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98-667: Cush is traditionally considered the ancestor of the "Land of Cush", an ancient territory believed to have been located near the Red Sea . Cush is identified in the Bible with the Kingdom of Kush or ancient Aethiopia . The Cushitic languages are named after Cush. Cush is a Hebrew name that is possibly derived from Kash , the Egyptian name of Upper Nubia and later of the Nubian kingdom at Napata , known as

196-581: A Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century, contains a detailed description of the Red Sea's ports and sea routes. The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India . The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus , when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean, Egypt , and

294-614: A new indigenous alphabet , the Meroitic , consisting of twenty-three letters, replaced Egyptian script. The Meroitic script is an alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Kush. It was developed in the Napatan Period (c. 700 – 300 BC), and first appears in the 2nd century BC. For a time, it was also possibly used to write

392-866: A popular destination for diving after the expeditions of Hans Hass in the 1950s, and later by Jacques-Yves Cousteau . Popular tourist resorts include El Gouna , Hurghada , Safaga , Marsa Alam , on the west shore of the Red Sea, and Sharm-el-Sheikh , Dahab , and Taba on the Egyptian side of Sinaï , as well as Aqaba in Jordan and Eilat in Israel in an area known as the Red Sea Riviera . Mero%C3%AB Meroë ( / ˈ m ɛr oʊ iː / ; also spelled Meroe ; Meroitic : Medewi ; Arabic : مرواه , romanized :  Meruwah and مروي , Meruwi ; Ancient Greek : Μερόη , romanized :  Meróē )

490-582: A power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries. Meroë is mentioned briefly in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : 2. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers. Along the shore are the Fish-Eaters, living in scattered caves in the narrow valleys. Farther inland are the Berbers, and beyond them

588-631: A tribune and two centurions into this country, who reached the city of Meroë where they were given an escort, then proceeded up the White Nile until they encountered the swamps of the Sudd . This marked the limit of Roman penetration into Africa. The period following Petronius' punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë. L. P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country. The kingdom of Meroë began to fade as

686-489: Is called Libya . It is inhabited by tribes of various peoples, Ethiopians, dark men. One man is the ruler of the land: he is both king and general. He rules the state, judges the people, and is priest. This man is my father and theirs." During the 5th century AD, Arameann and Assyrian Christian writers sometimes described the Himyarites of South Arabia as Cushaeans and Ethiopians . Gregory of Tours claimed that Cush

784-475: Is considered that it will become an ocean in time (as proposed in the model of John Tuzo Wilson ). In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift . Lake Asal in Djibouti

882-447: Is eligible as an experimental site to study the evolution of the deep hot brines of the Red Sea. By observing the strontium isotope composition of the Red Sea brines, it is possible to deduce how these salt waters found at the bottom of the Red Sea could have evolved in a similar way to Lake Asal, which ideally represents their compositional extreme. The high salinity of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms. Sometime during

980-580: Is possible that the Egyptian word for gold , nub , was the source of name of Nubia . Trade in "exotic" animals from farther south in Africa was another feature of their economy. Apart from the iron trade, pottery was a widespread and prominent industry in the Meroë kingdom. The production of fine and elaborately decorated wares was a strong tradition within the middle Nile. Such productions carried considerable social significance and are believed to be involved in mortuary rites. The long history of goods imported into

1078-545: Is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions . Herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. The name in Hebrew Yam Suph ( Hebrew : ים סוף , lit.   'Sea of Reeds') is of biblical origin. The name in Coptic : ⲫⲓⲟⲙ `ⲛϩⲁϩ Phiom Enhah ("Sea of Hah") is connected to Ancient Egyptian root ḥ-ḥ which refers to water and sea (for example

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1176-416: Is the driving force in the Red Sea to transport material as suspension or as bedload. Wind-induced currents play an important role in the Red Sea in resuspending bottom sediments and transferring materials from sites of dumping to sites of burial in quiescent environment of deposition. Wind-generated current measurement is therefore important in order to determine the sediment dispersal pattern and its role in

1274-617: The Kebra Nagast . Scholars like Johann Michaelis and Rosenmuller have pointed out that the name Cush was applied to tracts of country on both sides of the Red Sea , in the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen) and Northeast Africa. Professor Francis Brown suggested that the Cushites referred to both African and Asiatic peoples, with the latter being identified as the Kassites . Brown believes that

1372-513: The 2023-2024 Israel-Hamas war . One ship was hijacked and taken back to Yemen. The Red Sea is between arid land, desert and semi-desert . Reef systems are better developed along the Red Sea mainly because of its greater depths and an efficient water circulation pattern. The Red Sea water mass-exchanges its water with the Arabian Sea , Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden . These physical factors reduce

