150-405: Marie François Xavier Bichat ( / b iː ˈ ʃ ɑː / ; French: [biʃa] ; 14 November 1771 – 22 July 1802) was a French anatomist and pathologist , known as the father of modern histology . Although he worked without a microscope , Bichat distinguished 21 types of elementary tissues from which the organs of the human body are composed. He was also "the first to propose that tissue
300-412: A basal lamina , the upper layer of the basement membrane , the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on
450-450: A copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid . Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in
600-481: A microscope . Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy , has been reorganized from
750-470: A sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans . They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development . Metazoans do not include the sponges , which have undifferentiated cells. Unlike plant cells , animal cells have neither
900-402: A "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body. Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded due to a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of
1050-399: A bacillus that he suspected was the cause of typhoid. Eberth is given credit for discovering the bacterium definitively by successfully isolating the same bacterium from 18 of 40 typhoid victims and failing to discover the bacterium present in any "control" victims of other diseases. In 1884, pathologist Georg Theodor August Gaffky (1850–1918) confirmed Eberth's findings. Gaffky isolated
1200-528: A cell wall nor chloroplasts . Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cells, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids , cytoplasm and a nucleus . All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers . Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and
1350-490: A chlorination tablet to drop into the water. The Lyster bag was essential for the survival of American soldiers in the Vietnam War . There were several occurrences of milk delivery men spreading typhoid fever throughout the communities they served. Although typhoid is not spread through milk itself, there were several examples of milk distributors in many locations watering their milk down with contaminated water, or cleaning
1500-433: A class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen . Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At
1650-552: A coat of glycoproteins . In more advanced animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells. Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle , skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle . Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over
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#17328632357151800-483: A common type of food poisoning. Diagnosis is performed by culturing and identifying S. enterica typhi from patient samples or detecting an immune response to the pathogen from blood samples . Recently, new advances in large-scale data collection and analysis have allowed researchers to develop better diagnostics, such as detecting changing abundances of small molecules in the blood that may specifically indicate typhoid fever. Diagnostic tools in regions where typhoid
1950-469: A distinction of 21 different tissues. As worded by A. S. Weber, As soon as it appeared (January and February of 1800), it was regarded as a basic and classic text. It was cited in a host of other works, and almost all thinking men placed it with honor in their libraries. His next publication was the Recherches physiologiques sur la vie et la mort ( Physiological Researches upon Life and Death , 1800), and it
2100-457: A few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye. Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain
2250-455: A funeral service at Notre-Dame . Bichat is considered to have been a vitalist , though in no way an anti-experimentalist: Bichat moved from the tendency typical of the French vitalistic tradition to progressively free himself from metaphysics in order to combine with hypotheses and theories which accorded to the scientific criteria of physics and chemistry. According to Russell C. Maulitz, "of
2400-513: A high metabolic rate , a light skeletal system and powerful muscles . The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks. The feathers are outgrowths of
2550-435: A large outbreak and a carrier at the genome level provides new insight into the pathogenesis of the pathogen. In industrialized nations, water sanitation and food handling improvements have reduced the number of typhoid cases. Third world nations have the highest rates. These areas lack access to clean water, proper sanitation systems, and proper health-care facilities. In these areas, such access to basic public-health needs
2700-746: A mammal. Humans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen ), two arms and hands, and two legs and feet. Generally, students of certain biological sciences , paramedics , prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists , occupational therapists , nurses , podiatrists , and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers . The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology ) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under
2850-431: A microscope because he distrusted it; therefore his analyses did not include any acknowledgement of cellular structure. Nonetheless, he formed an important bridge between the organ pathology of Giovanni Battista Morgagni and the cell pathology of Rudolf Virchow . Bichat "recognized disease as a localized condition that began in specific tissues." Michel Foucault regarded Bichat as the chief architect in developing
3000-421: A positive test. A single control band indicates a negative test. A single first fixed line or no band at all indicates an invalid test. Typhidot's biggest limitation is that it is not quantitative, just positive or negative. The Tubex test contains two types of particles: brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody. During the test, if antibodies are present in
3150-420: A pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist. In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and
