Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o band of the Northern Cheyenne in the Black Hills of present-day South Dakota , he later married into the Wotápio / Wutapai band (one mixed Cheyenne- Kiowa band with Lakota Sioux origin) of

120-402: A dot over vowels . Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high [a] and [o] is also usually devoiced preceding h followed by a stop. Phonemic /h/ is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below. Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede

180-583: A family of settlers, an attack which the white people called the Hungate massacre after the family. Pro-war white people displayed the scalped bodies in Denver . Colorado governor John Evans believed tribal chiefs had ordered the attack and were intent on a full-scale war. Evans issued a proclamation ordering all "Friendly Indians of the Plains" to report to military posts or be considered "hostile". He sought and gained from

240-544: A key role for the series in the pilot episode. Dr. Quinn saves Black Kettle's life by performing a tracheotomy and removing a bullet lodged in his neck. She later receives a Cheyenne name from Black Kettle meaning "Medicine Woman". Black Kettle and the fate of his village are featured in Episode 4 of TNT miniseries Into the West . Black Kettle is portrayed by Wes Studi . On ska band Five Iron Frenzy 's Our Newest Album Ever! ,

300-571: A law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana , at Southwestern Oklahoma State University , and at Watonga High School in Watonga, Oklahoma . There are also holistic approaches to language revitalization taken upon by the Cheyenne people to try and keep their language vital. This

360-432: A military post until 1897. It has been used as a United States Army fort , a sanatorium , a neuropsychiatry facility, and a minimum security prison . The state closed the prison in 2011, and in early 2013 proposed to use the site as a rehabilitation center for homeless people. Then in late 2013 it became a rehabilitative transitional housing facility for homeless people with some form of substance abuse problem. This

420-481: A new fort called Fort Lyon was built near the present-day town of Las Animas, Colorado . The U.S. Army used Fort Lyon until 1897, when they abandoned it after the end of the Indian Wars . In 1906, the U.S. Navy opened a sanatorium there to treat sailors and Marines with tuberculosis . The dry climate and rest by isolation at the fort were thought to be beneficial by contemporary treatment methods. On 22 June 1922,

480-477: A o/ . The phoneme called /e/ here is usually pronounced as a phonetic [ɪ] , and sometimes varies to [ɛ] . These vowel qualities take four tones : high tone as in á [á] ); low tone as in a [à] ; mid tone as in ā [ā] ; and rising tone as in ô [ǒ] . Tones are often not represented in the orthography. Vowels can also be voiceless (e.g. ė [e̥] ). The high and low tones are phonemic , while voiceless vowels' occurrence

540-579: A peacemaker. Black Kettle National Grassland in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma and Hemphill County, Texas is named after him. Near the site of his death, in present-day Cheyenne, Oklahoma , the Black Kettle Museum commemorates his legacy. Black Kettle was a recurring character in the CBS family drama Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman for its first three seasons, played by Nick Ramus . Black Kettle plays

600-522: A phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs. (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)" Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, ⟨á⟩ , ⟨é⟩ , and ⟨ó⟩ . The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in

660-550: A prevailing hard line and continued warfare. Black Kettle's dwindling band proclaimed their desire to live peacefully alongside European Americans. Black Kettle signed yet another treaty, the Medicine Lodge Treaty , on October 28, 1867. The Dog Soldiers continued their raids and ambushes across Kansas, Texas, and Colorado. The relationship between the two groups is a subject of historical dispute. According to Little Rock , second-in-command of Black Kettle's village, most of

SECTION 10

#1733085832175

720-408: A stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch. A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not preceded by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high. A low vowel is raised to the high position when it follows a high and is followed by

780-464: A variety of dependent clause types. Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning. Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy. The third order governs commands. Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages, distinguishes two types of imperative mood , one indicating immediate action, and

840-463: A voiced vowel and followed by an [h] , a consonant, and two or more syllables. émane [ɪmaṅɪ] 'He is drinking.' Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced. The [h] is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels. There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne. Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have

900-487: A word final high. A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel. A high vowel becomes low if it comes after a high and followed by a phonetic low. According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes

960-706: Is a Plains Algonquian language . However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot , is an areal rather than genetic subgrouping. Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana and in Oklahoma . On the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in March 2013 there were approximately 10,050 enrolled tribal members, of which about 4,939 resided on

