The bibliothèque Marmottan , located in Boulogne-Billancourt , is a public library bequeathed in 1932 to the Académie des beaux-arts by its founder Paul Marmottan .
123-514: Dedicated to the First French Empire and open to readers interested in this period, it contains some 25,000 books and periodicals, making it one of the largest Napoleonic libraries in the world. While it regularly hosts scholars in residence, it will also, from 2023, have three apartments for artists whose work will be presented in the exhibition rooms. Shortly after the death of his father, Jules Marmottan [ fr ] (1829–1883),
246-729: A kingdom under the Bourbons and a republic after the French Revolution . Historians refer to Napoleon's regime as the First Empire to distinguish it from the restorationist Second Empire (1852–1870) ruled by his nephew Napoleon III . On 18 May 1804 (28 Floréal year XII on the French Republican calendar ), Napoleon was granted the title Emperor of the French ( Empereur des Français , pronounced [ɑ̃pʁœʁ de fʁɑ̃sɛ] ) by
369-576: A figurehead, Napoleon produced the Articles Organiques (1802) with the goal of becoming the legal protector of the papacy, like Charlemagne . To conceal his plans before their actual execution, he aroused French colonial aspirations against Britain and the memory of the 1763 Treaty of Paris , exacerbating British envy of France, whose borders now extended to the Rhine and beyond, to Hanover , Hamburg, and Cuxhaven . Napoleon would have ruling elites from
492-599: A fusion of the new bourgeoisie and the old aristocracy. On 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with the exception of Lazare Carnot , in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif . A general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802 (14 Thermidor, An X), Napoleon Bonaparte
615-406: A group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. Louis was no theologian and understood little of the complex doctrines of Jansenism, satisfying himself with the fact that they threatened the unity of the state. In this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all church property in the country under
738-572: A large financial indemnity. Napoleon's creation of the Kingdom of Italy , the occupation of Ancona , and his annexation of Venetia and its former Adriatic territories marked a new stage in the French Empire's progress. To create satellite states , Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many states. Older brother Joseph Bonaparte replaced
861-511: A massive increase in urban populations, although on the whole France remained a profoundly rural country. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe (estimated at 400,000 inhabitants in 1550; 650,000 at the end of the 18th century). Other major French cities include Lyon , Rouen , Bordeaux , Toulouse , and Marseille . These centuries saw several periods of epidemics and crop failures due to wars and climatic change. (Historians speak of
984-483: A massive territorial expansion and an attempt to better integrate its provinces into an administrative whole. During this period, France expanded to nearly its modern territorial extent through the acquisition of Picardy , Burgundy , Anjou , Maine , Provence , Brittany , Franche-Comté , French Flanders , Navarre , Roussillon , the Duchy of Lorraine , Alsace and Corsica . French acquisitions from 1461 to 1789: Only
1107-513: A policy against Spain and the German emperor during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) which had broken out among the lands of Germany's Holy Roman Empire. An English-backed Huguenot rebellion (1625–1628) defeated, France intervened directly (1635) in the wider European conflict following her ally (Protestant) Sweden 's failure to build upon initial success. After the death of both king and cardinal,
1230-555: A political power which had endured for over a thousand years. Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal. To this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. During
1353-634: A pretext. When Ferdinand I of Naples died in 1494, Charles invaded the peninsula. For several months, French forces moved through Italy virtually unopposed, since the condottieri armies of the Italian city-states were unable to resist them. Their sack of Naples finally provoked a reaction, however, and the League of Venice was formed against them. Italian troops defeated the French at the Battle of Fornovo , forcing Charles to withdraw to France. Ludovico, having betrayed
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#17328691666091476-547: A supporter of the radical Jacobins during the early days of the Revolution out of pragmatism, Napoleon became increasingly autocratic as his political career progressed, and once in power embraced certain aspects of both liberalism and authoritarianism—for example, public education , a generally liberal restructuring of the French legal system , and the emancipation of the Jews—while rejecting electoral democracy and freedom of
1599-412: A third time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne, used to modify the historical evolution of France. Though the vague plan for an invasion of Great Britain was never executed, the Battle of Ulm and the Battle of Austerlitz overshadowed the defeat at Trafalgar , and the camp at Boulogne put at Napoleon's disposal the best military resources he had commanded, in the form of La Grande Armée . In
1722-458: A war between Louis and Ferdinand. By 1503, Louis, having been defeated at the Battle of Cerignola and Battle of Garigliano , was forced to withdraw from Naples, which was left under the control of the Spanish viceroy, Ramón de Cardona . French forces under Gaston de Foix inflicted an overwhelming defeat on a Spanish army at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, but Foix was killed during the battle, and
1845-689: A war zone from the Pyrenees to the Straits of Gibraltar and saw the Grande Armée facing the remnants of the Spanish Army, as well as British and Portuguese forces. General Pierre Dupont capitulated at Bailén to General Francisco Castaños , and Junot at Cintra , Portugal to General Arthur Wellesley . Spain used up the soldiers needed for Napoleon's other fields of battle, and they had to be replaced by conscripts. Spanish resistance affected Austria, and indicated
1968-601: A wealthy director of the Bruay mining company , the young Paul decided to devote himself entirely to his passion for Napoleon and the French Empire. In 1882, he owned a private mansion in Paris, now the musée Marmottan-Monet , and a few years later he acquired a plot of land in Boulogne-Billancourt. The first librarian was Paul Fleuriot de Langle (1897–1968), Paul Marmottan's secretary, who established an initial classification of