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#17328632357153300-462: A reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones , the class which CIP belongs ( MIC 0.125–1.0 mg/L), would not be detected by this method. In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths. It occurs most often in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old. In 2013, it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990. Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia have
3450-423: A ses corps simples, qui forment, par les combinaisons diverses dont ils sont susceptibles, les corps composés [...]. De même, l'anatomie a ses tissus simples, qui, par leurs combinaisons [...] forment les organes. Chemistry possesses its simple bodies, which, by various combinations, form compound bodies [...]. Likewise anatomy has its simple tissues, which by combining [..] compose the organs. Bichat did not use
3600-563: A short bacillus in the organs and feces of typhoid victims in 1874. Browicz was able to isolate and grow the bacilli but did not go as far as to insinuate or prove that they caused the disease. In April 1880, three months prior to Eberth's publication, Edwin Klebs described short and filamentous bacilli in the Peyer's patches in typhoid victims. The bacterium's role in disease was speculated but not confirmed. In 1880, Karl Joseph Eberth described
3750-543: A skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization , as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects . An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed. Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules , with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on
3900-568: A specific 50 Kd OMP antigen. This test is carried out on a cellulose nitrate membrane where a specific S. typhi outer membrane protein is attached as fixed test lines. It separately identifies IgM and IgG antibodies. IgM shows recent infection; IgG signifies remote infection. The sample pad of this kit contains colloidal gold-anti-human IgG or gold-anti-human IgM. If the sample contains IgG and IgM antibodies against those antigens, they will react and turn red. The typhidot test becomes positive within 2–3 days of infection. Two colored bands indicate
4050-498: A specific disease, unique from typhus . Both doctors performed autopsies on individuals who died in Paris due to fever – and indicated that many had lesions on the Peyer's patches which correlated with distinct symptoms before death. British medics were skeptical of the differentiation between typhoid and typhus because both were endemic to Britain at that time. However, in France only typhoid
4200-497: A systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology . Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells. Invertebrates constitute
4350-670: A total of 1,098 cases, 90.9% of which were travel-related, mainly acquired during travel to South Asia . The plague of Athens , during the Peloponnesian War , was most likely an outbreak of typhoid fever. During the war, Athenians retreated into a walled-in city to escape attack from the Spartans . This massive influx of humans into a concentrated space overwhelmed the water supply and waste infrastructure, likely leading to unsanitary conditions as fresh water became harder to obtain and waste became more difficult to collect and remove beyond
4500-466: A vaccination program starting in 1999. Vaccination has proven effective at controlling outbreaks in high-incidence areas and is also very cost-effective: prices are normally less than US$ 1 per dose. Because the price is low, poverty-stricken communities are more willing to take advantage of the vaccinations. Although vaccination programs for typhoid have proven effective, they alone cannot eliminate typhoid fever. Combining vaccines with public-health efforts
4650-431: A vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus , lobster and dragonfly . They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into
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4800-479: A vertebrate is the vertebral column , formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae . In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs . However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth , retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because
4950-693: A vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs . The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey. Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and
5100-496: A victim; no one has done in the same time so much and so well. Ten days after this, the French government caused his name, together with that of Desault, to be inscribed on a memorial plaque at the Hôtel-Dieu. Bichat was first buried at Sainte-Catherine Cemetery. With the closing of the latter, his remains were transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery on 16 November 1845, followed by "a cortège of upwards of two thousand persons" after
5250-594: A wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers . Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle
5400-510: A work in which, although he professes only to set forth the ideas of another, he develops them "with the clearness of one who is a master of the subject." In 1798, he gave in addition a separate course of physiology. A dangerous attack of haemoptysis interrupted his labors for a time; but the danger was no sooner past than he plunged into new engagements with the same ardour as before. Bichat's next book, Traité des membranes ( Treatise on Membranes ), included his doctrine of tissue pathology with
5550-467: Is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. Based on MLST subtyping scheme, the two main sequence types of the S. Typhi are ST1 and ST2, which are widespread globally. Global phylogeographical analysis showed dominance of a haplotype 58 (H58), which probably originated in India during the late 1980s and is now spreading through the world with multi-drug resistance . A more detailed genotyping scheme