1470-619: The Bab-el-Mandeb , a strait located between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula, and Djibouti and Eritrea on the Horn of Africa . Further, the great obelisk of Axum was said to have been erected by Cush in order to mark his allotted territory, and his son Ityopp'is was said to have been buried there, according to the Book of Aksum , which Bruce asserts was revered throughout Abyssinia equally with

1568-494: The Coptic ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ̀ⲛϣⲁⲣⲓ Phiom ̀nšari , Syriac ܝܡܐ ܣܘܡܩܐ Yammāʾ summāqā, Somali Badda cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī (ቀይሕ ባሕሪ). The name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the water's surface. A theory favored by some modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south, just as the Black Sea 's name may refer to north. The basis of this theory

1666-508: The Kingdom of Kush . Alternatively the biblical name may be a mistranslation of the Mesopotamian city of Kish . The form Kush appears in Egyptian records as early as the reign of Mentuhotep II (21st century BC), in an inscription detailing his campaigns against the Nubian region. At the time of the compilation of the Hebrew Bible , and throughout classical antiquity, the Nubian kingdom

1764-582: The Kingdom of Kush . The Kingdom of Kush spanned the period c. 800 BC – c. 350 AD. Initially, its main capital was farther north at Napata . King Aspelta moved the capital to Meroë, considerably farther south than Napata , possibly c. 591 BC, just after the sack of Napata by Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik II . Martin Meredith states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts , because it

1862-753: The Mediterranean Sea . To the point that a number of them now form a significant component of the Mediterranean ecosystem. The resulting change in biodiversity, without precedent in human memory, is currently accelerating, in particular for fishes according to surveys engaged by the Mediterranean Science Commission . The rich diversity of the Red Sea is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) of coral reef extending along its coastline; these fringing reefs are 5000–7000 years old and are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along

1960-614: The Nobiin language , instead belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family. The site of Meroë was brought to the knowledge of Europeans in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869), who published an illustrated in-folio describing the ruins. His work included the first publication of the southernmost known Latin inscription. As Margoliouth notes in

2058-737: The Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language , belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics , which, she proposes, are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, proposes that Meroitic, like

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2156-585: The Red Sea slave trade from Africa to the Middle East. During the Middle Ages , the Red Sea was an important part of the spice trade route. In 1183, Raynald of Châtillon launched a raid down the Red Sea to attack the Muslim pilgrim convoys to Mecca. The possibility that Raynald's fleet might sack the holy cities of Mecca and Medina caused fury throughout the Muslim world. However, it appears that Reynald's target

2254-781: The Second World War , the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified. However, the Six-Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975. Today, in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea, the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route, which is believed to be less vulnerable to piracy. Iranian -backed Yemini Houthis have attacked Western ships, including warships , during

2352-647: The Septuagint translation of the Book of Exodus from Hebrew to Koine Greek in approximately the third century BC. In that version, the Yam Suph ( Hebrew : ים סוף , lit.   'Sea of Reeds') is translated as Erythra Thalassa (Red Sea). The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms – the others being the Black Sea , the White Sea and

2450-650: The Sinai Peninsula , the Gulf of Aqaba , and the Gulf of Suez —leading to the Suez Canal . It is underlain by the Red Sea Rift , which is part of the Great Rift Valley . The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km (169,000 sq mi), is about 2,250 km (1,400 mi) long, and 355 km (221 mi) wide at its widest point. It has an average depth of 490 m (1,610 ft), and in

2548-764: The Tertiary period, the Bab el Mandeb closed and the Red Sea evaporated to an empty hot dry salt-floored sink. Effects causing this would have been: A number of volcanic islands rise from the center of the sea. Most are dormant. However, in 2007, Jabal al-Tair island in the Bab el Mandeb strait erupted violently. Two new islands were formed in 2011 and 2013 in the Zubair Archipelago , a small chain of islands owned by Yemen. The first island, Sholan Island, emerged in an eruption in December 2011,

2646-669: The Yellow Sea . The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the north-western part of the Indian Ocean , and also to a region on Mars . The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians , as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt . One such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC (by Hatshepsut ). Both involved long voyages down

2744-939: The global economy , with cargo vessels traveling between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea every year, thus shortening the path between Asia and Europe almost by half (as compared to traveling around Africa via the Atlantic Ocean). 12% of global trade passes through the Red Sea. This includes 30% of global container traffic. The sea is known for its recreational diving sites, such as Ras Mohammed , SS Thistlegorm (shipwreck), Elphinstone Reef , The Brothers , Daedalus Reef , St. John's Reef , Rocky Island in Egypt and less known sites in Sudan such as Sanganeb , Abington , Angarosh and Shaab Rumi . The Red Sea became

2842-517: The sabkhas through a network of channels. However, south of Jeddah in the Shoiaba area, the water from the lagoon may cover the adjoining sabkhas as far as 3 km (2 mi), whereas north of Jeddah in the Al-Kharrar area the sabkhas are covered by a thin sheet of water as far as 2 km (1.2 mi). The prevailing north and northeast winds influence the movement of water in the coastal inlets to