2091-604: The Baltic and Mediterranean ports, and to the bombardment of Copenhagen by the Royal Navy he responded with a second decree of blockade, dated from Milan on 17 December 1807. The application of the Concordat and the taking of Naples led to Napoleon's first struggles with the Pope, centred around Pius VII renewing the theocratic affirmations of Pope Gregory VII . The emperor's Roman ambition
2214-578: The Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. French dominance was reaffirmed during the War of the Fourth Coalition , at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806 and the Battle of Friedland in 1807, before Napoleon's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. A series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars , extended French influence to much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812,
2337-459: The Battle of Ceresole in 1544, but the French failed to penetrate further into Lombardy. Charles and Henry VIII of England then proceeded to invade northern France, seizing Boulogne and Soissons . A lack of cooperation between the Spanish and English armies, coupled with increasingly aggressive Ottoman attacks, led Charles to abandon these conquests, restoring the status quo once again. In 1547, Henry II of France , who had succeeded Francis to
2460-521: The Concordat of 1801 which confirmed the Catholic Church as the majority church of France and restored some of its civil status. Napoleon by this time, however, thought himself more of an enlightened despot. He preserved numerous social gains of the Revolution while suppressing political liberty. He admired efficiency and strength and hated feudalism, religious intolerance, and civil inequality. Although
2583-672: The Congress of Vienna . Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of the French people. These included dislike of the emigrant nobility who had escaped persecution, fear by some of a restoration of the Ancien Régime , a dislike and suspicion of foreign countries that had tried to reverse the Revolution—and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals. Napoleon attracted power and imperial status and gathered support for his changes of French institutions, such as
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#17328691666092706-481: The Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality. France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European hegemony. One of the most admired French kings, Henry was fatally stabbed by a Catholic fanatic in 1610 as war with Spain threatened. Troubles gradually developed during the regency headed by his queen Marie de Medici . France
2829-557: The Franco-Dutch War 1672–1678) brought further territorial gains ( Artois and western Flanders and the free county of Burgundy , left to the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival powers. French culture was part of French hegemony. In the early part of the century French painters had to go to Rome to shed their provinciality ( Nicolas Poussin , Claude Lorrain ), but Simon Vouet brought home
2952-576: The French Republican Calendar ) and the following day, troops led by Napoleon Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government. Although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate , he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of
3075-734: The Iberian Peninsula as he had done in Italy, in the Netherlands, and in Hesse. However, the exile of the Spanish Royal Family to Bayonne , together with the enthroning of Joseph Bonaparte, turned the Spanish against Napoleon. After the Dos de Mayo riots and subsequent reprisals, the Spanish government began an effective guerrilla campaign, under the oversight of local Juntas . The Iberian Peninsula became
3198-687: The Kingdom of England ); there were also foreign enclaves, like the Comtat Venaissin . In addition, certain provinces within France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms of noble families (like the Bourbonnais , Marche , Forez and Auvergne provinces held by the House of Bourbon until the provinces were forcibly integrated into the royal domaine in 1527 after the fall of Charles III, Duke of Bourbon ). The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo
3321-597: The Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems and legalised divorce, and seigneurial dues and seigneurial justice were abolished, as were aristocratic privileges in all places except Poland. France's defeat in 1814 (and then again in 1815), marked the end of the First French Empire and the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration . In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte
3444-531: The Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts ), internal conflicts and civil wars, but they remained a confusing patchwork of local privilege and historic differences until the French Revolution took place in a radical time suppression of administrative incoherence. The Peace of Etaples (1492) marks, for some, the beginning of the early modern period in France. After the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), France supported
3567-568: The Peace of Westphalia (1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as the Fronde (1648–1653) which expanded into a Franco-Spanish War (1653–1659). The Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory of Roussillon after
3690-588: The War of the Fourth Coalition , Napoleon destroyed the Prussian armies at Jena and Auerstedt . Successive victories at Eylau and Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Great 's formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit . The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and France and began an alliance between the two empires that held as much power as
3813-577: The War of the Polish Succession from 1733 to 1735. Large-scale warfare resumed with the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the " Diplomatic Revolution " of 1756) against the rising power of Britain and Prussia led to costly failure in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and the loss of France's North American colonies. On the whole,
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3936-510: The War of the Third Coalition , Napoleon swept away the remnants of the old Holy Roman Empire and created in southern Germany the vassal states of Bavaria , Baden , Württemberg , Hesse-Darmstadt , and Saxony , which were reorganised into the Confederation of the Rhine . The Treaty of Pressburg , signed on 26 December 1805, extracted extensive territorial concessions from Austria, on top of