5700-453: Is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin . Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice. Cefixime is a suitable oral alternative. Properly treated, typhoid fever is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics such as ampicillin , chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole , amoxicillin , and ciprofloxacin have been commonly used to treat it. Treatment with antibiotics reduces
5850-414: Is a central element in human anatomy , and he considered organs as collections of often disparate tissues, rather than as entities in themselves". Although Bichat was "hardly known outside the French medical world" at the time of his early death, forty years later "his system of histology and pathological anatomy had taken both the French and English medical worlds by storm." The Bichatian tissue theory
6000-419: Is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans , which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. Macroscopic anatomy , or gross anatomy,
6150-468: Is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain , constipation , headaches , and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots . In severe cases, people may experience confusion. Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months. Diarrhea may be severe, but is uncommon. Other people may carry it without being affected, but are still contagious. Typhoid fever
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6300-453: Is a type of enteric fever, along with paratyphoid fever . Salmonella enterica Typhi is believed to infect and replicate only within humans. Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestines , Peyer's patches , mesenteric lymph nodes , spleen , liver , gallbladder , bone marrow and blood . Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with
6450-708: Is better at treating resistant typhoid than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. Azithromycin can be taken by mouth and is less expensive than ceftriaxone, which is given by injection. A separate problem exists with laboratory testing for reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin; current recommendations are that isolates should be tested simultaneously against ciprofloxacin (CIP) and against nalidixic acid (NAL), that isolates sensitive to both CIP and NAL should be reported as "sensitive to ciprofloxacin", and that isolates sensitive to CIP but not to NAL should be reported as "reduced sensitivity to ciprofloxacin". But an analysis of 271 isolates found that around 18% of isolates with
6600-483: Is between 1% and 4%. Typhus is a different disease, caused by unrelated species of bacteria. Owing to their similar symptoms, they were not recognized as distinct diseases until the 1800s. "Typhoid" means "resembling typhus". Classically, the progression of untreated typhoid fever has three distinct stages, each lasting about a week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes exhausted and emaciated. The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever
6750-538: Is common, vaccination is recommended. Other efforts to prevent it include providing clean drinking water , good sanitation , and handwashing . Until an infection is confirmed as cleared, the infected person should not prepare food for others. Typhoid is treated with antibiotics such as azithromycin , fluoroquinolones , or third-generation cephalosporins . Resistance to these antibiotics has been developing, which has made treatment more difficult. In 2015, 12.5 million new typhoid cases were reported. The disease
6900-541: Is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy . However, substantially similar structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom, and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy . The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted
7050-412: Is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile , the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions. The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches, including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy
7200-473: Is found in the walls of the uterus , bladder , intestines , stomach , oesophagus , respiratory airways , and blood vessels . Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart , allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish ),
7350-529: Is generally undertaken while awaiting the results of the Widal test and blood and stool cultures. The Widal test is used to identify specific antibodies in the serum of people with typhoid by using antigen-antibody interactions. In this test, the serum is mixed with a dead bacterial suspension of Salmonella with specific antigens. If the patient's serum contains antibodies against those antigens, they get attached to them, forming clumps. If clumping does not occur,
7500-455: Is indicated for patients with multiple perforations. If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is sometimes successful, especially in patients with gallstones , but is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state because of persisting hepatic infection. As resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and streptomycin
7650-429: Is less than 1%, but 3–5% of people who are infected develop a chronic infection in the gall bladder. Since S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is human-restricted, these chronic carriers become the crucial reservoir, which can persist for decades for further spread of the disease, further complicating its identification and treatment. Lately, the study of S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi associated with
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#17328632357157800-448: Is most common in India. Children are most commonly affected. Typhoid decreased in the developed world in the 1940s as a result of improved sanitation and the use of antibiotics. Every year about 400 cases are reported in the U.S. and an estimated 6,000 people have typhoid. In 2015, it resulted in about 149,000 deaths worldwide – down from 181,000 in 1990. Without treatment, the risk of death may be as high as 20%. With treatment, it