1020-489: Is a morphologically polysynthetic language with a sophisticated, agglutinating verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure. Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences. Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate noun classification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of clusivity in

1080-581: Is an increment before any remaining * k not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary h (replaced by š after e ) ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the * k gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio k clusters are all reduced to glottal catch." Cheyenne

1140-463: Is determined by the phonetic context , making them allophones of the voiced vowels. The Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation orthography ". In other words, it is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. ⟨e⟩ represents

1200-457: Is done by recognizing the integrated nature of the Cheyenne language with games, crafts, and ceremony which are integrated in youth and community programs. The language is very often not being taught in the home so instead of just teaching grammar as a revitalization effort, holistic approaches attract more attention from new speakers and educate the new generation and counter language and culture loss. Cheyenne has three basic vowel qualities /e

1260-473: Is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem. Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation. Thus, návóómo could mean both 'I see him' and 'I saw him' depending on the context. Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme /-h-/ , which changes to /-x-/ , /-s-/ , /-š-/ or /-'-/ before

SECTION 20

#1733085832175

1320-625: Is hard for me to believe white men any more. Black Kettle moved south and continued to negotiate with U.S. officials. He signed the Treaty of Little Arkansas River on October 14, 1865. By this document, the U.S. promised "perpetual peace" and lands in reparation for the Sand Creek massacre. However, its practical effect was to dispossess the Cheyenne yet again and require them to move to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma ). Black Kettle's influence continued to wane. Roman Nose and his Dog Soldiers took

1380-692: Is no current information on any other state in the United States regarding the Cheyenne language. The 2017 film Hostiles features extensive dialogue in Northern Cheyenne. The film's producers hired experts in the language and culture to ensure authenticity. In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of Chief Dull Knife College applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $ 50,000 language preservation planning grant . The department wanted to use this money to assess

1440-820: Is run by the Colorado Coalition for the Homeless and has been a developing program to the present day. The fort is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Part of the site, the Fort Lyon National Cemetery , which began burials in 1907, remains open. In July 1860, the Army rented Bent's New Fort and used it for storage of annuity goods for the Cheyenne and Arapaho. Annuity goods were provided by treaties in exchange for reduced access to ancestral land, such as hunting grounds. Barracks were built around

1500-588: The Arapaho surrendered to the commander of Fort Lyon under the Treaty of Fort Wise , believing he could gain protection for his people. The treaty was highly unfavorable to the Southern Cheyenne. Black Kettle visited Washington, D.C. , where President Abraham Lincoln gave him a large American flag. The Cheyenne led their bands to the Sand Creek reservation, which occupied a small corner of southeastern Colorado Territory about 40 miles from Fort Lyon . The land

1560-471: The Pike's Peak Gold Rush began in 1859. European Americans displaced the Cheyenne from their lands in violation of the treaty, and consumed important resources of water and game. Increasing competition eventually led to armed conflict between the groups. Chief Black Kettle was a pragmatist who believed that U.S. military power and the number of immigrants were overwhelming and unable to be resisted. In 1861, he and

1620-521: The Sand Creek massacre . To prevent word spreading of the impending attack, Chivington had guards posted at the fort to prevent people and mail from reaching Sand Creek. In 1866 after flooding on the Arkansas River , the U.S. Army relocated Ft. Lyon 20 miles upstream to a site near Las Animas. The new facility was completed in 1867 and the old site, including Bent's New Fort, was abandoned. In 1867,

1680-555: The War Department authorization to establish the Third Colorado Cavalry . Colonel John M. Chivington led the unit, composed predominantly of "100-daysers", who enlisted for limited 100-day terms specifically for fighting against the Cheyenne and Arapaho. Black Kettle decided to accept Evans' offer and entered negotiations. On September 28, he concluded a peace settlement at Fort Weld outside Denver. The agreement assigned

1740-545: The -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively. Thus: Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme /-hte/ , which changes to -htse after the ná- pronominal, -stse after ne- and -tse in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether. These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker. Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to

1800-756: The Cheyenne language: As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare matšėškōme 'raccoon' and mátšėškomeo'o  'raccoons'). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for 'badger' has a permanent accent position: ma'háhko'e (sg.), ma'háhko'eo'o (pl.) The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, * n and * h drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before * k . * k then drops except in element-final position. Next, there