4059-405: The modern country , and it also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas. The period is dominated by the figure of the "Sun King", Louis XIV (his reign of 1643–1715 being one of the longest in history ), who managed to eliminate the remnants of medieval feudalism and established a centralized state under an absolute monarch , a system that would endure until
4182-447: The "Treaty of Madrid" (1526). The inconclusive third war between Charles and Francis began with the death of Francesco II Sforza , the duke of Milan . When Charles' son Philip inherited the duchy, Francis invaded Italy, capturing Turin , but failed to take Milan. In response, Charles invaded Provence , advancing to Aix-en-Provence , but withdrew to Spain rather than attacking the heavily fortified Avignon . The Truce of Nice ended
4305-722: The 14th century, the gains of the previous half-century were to be jeopardised by a further protracted series of conflicts, the Italian Wars (1494–1559), where French efforts to gain dominance ended in the increased power of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors of Germany. In 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on. The medieval division of society into "those who fought (nobility), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (everyone else)" still held strong and warfare
4428-510: The 15th century drew to a close, French kings could take confidence in the fact that England had been mostly driven from their territory and so they could now embark on an expansionist foreign policy. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII in 1494 began 62 years of war with the Habsburgs (the Italian Wars ). Despite the beginnings of rapid demographic and economic recovery after the Black Death of
4551-403: The 1630s, and with Pascal , Descartes , Bayle , Corneille , Racine and Molière , France became the cultural center of Europe. In an effort to prevent the nobility from revolting and challenging his authority, Louis implemented an extremely elaborate system of court etiquette with the idea that learning it would occupy most of the nobles' time and they could not plan rebellion. By the start of
4674-509: The 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for losing Canada to the British. A strong ruler like Louis XIV could enhance the position of the monarchy, while Louis XV weakened it. The writings of the philosophers such as Voltaire were a clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died of smallpox in 1774, and
4797-400: The 18th century, the nobility in France had been effectively neutered and would never again have more power than the crown. Also, Louis willingly granted titles of nobility to those who had performed distinguished service to the state so that it did not become a closed caste and it was possible for commoners to rise through the social ranks. The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on
4920-608: The 19th century. The Ancien Régime, the French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", "Old Kingdom", or simply "Old Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic , social and political system established in France from (roughly) the 15th century to the 18th century under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Régime were the result of years of state-building, legislative acts (like
5043-504: The Allies, and longstanding allied states, such as Saxony and Bavaria, forsook him as well. Following his retreat from Russia, Napoleon continued to retreat, this time from Germany. After the loss of Spain, reconquered by an Allied army led by the Duke of Wellington , the uprising in the Netherlands preliminary to the invasion, and the manifesto of Frankfurt (1 December 1813) which proclaimed it, he
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5166-552: The Austrian capital of Vienna for a second time. At Aspern , Napoleon suffered his first serious tactical defeat, along with the death of Marshal Jean Lannes , an able commander and dear friend of the emperor. The victory at Wagram , however, forced Austria to sue for peace. The Treaty of Schönbrunn , signed on 14 December 1809, resulted in the annexation of the Illyrian Provinces and recognised past French conquests. The Pope
5289-522: The Continental Blockade by the discontented bourgeoisie, ruined by the crisis of 1811 . Even as he lost his military principles, Napoleon maintained his gift for brilliance. His Six Days' Campaign , which took place at the very end of the War of the Sixth Coalition , is often regarded as his greatest display of leadership and military prowess. But by then it was the end (or "the finish"), and it
5412-576: The Continental System. More specifically, Alexander agreed to evacuate Wallachia and Moldavia , which had been occupied by Russian forces as part of the Russo-Turkish War . The Ionian Islands and Cattaro , which had been captured by Russian admirals Fyodor Ushakov and Dmitry Senyavin , were to be handed over to the French. In recompense, Napoleon guaranteed the sovereignty of the Duchy of Oldenburg and several other small states ruled by
5535-503: The Duchy of Savoy , the city of Nice and some other small papal (e.g., Avignon ) and foreign possessions would be acquired later. (For a map of historic French provinces, see Provinces of France ). France also embarked on exploration, colonisation, and mercantile exchanges with the Americas ( New France , Louisiana , Martinique , Guadeloupe , Haiti , French Guiana ), India ( Pondicherry ),
5658-456: The First French Empire are represented, books relating to its administration and administrators are undoubtedly one of the strong points of the collection. The history of the arts under the Empire and, more generally, thanks to the acquisition policy led by Bruno Foucart, that of the entire first half of the 19th century, constitutes the other dominant part of the collections. A section on the history and architecture of Paris has been expanded over
5781-665: The French Sénat conservateur and was crowned on 2 December 1804 (11 Frimaire year XIII), signifying the end of the French Consulate and of the French First Republic . Despite his coronation, the state continued to be formally called the "French Republic" until October 1808. The empire achieved military supremacy in mainland Europe through notable victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria , Prussia , Russia , Britain , and allied states, notably at