7950-453: Is most prevalent are quite limited in their accuracy and specificity, and the time required for a proper diagnosis, the increasing spread of antibiotic resistance , and the cost of testing are also hardships for under-resourced healthcare systems. A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 40–90% of cases during the first two years. The vaccine may have some effect for up to seven years. For those at high risk or people traveling to areas where it
8100-532: Is not expected in the near future. In 2004–2005 an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in more than 42,000 cases and 214 deaths. Since November 2016, Pakistan has had an outbreak of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid fever. In Europe, a report based on data for 2017 retrieved from The European Surveillance System (TESSy) on the distribution of confirmed typhoid and paratyphoid fever cases found that 22 EU/EEA countries reported
8250-623: Is now common, these agents are no longer used as first–line treatment of typhoid fever. Typhoid resistant to these agents is known as multidrug-resistant typhoid. Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . Many centres are shifting from ciprofloxacin to ceftriaxone as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, or Vietnam. Also, it has been suggested that azithromycin
8400-500: Is possible that the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar had either a liver abscess or typhoid fever, and survived by using ice baths and cold compresses as a means of treatment for his fever. There is a statue of the Greek physician, Antonius Musa , who treated his fever. The French doctors Pierre-Fidele Bretonneau and Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis are credited with describing typhoid fever as
8550-492: Is someone who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in stool a year after the acute stage of the infection. Diagnosis is made by any blood , bone marrow , or stool cultures and with the Widal test (demonstration of antibodies against Salmonella antigens O-somatic and H-flagellar ). In epidemics and less wealthy countries, after excluding malaria , dysentery , or pneumonia , a therapeutic trial time with chloramphenicol
8700-489: Is startlingly rapid". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi , Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, thorax, head, and limbs. It
8850-430: Is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology , embryology , comparative anatomy , evolutionary biology , and phylogeny , as these are
9000-426: Is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy . Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology , and also in the study of cells . The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of
9150-461: Is the mode of existence of living bodies that everything surrounding them tends to destroy them. Bichat thought that animals exhibited vital properties which could not be explained through physics or chemistry. In his Physiological Researches , he considered life to be separable into two parts: the organic life (" vie organique "; also sometimes called the vegetative system) and the animal life (" vie animale ", or animal system). The organic life
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#17328632357159300-695: Is the only proven way to control this disease. Since the 1990s, the WHO has recommended two typhoid fever vaccines. The ViPS vaccine is given by injection, and the Ty21a by capsules. Only people over age two are recommended to be vaccinated with the ViPS vaccine, and it requires a revaccination after 2–3 years, with a 55–72% efficacy. The Ty21a vaccine is recommended for people five and older, lasting 5–7 years with 51–67% efficacy. The two vaccines have proved safe and effective for epidemic disease control in multiple regions. A version of
9450-437: Is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues . It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry , which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist
9600-405: Is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition). Regional anatomy is the study of
9750-411: Is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins , have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose
9900-590: The Hippocratic Corpus , an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection . Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins . Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period . In
10050-604: The Platonic and later Christian division of body and soul, and the animism of Paracelsus , van Helmont , Georg Stahl and the Montpellier school of medicine. Bichat's main contribution to medicine and physiology was his perception that the diverse body of organs contain particular tissues or membranes , and he described 21 such membranes, including connective, muscle, and nerve tissue. As he explained in Anatomie générale , La chimie
10200-506: The Triassic period. There is one living species, Sphenodon punctatus . The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and
10350-400: The epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs
10500-529: The extracellular matrix . Often called fascia (from the Latin "fascia," meaning "band" or "bandage"), connective tissues give shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue , fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins , the chief and most abundant of which is collagen . Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form
10650-450: The feces of an infected person. Risk factors include limited access to clean drinking water and poor sanitation . Those who have not yet been exposed to it and ingest contaminated drinking water or food are most at risk for developing symptoms. Only humans can be infected; there are no known animal reservoirs. Salmonella Typhi which causes typhoid fever is different than the other Salmonella bacteria that usually cause salmonellosis ,
10800-461: The mouthparts . The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs , one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings . The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive , respiratory , excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts. Spiders