1860-505: The Southern Cheyenne to the Sand Creek reservation and required them to report to Fort Lyon , formerly Fort Wise. Black Kettle believed the agreement would ensure the safety of his people. After he went to the reservation, the commanding officer at the fort was replaced by one who was an ally of Chivington. Ambitious, Chivington felt pressure from Governor Evans to make use of the Third Colorado Cavalry before their terms expired at

Black Kettle - Misplaced Pages Continue

1920-600: The Southern Cheyenne. Black Kettle is often remembered as a peacemaker who accepted treaties with the U.S. government to protect his people. On November 27, 1868, while attempting to escape the Battle of Washita River with his wife, he was shot and killed by soldiers of the U.S. 7th Cavalry . Black Kettle was born around 1803 in South Dakota into the Cheyenne Nation. Little is known of Black Kettle's life prior to 1854, when he

1980-576: The Union, it was renamed Fort Lyon in 1862 for Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon , who had been the first Union general killed in the Civil War. In 1861, the Treaty of Fort Wise was signed at the fort. The goal, which was short-lived, was to ensure peace between settlers and the Cheyenne and Arapaho people. Old Fort Lyon was the staging post used by Colonel John Chivington in 1864 as he led an attack on friendly Cheyenne and Arapaho camps that became known as

2040-681: The Veteran's Bureau assumed operations. In 1930, administration of the hospital was transferred to the newly created Veterans Administration . Within three years, the VA designated Fort Lyon a neuropsychiatry facility. In 2001 the hospital was closed and the facility was turned over to the state of Colorado for conversion to a minimum security prison . The prison was closed in 2011. In September 2013, Governor John Hickenlooper announced that Fort Lyon had reopened as an isolated transitional housing facility for homeless people with substance abuse issues operated by

2100-437: The addition of an affix to the basic verb stem. There are also several instrumental , locative and adverbial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction. This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right. All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure. The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm: Cheyenne represents

2160-415: The addition of suffixes. These suffixes are irregular and can change slightly according to a complex system of phonological rules. Fort Lyon Fort Lyon was composed of two 19th-century military fort complexes in southeastern Colorado. The initial fort, also called Fort Wise , operated from 1860 to 1867. After a flood in 1866, a new fort was built near Las Animas, Colorado , which operated as

2220-430: The animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself. Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object. All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI). Following are

2280-431: The consonants [t] , [s] , [ʃ] , [k] , or [x] followed by an [e] . The rule is linked to the rule of e - epenthesis , which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary. A vowel that does not have a high pitch is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by [h] . Non-high [a] and [o] become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by

2340-541: The degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Following this, the department wanted to use the compiled data to establish long-term community language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and curriculum guide. In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual Language Immersion Camp. This event

2400-459: The end of 1864. On November 28, Chivington arrived with 700 men at Fort Lyon. According to an eyewitness, John S. Smith: [H]e stopped all persons from going on ahead of him. He stopped the mail, and would not allow any person to go on ahead of him at the time he was on his way from Denver city to Fort Lyon. He placed a guard around old Colonel Bent, the former agent there; he stopped a Mr. Hagues and many men who were on their way to Fort Lyon. He took

2460-642: The first person plural pronoun. Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm. Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality. The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011) and Mithun (1999). This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of evidentiality . This order governs

Black Kettle - Misplaced Pages Continue

2520-535: The fort and additional defensive features were added, like diamond-shaped gun emplacements on newly erected earthenworks that surrounded the fort. At the same time (1860) the Army constructed a new fort about one-half mile west of Bent's New Fort adjacent to the Arkansas river, naming it Fort Wise for Henry A. Wise , the governor of Virginia. After the start of the American Civil War and Virginia's secession from

2580-427: The fort by surprise, and as soon as he got there he posted pickets all around the fort, and then left at 8 o'clock that night for this Indian camp. At dawn on November 29, Chivington attacked the Sand Creek reservation; the event became known as the Sand Creek massacre . Most of the warriors were out hunting. Following Indian agent instructions, Black Kettle flew an American flag and a white flag from his tipi , but

2640-558: The morning of November 27, 1868, Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer led his 7th Cavalry Regiment to attack Chief Black Kettle and his village along the Washita River in what is now western Oklahoma . Custer's troops killed more than 100 Native Americans, mostly Southern Cheyenne. While trying to cross the Washita River, Black Kettle and his wife were shot in the back and killed. The Cheyenne have recognized Black Kettle as