5904-460: The French Empire had 130 departments , a population over 44 million people, ruled over 90 million subjects throughout Europe and in the overseas colonies, maintained an extensive military presence in Germany , Italy , Spain , and Poland , and counted Austria and Prussia as nominal allies. Early French victories exported many ideological features of the Revolution throughout Europe: the introduction of
6027-483: The French Revolution and beyond . In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, and numerous border provinces (such as Roussillon , Cerdagne , Calais , Béarn , Navarre , County of Foix , Flanders , Artois , Lorraine , Alsace , Trois-Évêchés , Franche-Comté , Savoy , Bresse , Bugey , Gex , Nice , Provence , Corsica and Brittany ) were autonomous or foreign-held (as by
6150-452: The French at Fornovo, retained his throne until 1499, when Charles's successor, Louis XII of France , invaded Lombardy and seized Milan . In 1500, Louis XII, having reached an agreement with Ferdinand II of Aragon to divide Naples, marched south from Milan. By 1502, combined French and Aragonese forces had seized control of the Kingdom; disagreements about the terms of the partition led to
6273-443: The French countryside during this period remained poor and overpopulated. The resistance of peasants to adopt the potato, according to some monarchist apologists, and other new agricultural innovations while continuing to rely on cereal crops led to repeated catastrophic famines long after they had ceased in the rest of Western Europe. Prior to Louis XIV's reign, French soldiers frequently went into battle barefoot and with no weapons. On
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#17328691666096396-414: The French people shed few tears at his passing. While France had not yet experienced the industrial revolution that was beginning in England, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true feudalism no longer existed in France. Anti-establishment ideas fermented in 18th-century France in part due to
6519-404: The French revolution, the teaching of French was promoted in all the schools. The French used would be that of the legal system, which differed from the French spoken in the courts of France before the revolution. Like the orators during the French revolution, the pronunciation of every syllable would become the new language. France would not become a linguistically unified country until the end of
6642-405: The French were forced to withdraw from Italy by an invasion of Milan by the Swiss, who reinstated Maximilian Sforza to the ducal throne. The Holy League , left victorious, fell apart over the subject of dividing the spoils, and in 1513 Venice allied with France, agreeing to partition Lombardy between them. Louis mounted another invasion of Milan, but was defeated at the Battle of Novara , which
6765-453: The French were in control of the Spanish Netherlands and Catalonia. However, Louis gave back his conquests and gained only Haiti . The French people, feeling that their sacrifices in the war had been for nothing, never forgave him. The Battle of La Hougue (1692) was the decisive naval battle in the war and confirmed the durable dominance of the Royal Navy of England. In November 1700, the severely ill Spanish king Charles II died, ending
6888-475: The Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long waited for this moment, and now planned to put a Bourbon relative, Philip, Duke of Anjou, on the throne. Essentially, Spain was to become an obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting another Habsburg on
7011-409: The Habsburgs. While the Duke of Anjou was accepted as King Philip V of Spain , this was done under the condition that the French and Spanish thrones never be united. Finally, France agreed to stop supporting Jacobite pretenders to the English throne. Just after the war ended, Louis died, having ruled France for 72 years. While often considered a tyrant and a warmonger (especially in England), Louis XIV
7134-426: The Indian Ocean ( Réunion ), the Far East, and a few African trading posts. Although Paris was the capital of France, the later Valois kings largely abandoned the city as their primary residence, preferring instead various châteaux of the Loire Valley and Parisian countryside. Henry IV made Paris his primary residence (promoting a major building boom in private mansions), but Louis XIV once again withdrew from
7257-475: The Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of a Concordat between France and the Papacy (1516) , granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by the Protestant Reformation 's attempt to break the unity of Roman Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbed Huguenots ) faced ever harsher repression under
7380-481: The Lancastrian side in The Wars of the Roses . France and England signed the Treaty of Picquigny in 1475 — the official end date of the Hundred Years' War. In 1492 and 1493, after supporting the victorious House of Tudor in the Battle of Bosworth Field , Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties with Henry VII of England , Maximilian I of Habsburg , and Ferdinand II of Aragon respectively at Étaples (1492), Senlis (1493) and in Barcelona (1493). As
7503-464: The Mediterranean, and exclude his chief rival, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. Despite his victorious advance, the taking of Smolensk , the victory on the Moskva , and the entry into Moscow, he was defeated by the country and the climate, and by Alexander's refusal to make terms. After this came the terrible retreat in the harsh Russian winter, while all of Europe was turning against him. Pushed back, as he had been in Spain, from bastion to bastion, after
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#17328691666097626-437: The Ottoman Empire, they could not do anything about this for a number of years. The basic aim of Louis' foreign policy was to give France more easily defensible borders, and to eliminate weak spots (Strassburg had often been used by the Habsburgs as a gateway into France). Following the Whig establishment on the English and Scottish thrones by the Dutch prince William of Orange in 1688, the anti-French " Grand Alliance " of 1689
7749-608: The Peninsular War. Men like Baron von Stein , August von Hardenberg , and Gerhard von Scharnhorst had begun secretly preparing Prussia's retaliation . The alliance arranged at Tilsit was seriously shaken by the Austrian marriage, the threat of Polish restoration to Russia, and the Continental System. The very persons whom he had placed in power were counteracting his plans. With many of his siblings and relations performing unsuccessfully or even betraying him, Napoleon found himself obliged to revoke their power. Caroline Bonaparte conspired against her brother and against her husband Murat;