10950-400: The stomach . All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics: a stiffening rod, the notochord ; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube ; pharyngeal arches ; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above
11100-751: The École de Chirurgie in Paris, with the support of members of the Medical Congress of France which was held in 1845. Bichat is also represented on the Panthéon 's pediment, of which the bas-relief is D'Angers' work as well. The name of Bichat is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower . His name was given to the Bichat–Claude Bernard Hospital . George Eliot enthusiastically recounted Bichat's career in her 1872 novel Middlemarch . In Madame Bovary (1856), Gustave Flaubert , himself
11250-410: The 10th, he took an emetic ; on the 15th, he passed into a coma and became convulsive." Bichat died on 22 July, aged 30. Jean-Nicolas Corvisart wrote to the first consul Napoleon Bonaparte : Bichat vient de mourir sur un champ de bataille qui compte aussi plus d'une victime; personne en si peu de temps n'a fait tant de choses et si bien. Bichat has fallen on a field of battle which numbers many
11400-420: The 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum , an anatomist, clinician , writer, and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through the dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively
11550-438: The Hôtel-Dieu. "He engaged in a series of examinations, with a view to ascertain the changes induced in the various organs by disease, and in less than six months he had opened above six hundred bodies. He was anxious also to determine with more precision than had been attempted before, the effects of remedial agents, and instituted with this view a series of direct experiments which yielded a vast store of valuable material. Towards
11700-490: The Montpellier vitalists, the clearest influence on Bichat was probably Théophile de Bordeu (1722–1776), whose widely disseminated writings on the vitalistic interpretation of life fell early into Bichat's hands." In his Physiological Researches upon Life and Death (1800), Bichat defined life as "the totality of those set of functions which resist death", adding: Tel est en effet le mode d'existence des corps vivans, que tout ce qui les entoure tend à les détruire. Such
11850-624: The Peyer's patches by examining sixty-six autopsies from fever patients and concluding that the symptoms of headaches, diarrhea, rash spots, and abdominal pain were present only in patients who were found to have intestinal lesions after death; these observations solidified the association of the disease with the intestinal tract and gave the first clue to the route of transmission. In 1847 William Budd learned of an epidemic of typhoid fever in Clifton, and identified that all 13 of 34 residents who had contracted
12000-655: The Société Médicale d'Émulation, which provided an intellectual platform for debating problems in medicine. In 1797, Bichat began a course of anatomical demonstrations, and his success encouraged him to extend the plan of his lectures, and boldly to announce a course of operative surgery . At the same time, he was working to reunite and digest in one body the surgical doctrines which Desault had published in various periodical works; of these he composed Œuvres chirurgicales de Desault, ou tableau de sa doctrine, et de sa pratique dans le traitement des maladies externes (1798–1799),
12150-556: The US was made in 1908 to the Jersey City, New Jersey , water supply. Credit for the decision to build the chlorination system has been given to John L. Leal . The chlorination facility was designed by George W. Fuller . Outbreaks in traveling military groups led to the creation of the Lyster bag in 1915: a bag with a faucet which can be hung from a tree or pole, filled with water, and comes with
12300-531: The arts and sciences from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling other Greek states' cultural and scientific achievements. Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus . These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research, using
12450-490: The atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system and characterizing the course of the disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus
12600-518: The basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system . The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle , and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle , certain glands and internal organs, including
12750-425: The biliary tract after symptoms have resolved. Surgery is usually indicated if intestinal perforation occurs. One study found a 30-day mortality rate of 9% (8/88), and surgical site infections at 67% (59/88), with the disease burden borne predominantly by low-resource countries. For surgical treatment, most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum . Small-bowel resection
12900-462: The body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side. Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles , tuataras , lizards , snakes and crocodiles . They are tetrapods , but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of
13050-399: The brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves. Incredible feats were made during the third century BCE in both
13200-516: The cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works, making impressive contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that
13350-591: The case-fatality rate to about 1%. Without treatment, some patients develop sustained fever, bradycardia, hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal symptoms, and occasionally pneumonia. In white-skinned patients, pink spots, which fade on pressure, appear on the skin of the trunk in up to 20% of cases. In the third week, untreated cases may develop gastrointestinal and cerebral complications, which may prove fatal in 10–20% of cases. The highest case fatality rates are reported in children under 4. Around 2–5% of those who contract typhoid fever become chronic carriers, as bacteria persist in