2700-532: The most common object agreement markers for each verb class. Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix -sâa- immediately after the pronominal affix. This morpheme changes to sáa- in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions. Nouns are classified according to animacy. They change according to grammatical number (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to gender or definiteness . When two third persons are referred to by

2760-430: The other indicating delayed action. The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language, to the point that even adjectives and even some nouns are largely substantive in nature. Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as modality , person and transitivity , as well as the animacy of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by

2820-475: The participants of an expression not as separate pronoun words but as affixes on the verb . There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne: These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix ná- can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive. Tense in Cheyenne

2880-422: The phoneme symbolized /e/ , and ⟨š⟩ represents /ʃ/ . Low tone is usually unmarked. The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows: 0 indicates the value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because

2940-435: The post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). Parentheses enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules. Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. [x] is written as ⟨x⟩ orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with

3000-554: The presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns. These forms could be likened to a kind of passive voice , although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed. This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms. Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by

3060-658: The reservation; slightly more than a quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Cheyenne language is considered "definitely endangered " in Montana and "critically endangered" in Oklahoma by the UNESCO . In Montana the number of speakers were about 1700 in 2012 according to the UNESCO. In 2021 there were approximately 300 elderly speakers. In 2021 in Oklahoma there were fewer than 20 elderly speakers. There

SECTION 50

#1733085832175

3120-439: The same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person." It is essentially an "out of focus" third person. As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun. If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically -o or -óho . For example: Verbs register

3180-571: The signal was ignored. The 3rd Colorado Cavalry killed 163 Cheyenne by shooting or stabbing. They burned down the village encampment. Most of the victims were women and children. For months afterward, members of the militia displayed trophies in Denver of their battle, including body parts they had taken for souvenirs. Black Kettle escaped the massacre and returned to rescue his severely injured wife, who suffered nine bullet and shrapnel wounds. He continued to counsel pacifism, believing that military resistance

3240-591: The song "Banner Year" is about Black Kettle, how he was betrayed, and his eventual murder at the hands of Custer. Deathcab for Cutie 's 2022 album Asphalt Meadows references Black Kettle during the Sand Creek Massacre in the song/spoken word piece "Foxglove Through The Clearcut." Cheyenne language Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages , which is a sub-category of the Algic languages . Specifically, it

3300-648: The verb stem. Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample. This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part. Thus: énėše'xahtse ('he-wash-mouth') = 'he gargled'. Following is a sample of medial suffixes: Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in: ka'énė-hôtame [short-face-dog] = 'bulldog' Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon

3360-519: The warriors came back to Black Kettle's camp after their attacks. White prisoners, including children, were held within his encampment. By this time Black Kettle's influence was waning, and it is unclear whether he could have stopped the younger warriors' actions. In response to the continued raids and massacres, General Philip Sheridan devised a plan of punitive reprisals. He planned to attack Cheyenne winter encampments, destroying both supplies and livestock, and killing any people who resisted. At dawn on

3420-519: Was doomed to fail. The majority of the Southern Cheyenne chiefs disagreed. Allied with the Comanche and Kiowa , they went to war against U.S. civilians and military forces. Black Kettle said of that time: Although wrongs have been done me, I live in hopes. I have not got two hearts.... I once thought that I was the only man that persevered to be the friend of the white man, but since they have come and cleaned out our lodges, horses, and everything else, it

3480-631: Was made a chief of the Council of Forty-four , the central government of the Cheyenne tribe. The Council met regularly at the Sun Dance gatherings, where they affirmed unity. After 1851, relations between the Cheyenne and the U.S. government were nominally conducted under the Treaty of Fort Laramie . Still, the U.S. government remained unwilling to control white expansion into the Great Plains , particularly after

3540-742: Was not arable and was located far away from buffalo , their major source of meat. Many Cheyenne warriors, including the Dog Soldiers , did not accept the treaty and began to attack white settlers. Whether Black Kettle opposed these actions, tolerated them, or encouraged them remains controversial among historians. By the summer of 1864, the situation had reached a boiling point. Southern Cheyenne hardliners, along with allied Kiowa and Arapaho bands, raided American settlements for livestock and supplies. Sometimes they took captives, generally only women and children, to adopt into their tribes as replacements for lost members. On June 11, 1864, indigenous people killed

3600-442: Was organized into two weeklong sessions, and its aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5–10-year-olds, while the second session focused on 11- to 18-year-olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The state of Montana has passed

#174825