7872-465: The Russian emperor's German relatives. The treaty removed about half of Prussia's territory: Cottbus was given to Saxony, the left bank of the Elbe was awarded to the newly created Kingdom of Westphalia, Białystok was given to Russia, and the rest of the Polish lands in Prussian possession were set up as the Duchy of Warsaw . Prussia was ordered to reduce its army to 40,000 men and to pay an indemnity of 100,000,000 francs. Observers in Prussia viewed
7995-466: The US War of Independence was also very expensive. With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms of Turgot and Malesherbes , but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced by Jacques Necker . Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced by Calonne and Brienne , before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages, and by then France
8118-417: The Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X , which made him First Consul for life. The Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800) inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleon's Russian campaign . The Peace of Amiens , which cost him control of Egypt ,
8241-412: The assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589), the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king of Navarre as Henry IV (first king of the Bourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592) effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope (1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as
8364-417: The books and wrote a guide to the collection that is still an authoritative reference. After his retirement, the library was neglected for several years before the Académie des beaux-arts appointed the art historian Bruno Foucart (1938–2018) as its scientific director in 1968. Foucart, who was in charge until the early 2010s, set up a regular purchasing programme and greatly expanded the collection devoted to
8487-420: The city in the last decades of his reign and Versailles became the primary seat of the French monarchy for much of the following century. The administrative and legal system in France in this period is generally called the Ancien Régime . The Black Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent Hundred Years' War slowed recovery. It would be
8610-452: The city of Boulogne-Billancourt ended in 2018, and the library has since been closed to the public during renovations. Since October 2020, it has been directed by the art historian and member of the Académie des beaux-arts Adrien Goetz . The vast majority of the bibliothèque Marmottan's collections are devoted to the First French Empire, which makes it, according to Bruno Foucart, "the largest Napoleonic library in Europe". While all aspects of
8733-484: The country's relative egalitarianism. While less liberal than England during the same period, the French monarchy never approached the absolutism of the eastern rulers in Vienna, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Constantinople in part because the country's traditional development as a decentralized, feudal society acted as a restraint on the power of the king. Different social classes in France each had their own unique set of privileges so that no one class could completely dominate
8856-506: The country, repealing the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The infamous practice of dragonnades was adopted, whereby rough soldiers were quartered in the homes of Protestant families and allowed to have their way with them. Scores of Protestants fled France, costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Catholics like the Jansenists ,
8979-632: The crossing of the Berezina , Napoleon had to fall back upon the frontiers of 1809, and then—having refused the peace offered to him by Austria at the Congress of Prague (4 June – 10 August 1813), from fear of losing Italy, where each of his victories had marked a stage in the accomplishment of his dream—on those of 1805, despite the victories at Lützen and Bautzen , and on those of 1802 after his disastrous defeat at Leipzig , when Bernadotte—now Crown Prince of Sweden—turned upon him, General Jean Moreau also joined
9102-517: The crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of peace. For most of the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), France was the dominant power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Richelieu's successor (1642–1661) Cardinal Mazarin and the economic policies (1661–1683) of Colbert . Colbert's attempts to promote economic growth and the creation of new industries were not a great success, and France did not undergo any sort of industrial revolution during Louis XIV's reign. Indeed, much of
9225-711: The dispossessed Bourbons in Naples; younger brother Louis Bonaparte was installed on the throne of the Kingdom of Holland , formed from the Batavian Republic ; brother-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat became Grand-Duke of Berg ; youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte was made son-in-law to the King of Württemberg and King of Westphalia ; adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais was appointed Viceroy of Italy; and adopted daughter and second cousin Stéphanie de Beauharnais married Karl (Charles) ,
9348-486: The early 16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th-century levels. With an estimated population of 11 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789, until 1795 France was the most populated country in Europe (even twice the size of Britain or the Dutch Republic ) and the third most populous country in the world, behind only China and India. These demographic changes also led to
9471-515: The early modern period The Kingdom of France in the early modern period , from the Renaissance ( c. 1500–1550 ) to the Revolution (1789–1804), was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon (a Capetian cadet branch ). This corresponds to the so-called Ancien Régime ("old rule"). The territory of France during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of
9594-655: The empire in the " Hundred Days ." However, he was defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo . He surrendered himself to the British and was exiled to Saint Helena , a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he remained until his death in 1821. After the Hundred Days, the Bourbon monarchy was restored , with Louis XVIII regaining the French throne, while the rest of Napoleon's conquests were disposed of in