13500-564: The city conducted an investigation of typhoid symptoms and cases along his route and found evidence of a significant outbreak. A month after the outbreak was first reported, the Boston Globe published a short statement declaring the outbreak over, stating "[a]t Jamaica Plain there is a slight increase, the total being 272 cases. Throughout the city there is a total of 348 cases." There was at least one death reported during this outbreak: Mrs. Sophia S. Engstrom, aged 46. Typhoid continued to ravage
13650-418: The city walls. In 2006, examining the remains for a mass burial site from Athens from around the time of the plague (~430 B.C.) revealed that fragments of DNA similar to modern day S. Typhi DNA were detected, whereas Yersinia pestis (plague), Rickettsia prowazekii (typhus), Mycobacterium tuberculosis , cowpox virus , and Bartonella henselae were not detected in any of the remains tested. It
13800-418: The dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers. Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in
13950-402: The digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus discovered and described not only the salivary glands but also the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland. The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in
14100-462: The disease drew their drinking water from the same well. Notably, this observation was two years prior to John Snow first publishing an early version of his theory that contaminated water was the central conduit for transmitting cholera . Budd later became health officer of Bristol and ensured a clean water supply, and documented further evidence of typhoid as a water-borne illness throughout his career. Polish scientist Tadeusz Browicz described
14250-402: The egg-laying monotremes , the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials , the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a teat and completes its development. Humans have the overall body plan of
14400-478: The elimination of typhoid fever, as it eliminated the public-health hazards associated with having horse manure in public streets, which led to a large number of flies, which are vectors of many pathogens, including Salmonella spp. According to statistics from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the chlorination of drinking water has led to dramatic decreases in the transmission of typhoid fever. Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for
14550-523: The end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ . In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus , an Ancient Egyptian medical text , described the heart and its vessels, as well as the brain and its meninges and cerebrospinal fluid , and the liver , spleen , kidneys , uterus and bladder . It showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus ( c. 1550 BCE ) features
14700-469: The end of his life he was also engaged on a new classification of diseases." On 8 July 1802, Bichat fell in a faint while descending a set of stairs at the Hôtel-Dieu. He had been spending considerable time examining some macerated skin, "and from which, of course, putrid emanations were being sent forth", during which he probably contracted typhoid fever ; "the next day he complained of a violent headache; that night, leeches were applied behind his ears; on
14850-467: The epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with
15000-413: The epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms , sponges and some cephalopods . Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes
15150-429: The epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi . Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin . The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle . In simple animals this may just be
15300-610: The equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia , food may be gathered by phagocytosis , energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton . Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies. Metazoans are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of
15450-405: The father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring. Arthropods comprise
15600-435: The feathers when the bird preens . There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes. Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs, but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins, and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below
15750-443: The features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum , and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales . Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into
15900-555: The first half of the 20th century due to vaccinations and advances in public sanitation and hygiene. In 1893 attempts were made to chlorinate the water supply in Hamburg , Germany and in 1897 Maidstone , England, was the first town to have its entire water supply chlorinated. In 1905, following an outbreak of typhoid fever, the City of Lincoln, England , instituted permanent water chlorination. The first permanent disinfection of drinking water in
16050-406: The glass bottles the milk was placed in with contaminated water. Boston had two such cases around the turn of the 20th century. In 1899 there were 24 cases of typhoid traced to a single milkman, whose wife had died of typhoid fever a week before the outbreak. In 1908, J.J. Fallon, who was also a milkman, died of typhoid fever. Following his death and confirmation of the typhoid fever diagnosis,
16200-482: The head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales . They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder . Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases. The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from
16350-469: The highest rates of typhoid. Outbreaks are also often reported in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. In 2000, more than 90% of morbidity and mortality due to typhoid fever occurred in Asia. In the U.S., about 400 cases occur each year, 75% of which are acquired while traveling internationally. Before the antibiotic era, the case fatality rate of typhoid fever was 10–20%. Today, with prompt treatment, it
16500-512: The human body were made, which contributed to the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system. The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of