9717-447: The entirety of northern Italy. The elevation of Charles of Spain to Holy Roman Emperor , a position that Francis had desired, led to a collapse of relations between France and the Habsburgs. In 1519, a Spanish invasion of Navarre , nominally a French fief, provided Francis with a pretext for starting a general war; French forces flooded into Italy and began a campaign to drive Charles from Naples. The French were outmatched, however, by
9840-546: The focus of the war to Flanders , where Philip, in conjunction with Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy , defeated the French at St. Quentin . England's entry into the war later that year led to the French capture of Calais , England's last possession on the French mainland, and French armies plundered Spanish possessions in the Low Countries ; but Henry was nonetheless forced to accept the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , in which he renounced any further claims to Italy. Barely were
9963-469: The fully developed Spanish tercio tactics, and suffered a series of crippling defeats at Bicocca and Sesia against Spanish troops under Fernando d'Avalos . With Milan itself threatened, Francis personally led a French army into Lombardy in 1525, only to be defeated and captured at the Battle of Pavia ; imprisoned in Madrid , Francis was forced to agree to extensive concessions over his Italian territories in
10086-537: The guarantee of the continuance of his dynasty, marking the high point of the Empire. Undermining forces, however, had already begun to impinge on the faults inherent in Napoleon's achievements. Britain, protected by the English Channel and its navy, was persistently active, and rebellion of both the governing and of the governed broke out everywhere. Napoleon, though he underrated it, soon felt his failure in coping with
10209-724: The history of art in the first half of the 19th century. In 1996, after major restoration and expansion work, the Académie des beaux-arts delegated the management of the bibliothèque Marmottan to the municipality of Boulogne-Billancourt. Now fitted with an auditorium that can host conferences and concerts, and more open to the public, the library is known for several exhibitions on the Napoleonic era, including "Tapis d'Empire" (2003), "Les Clémences de Napoléon" (2004) or, more recently, "Jeux d'Empire" (2017) and "De Joséphone à Eugénie : l'éventail au XIXe siècle" (2018). The management delegation to
10332-786: The hypochondriac Louis, now Dutch in his sympathies, found the supervision of the blockade taken from him, and also the defence of the Scheldt , which he had refused to ensure. Jérôme Bonaparte lost control of the blockade on the North Sea shores . The very nature of things was against the new dynasties, as it had been against the old. After national insurrections and family recriminations came treachery from Napoleon's ministers. Talleyrand betrayed his designs to Klemens von Metternich and suffered dismissal . Joseph Fouché , corresponding with Austria in 1809 and 1810, entered into an understanding with Louis and also with Britain, while Louis Antoine de Bourrienne
10455-433: The island of Elba, Napoleon escaped to France with a thousand men and four cannons. King Louis XVIII sent Marshal Michel Ney to arrest him. Upon meeting Ney's army, Napoleon dismounted and walked into firing range, saying "If one of you wishes to kill his emperor, here I am!" But instead of firing, the soldiers went to join Napoleon's side shouting " Vive l'Empereur! " Napoleon retook the throne temporarily in 1815, reviving
10578-478: The jurisdiction of the state rather than of Rome. Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of a French navy that rivaled England's, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of the army was also considerably increased. Starting in the 1670s, Louis XIV established the so-called Chambers of Reunion , courts in which judges would determine whether certain Habsburg territories belonged rightfully to France. The king
10701-462: The language for legal and juridical acts.) Nevertheless, in 1790, only half of the population spoke or understood standard French. The southern half of the country continued to speak Occitan languages (such as Provençal ), and other inhabitants spoke Breton , Catalan , Basque , Dutch ( West Flemish ), and Franco-Provençal . In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues d'oïl continued to be spoken in rural communities. During
10824-595: The next century. However, the nobility and troops were often disloyal to the king, if not outright rebellious, and it took another army reform by Louis XIV to finally transform the French army into an obedient force. Ludovico Sforza , the Duke of Milan, seeking an ally against the Republic of Venice , encouraged Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples , then under Aragonese control, as
10947-503: The other hand, France's high birthrate until the 18th century proved beneficial to its rulers since it meant the country could field larger armies than its neighbors. In fact, the king's foreign policy, as well as his lavish court and construction projects, left the country in enormous debt. The Palace of Versailles was criticized as overly extravagant even while it was still under construction, but dozens of imitations were built across Europe. Renewed war (the War of Devolution 1667–1668 and
11070-454: The others. Upon Louis XV's death, his grandson Louis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be widely detested by the 1780s. Again a weak ruler, he was married to an Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette , whose naïvety and cloistered/alienated Versailles life permitted ignorance of the true extravagance and wasteful use of borrowed money (Marie Antoinette was significantly more frugal than her predecessors). French intervention in
11193-469: The period 1550–1850 as the " Little Ice Age ".) Between 1693 and 1694, France lost 6% of its population. In the extremely harsh winter of 1709, France lost 3.5% of its population. In the past 300 years, no period has been so proportionally deadly for the French, both World Wars included. Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme. Before the Renaissance, the language spoken in the north of France
11316-557: The potential of national resistance. The provocations of Talleyrand and Britain strengthened the idea that the Austrians could emulate the Spanish. On 10 April 1809, Austria invaded France's ally, Bavaria. The campaign of 1809, however, would not be nearly as long and troublesome for France as the one in Spain and Portugal. Following a short and decisive action in Bavaria, Napoleon opened up the road to
11439-477: The press . France justified the spread of her empire as one of spreading her superior culture, bringing Enlightenment thinking and modern civilisation to what they viewed as backwards peoples. However this consequently led to attitudes of contempt against many of the nations France conquered and repression against recalcitrant populations. 48°51′44″N 02°19′57″E / 48.86222°N 2.33250°E / 48.86222; 2.33250 France in
11562-681: The rest of Europe. The two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes. France pledged to aid Russia against the Ottoman Empire , while Russia agreed to join the Continental System against Britain. Russia also agreed to recognize the Confederation of the Rhine , as agreed on by the treaty. Napoleon also forced Alexander to enter the Anglo-Russian War and to instigate the Finnish War against Sweden in order to force Sweden to join
11685-488: The right of the king to govern nor did they question the Church. The reign (1715–1774) of Louis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the regency (1715–1723) of Philip II, Duke of Orléans , whose policies were largely continued (1726–1743) by Cardinal Fleury , prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like
11808-487: The rule of Francis I's son King Henry II . After Henry II's unfortunate death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II , Charles IX and Henry III . Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of Guise culminated in a massacre of Huguenots (1562), starting the first of the French Wars of Religion , during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on
11931-596: The side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the Huguenots Monarchomachs theorized during this time the right of rebellion and the legitimacy of tyrannicide . The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry III assassinated Henry de Guise , leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league , and the king was murdered in return. After
12054-565: The son of the Grand Duke of Baden. In addition to the vassal titles, Napoleon's closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France . Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power. On 6 August 1806 the Habsburgs abdicated their title of Holy Roman Emperor in order to prevent Napoleon from becoming the next Emperor, ending
12177-692: The taste for a classicized baroque that would characterise the French Baroque , epitomised in the Académie de peinture et de sculpture , in the painting of Charles Le Brun and the sculpture of François Girardon . With the Palais du Luxembourg , the Château de Maisons and Vaux-le-Vicomte , French classical architecture was admired abroad even before the creation of Versailles or Perrault's Louvre colonnade. Parisian salon culture set standards of discriminating taste from
12300-623: The throne would end up recreating the empire of Charles V, which would also grossly upset the power balance. After nine years of exhausting war, the last thing Louis wanted was another conflict. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and so the War of the Spanish Succession began, a mere three years after the War of the Grand Alliance. The disasters of the war (accompanied by another famine) were so great that France
12423-418: The throne, declared war against Charles with the intent of recapturing Italy and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg, domination of European affairs. An early offensive against Lorraine was successful, but the attempted French invasion of Tuscany in 1553 was defeated at the Battle of Marciano . Charles's abdication in 1556 split the Habsburg empire between Philip II of Spain and Ferdinand I , and shifted
12546-401: The treason of 1812. The country itself, though flattered by conquests, was tired of self-sacrifice. The unpopularity of conscription gradually turned many of Napoleon's subjects against him . Amidst profound silence from the press and the assemblies, a protest was raised against imperial power by the literary world, against the excommunicated sovereign by Catholicism, and against the author of
12669-399: The treaty as unfair and as a national humiliation. Talleyrand had advised Napoleon to pursue milder terms; the treaties marked an important stage in his estrangement from the emperor. After Tilsit, instead of trying to reconcile Europe, as Talleyrand had advised, Napoleon wanted to defeat Britain and complete his Italian dominion. To the coalition of the northern powers, he added the league of
12792-464: The war, leaving Turin in French hands but effecting no significant change in the map of Italy. Francis, allying himself with Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire , launched a final invasion of Italy. A Franco-Ottoman fleet captured the city of Nice in August 1543, and laid siege to the citadel. The defenders were relieved within a month. The French, under François, Count d'Enghien, defeated an Imperial army at
12915-620: The years, following the work of Paul Marmottan, a founding member of the Commission du Vieux Paris [ fr ] . Since 1984, the bibliothèque Marmottan has been partially listed as a historical monument and was awarded the " Maison des Illustres " label in 2012. 48°50′36″N 2°14′47″E / 48.8432°N 2.2465°E / 48.8432; 2.2465 First French Empire The First French Empire or French Empire ( French : Empire français ; Latin : Imperium Francicum ) and also known as Napoleonic France ,
13038-525: Was a collection of different dialects called Oïl languages whereas the written and administrative language remained Latin . By the 16th century, there had developed a standardised form of French (called Middle French ) which would be the basis of the standardised "modern" French of the 17th and 18th century which in turn became the lingua franca of the European continent. (In 1539, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts , Francis I of France made French alone
13161-619: Was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa , Parma , Tuscany, and Naples , and added this Italian territory to the Cisalpine Republic . Then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the Pope . When he recognised his error of raising the authority of the Pope from that of
13284-538: Was confronted by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès —one of five Directors constituting the executive branch of the French government—who sought his support for a coup d'état to overthrow the Constitution of the Year III . The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien , then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred , Roger Ducos , another Director, and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand . On 9 November 1799 ( 18 Brumaire VIII under