16650-434: The human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th-century medical imaging techniques, including X-ray , ultrasound , and magnetic resonance imaging . Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē "dissection" (from ἀνατέμνω anatémnō "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά aná "up", and τέμνω témnō "I cut"), anatomy
16800-471: The injectable form. An older, killed whole-cell vaccine is still used in countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no longer recommended for use because it has more side effects (mainly pain and inflammation at the site of the injection). To help decrease rates of typhoid fever in developing nations , the World Health Organization (WHO) endorsed the use of
16950-423: The interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function, such as the digestive system. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about
17100-492: The largest phylum of invertebrates in the animal kingdom with over a million known species. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton , made mostly of chitin . The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen . The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , one to three simple eyes ( ocelli ) and three sets of modified appendages that form
17250-399: The length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure. Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of
17400-437: The lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi . The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead. Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but
17550-400: The main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear . Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along
17700-477: The more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic . All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm , mesoderm and endoderm . Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective , epithelial , muscle and nervous tissue . Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called
17850-475: The nerves form a nerve net , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia . In higher animals, specialized receptors are
18000-416: The notochord, and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm , connective tissues are derived from mesoderm , and gut is derived from the endoderm . At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of
18150-428: The only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from Greek sometime in the 15th century. Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500
18300-404: The prevention of typhoid: the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline ). Both are efficacious and recommended for travelers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for
18450-417: The processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology , which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine, and is often studied alongside physiology . Anatomy
18600-411: The same bacterium as Eberth from the spleen of a typhoid victim, and was able to grow the bacterium on solid media. The organism was given names such as Eberth's bacillus, Eberthella Typhi, and Gaffky-Eberth bacillus. Today, the bacillus that causes typhoid fever goes by the scientific name Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Most developed countries had declining rates of typhoid fever throughout
18750-436: The same time pursuing his own research in anatomy and physiology. The sudden death of Desault in 1795 was a severe blow to Bichat. His first task was to discharge the obligations he owed his benefactor by contributing to the support of his widow and her son and by completing the fourth volume of Desault's Journal de Chirurgie , which was published the following year. In 1796, he and several other colleagues also formally founded
18900-493: The same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution . The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish , or bone in bony fish . The main skeletal element
19050-673: The serum, they will attach to the brown magnetic particles and settle at the base, while the blue indicator particles remain in the solution, producing a blue color, which means the test is positive. If the serum does not have an antibody in it, the blue particles attach to the brown particles and settle at the bottom, producing a colorless solution, which means the test is negative. Sanitation and hygiene are important to prevent typhoid. It can spread only in environments where human feces can come into contact with food or drinking water. Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid. Industrialization contributed greatly to
19200-670: The shells of molluscs , brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria . Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ( polyps , sea anemones , jellyfish ) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids . The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli , cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles . Marcello Malpighi ,
19350-407: The son of a prominent surgeon, wrote of a physician character who "belonged to the great school of surgery that sprang up around Bichat, to that generation, now extinct, of philosopher-practitioners who, cherishing their art with fanatical passion, exercised it with exaltation and sagacity." Anatomist Anatomy (from Ancient Greek ἀνατομή ( anatomḗ ) ' dissection ')
19500-448: The structure and organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection , in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy , in which a video camera -equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term "anatomy"
19650-741: The tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic , have
19800-471: The test is negative. The Widal test is time-consuming and prone to significant false positives. It may also be falsely negative in recently infected people. But unlike the Typhidot test, the Widal test quantifies the specimen with titres . Rapid diagnostic tests such as Tubex, Typhidot, and Test-It have shown moderate diagnostic accuracy. Typhidot is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to