13407-465: Was considered a domain of the nobles. Charles VIII marched into Italy with a core force consisting of noble horsemen and non-noble foot soldiers, but in time the role of the latter grew stronger so that by the middle of the 16th century, France had a standing army of 5000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. The military was reorganized from a system of legions recruited by province (Norman legion, Gascon legion, etc.) to regiments, an arrangement which persisted into
13530-466: Was convicted of speculation. By consequence of the spirit of conquest Napoleon had aroused, many of his marshals and officials, having tasted victory, dreamed of sovereign power: Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , who had helped him to the Consulate, played Napoleon false to win the crown of Sweden . Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult , like Murat, coveted the Spanish throne after that of Portugal, thus anticipating
13653-406: Was during the years before when various European states conspired against France. While Napoleon and his holdings idled and worsened, the rest of Europe agreed to avenge the revolutionary events of 1792. Napoleon had hardly succeeded in putting down the revolt in Germany when the emperor of Russia himself headed a European insurrection against Napoleon. To put an end to this, ensure his own access to
13776-488: Was established. With the Turks now in retreat, the emperor Leopold could turn his attention to France. The ensuing War of the Grand Alliance lasted from 1688 to 1697. France's resources were stretched to the breaking point by the cost of fielding an army of over 300,000 men and two naval squadrons. Famine in 1692–1693 killed up to two million people. The exhaustion of the powers brought the fighting to an end in 1697, by which time
13899-647: Was expansive during all but the end of the 17th century: the French began trading in India and Madagascar , founded Quebec and penetrated the North American Great Lakes and Mississippi , established plantation economies in the West Indies and extended their trade contacts in the Levant and enlarged their merchant marine . Henry IV's son Louis XIII and his minister (1624–1642) Cardinal Richelieu , elaborated
14022-465: Was forced to fall back upon the frontiers of 1795; and was later driven further back upon those of 1792—despite the forceful campaign of 1814 against the invaders . Paris capitulated on 30 March 1814, and the Delenda Carthago , pronounced against Britain, was spoken of Napoleon. The empire briefly fell with Napoleon's abdication at Fontainebleau on 11 April 1814. After less than a year's exile on
14145-495: Was forcibly deported to Savona , and his domains were incorporated into the French Empire. The Senate's decision on 17 February 1810 created the title "King of Rome", and made Rome the capital of Italy. Between 1810 and 1812 Napoleon's divorce of Joséphine , and his marriage with Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria , followed by the birth of his son , shed light upon his future policy. He gradually withdrew power from his siblings and concentrated his affection and ambition on his son,
14268-736: Was given the title of " Emperor of the French " by the Senate ; finally, on 2 December 1804, he was solemnly crowned , after receiving the Iron Crown of the Lombard kings , and was consecrated by Pope Pius VII in Notre-Dame de Paris . In four campaigns, the Emperor transformed his " Carolingian " feudal republican and federal empire into one modelled on the Roman Empire . The memories of imperial Rome were for
14391-468: Was made more visible by the occupation of the Kingdom of Naples and of the Marches , and by the entry of General Sextius Alexandre François de Miollis into Rome; while General Jean-Andoche Junot invaded Portugal , Marshal Murat took control of formerly Roman Spain as Regent. Soon after, Napoleon had his brother, Joseph, crowned King of Spain and sent him there to take control. Napoleon tried to succeed in
14514-475: Was not in any way a despot in the 20th-century sense. The traditional customs and institutions of France limited his power and in any case, communications were poor and no national police force existed. Overall, the discontent and revolts of 16th- and 17th-century France did not approach the conditions that led to 1789. Events such as the Frondes were a naïve, unrevolutionary discontent and the people did not challenge
14637-416: Was on the verge of collapse by 1709. In desperation, the king appealed to the French people to save their country, and in doing so gained thousands of new army recruits. Afterwards, his general Marshal Villars managed to drive back the allied forces. In 1714, the war ended with the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt. France did not lose any territory, and there was no discussion of returning Flanders or Alsace to
14760-450: Was proclaimed Consul for life. Pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the "Recess of 1803", which brought Bavaria , Württemberg , and Baden to France's side. William Pitt the Younger , back in power over Britain, appealed once more for an Anglo-Austro-Russian coalition against Napoleon to stop the ideals of revolutionary France from spreading. On 18 May 1804, Napoleon
14883-535: Was quickly followed by a series of Holy League victories at La Motta , Guinegate , and Flodden , in which the French, Venetian, and Scottish forces were decisively defeated. However, the death of Pope Julius left the League without effective leadership, and when Louis' successor, Francis I , defeated the Swiss at Marignano in 1515, the League collapsed, and by the treaties of Noyon and Brussels, surrendered to France and Venice
15006-462: Was relying on the somewhat vague wording in the Treaty of Westphalia, while also dredging up older French claims, some dating back to medieval times. Through this, he concluded that the strategically important imperial city of Strassburg should have gone to France in 1648. In September 1681, French troops occupied the city, which was at once strongly fortified. As the imperial armies were then busy fighting
15129-419: Was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte , who established French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from 18 May 1804 to 4 April 1814 and again briefly from 20 March 1815 to 7 July 1815, when Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena . Although France had already established a colonial empire overseas since the early 17th century, the French state had remained
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