19950-401: The toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along
20100-538: The trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel . The teeth are shed once ( milk teeth ) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans . Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear . They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat . Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands , producing milk to feed
20250-409: The understanding of the human body as the origin of illness, redefining both conceptions of the body and disease. Bichat's figure was of great importance to Arthur Schopenhauer , who wrote of the Recherches physiologiques as "one of the most profoundly conceived works in the whole of French literature." A large bronze statue of Bichat by David d'Angers was erected in 1857 in the cour d'honneur of
20400-452: The vaccine combined with a hepatitis A vaccine is also available. Results of a phase 3 trial of typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV) in December 2019 reported 81% fewer cases among children. The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general. Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice
20550-442: The vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle . They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea . Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping ,
20700-437: The water column. Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs , salamanders and caecilians . They are tetrapods , but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes . Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to
20850-411: The young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers, and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea. Mammals are amniotes , and most are viviparous , giving birth to live young. Exceptions to this are
21000-540: Was "largely instrumental in the rise to prominence of hospital doctors" as opposed to empiric therapy , as "diseases were now defined in terms of specific lesions in various tissues, and this lent itself to a classification and a list of diagnoses ". Bichat was born in Thoirette , Franche-Comté . His father was Jean-Baptiste Bichat, a physician who had trained in Montpellier and was Bichat's first instructor. His mother
21150-414: Was "the life of the heart, intestines, and the other inner organs." As worded by Stanley Finger, "Bichat theorized that this life was regulated through the système des ganglions (the ganglionic nervous system), a collection of small independent 'brains' in the chest cavity." In contrast, animal life "involved symmetrical, harmonious organs, such as the eyes, ears, and limbs. It included habit and memory, and
21300-488: Was Jeanne-Rose Bichat, his father's wife and cousin. He was the eldest of four children. He entered the college of Nantua , and later studied at Lyon . He made rapid progress in mathematics and the physical sciences , but ultimately devoted himself to the study of anatomy and surgery under the guidance of Marc-Antoine Petit (1766–1811), chief surgeon at the Hôtel-Dieu of Lyon. At the beginning of September 1793, Bichat
21450-425: Was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the heart's valves, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in
21600-600: Was designated to serve as a surgeon with the Army of the Alps in the service of the surgeon Buget at the hospital of Bourg . He went home in March 1794, then moved to Paris , where he became a pupil of Pierre-Joseph Desault at the Hôtel-Dieu , "who was so strongly impressed with his genius that he took him into his house and treated him as his adopted son." He took active part in Desault's work, at
21750-421: Was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He could distinguish the human body's sensory and motor nerves and believed air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carry the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus
21900-430: Was present circulating in the population. Pierre-Charlles-Alexandre Louis also performed case studies and statistical analysis to demonstrate that typhoid was contagious – and that persons who already had the disease seemed to be protected. Afterward, several American doctors confirmed these findings, and then Sir William Jenner convinced any remaining skeptics that typhoid is a specific disease recognizable by lesions in
22050-415: Was quickly followed by his Anatomie générale (1801) in four volumes, the work which contains the fruits of his most profound and original researches. He began another work, under the title Anatomie descriptive (1801–1803), in which the organs were arranged according to his peculiar classification of their functions but lived to publish only the first two volumes. In 1800, Bichat was appointed physician to
22200-400: Was reported in 2016 and is now being used widely. This scheme reclassified the nomenclature of H58 to genotype 4.3.1. Unlike other strains of Salmonella , humans are the only known carriers of typhoid. S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread by the fecal-oral route from people who are infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacterium. An asymptomatic human carrier
22350-417: Was ruled by the wit and the intellect. This was the function of the brain itself, but it could not exist without the heart, the center of the organic life." According to A. S. Weber, Bichat's use of the concept "vie animale" recalls the original Latin root anima or soul, the governor of movement, growth, nutrition and reason in the body in classical thought. Bichat's division is not new, and closely parallels
22500-490: Was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century. Typhoid fever Among untreated acute cases, 10% will shed bacteria for three months after initial onset of symptoms, and 2–5% will become chronic typhoid carriers. Typhoid fever , also known simply as typhoid , is a disease caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi bacteria, also called Salmonella typhi . Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there
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