2940-723: The "Island of Meroë", which was the modern region of Butana , a region bounded by the Nile (from the Atbarah River to Khartoum ), the Atbarah and the Blue Nile . The city of Meroë was on the edge of Butana . There were two other Meroitic cities in Butana: Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa . The first of these sites was given the name Meroë by the Persian king Cambyses , in honor of his sister who

3038-496: The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica , small scale excavations occurred in 1834, led by Giuseppe Ferlini , who, as Margoliouth states, "discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich ." Margoliouth continues, The ruins were examined in 1844 by C. R. Lepsius , who brought many plans, sketches and copies, besides actual antiquities, to Berlin. Further excavations were carried on by E. A. Wallis Budge in

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3136-438: The 44 recorded species of shark, and by many species (over 175) of nudibranch , many of which are endemic to the Red Sea. Other coastal Red Sea habitats include sea grass beds, salt pans , mangrove and salt marsh . Furthermore the deep Red Sea brine pools have been extensively studied with regard to their microbial life, characterized by its diversity and adaptation to extreme environments. The high marine biodiversity of

3234-631: The 4th century AD. The Aksumite presence was short lived before Meroë was taken by the Kingdom of Alodia . A stele of Ge'ez of an unnamed ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum thought to be Ezana was found at the site of Meroë; from its description, in Greek , he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites ," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar ) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330. Another inscription in Greek gives

3332-588: The 6th century BC, Darius the Great , who was a prominent ruler of the Achaemenid Empire in Persia, undertook significant efforts to improve and extend navigation in the Red Sea. He sent reconnaissance missions to explore the Red Sea area and to identify its various navigational hazards, such as rocks and currents. This effort was significant, as it contributed to safer and more efficient navigation routes. In addition to

3430-765: The Abyssinians, which they say they have had since time immemorial", that in the days after the Deluge, Cush, the son of Ham, traveled with his family up the Nile until they reached the Atbara plain, then still uninhabited, from where they could see the Ethiopian table-land. There they ascended and built Axum , and sometime later returned to the lowland, building Meroë . He also states that European scholars of his own day had summarily rejected this account on grounds of their established theory, that Cush must have arrived in Africa via Arabia and

3528-404: The Achaemenid Empire's economic and political power in the region. In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean . Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea. Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (" Periplus of the Red Sea "),

3626-431: The Amun Temple. Meroë flourished and many building projects were undertaken. The first king of the period is Arakamani (270–260 BC), the last ruler is Queen Amanitore (mid/late 1st century AD) Many artifacts were found in Meroitic tombs from around this time. Rome's conquest of Egypt led to border skirmishes and incursions by Meroë beyond the Roman borders. In 23 BC, in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt,

3724-410: The Cushites in the Book of Genesis, such as Nimrod , were Asiatics based on contextual information. The Asiatic theory has been supported by archaeologists such as Juris Zarins . Red Sea The Red Sea is a sea inlet of the Indian Ocean , lying between Africa and Asia. Its connection to the ocean is in the south, through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden . To its north lie

3822-407: The Jews 1.6). The Book of Numbers 12:1 calls a wife of Moses "a Cushite woman", whereas Moses's wife Zipporah is usually described as hailing from Midian . Ezekiel the Tragedian 's Exagoge 60-65 (fragments reproduced in Eusebius ) has Zipporah describe herself as a stranger in Midian, and proceeds to describe the inhabitants of her ancestral lands in North Africa: "Stranger, this land

3920-431: The Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important with their iron industry and pottery crafts gaining the most significant attention. The Meroitic settlements were oriented in a savannah orientation with the varying of permanent and less permanent agricultural settlements can be attributed to the exploitation of rainlands and savannah-oriented forms of subsistence. At

4018-461: The Meroitic empire and their subsequent distribution provides insight into the social and political workings of the Meroitic state. The major determinant of production was attributed to the availability of labor rather than the political power associated with land. Power was associated with control of people rather than control of territory. The sakia , was used to move water, in conjunction with irrigation, to increase crop production. At its peak,

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4116-466: The Meroitic kingdom that allowed for the rise in power of its people. According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, Meroitic "d" was transcribed in foreign languages as "r", with the native name of the city being Medewi . The Kings ruled over Napata and Meroë. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Meroë . The Main temple of Amun was located in Napata . Kings and many queens are buried in Nuri , some queens are buried in Meroë , in

4214-423: The Red Sea and its coasts is extremely low, averaging 60 mm (2.36 in) per year. The rain is mostly short showers, often with thunderstorms and occasionally with dust storms . The scarcity of rainfall and no major source of fresh water to the Red Sea result in excess evaporation as high as 2,050 mm (81 in) per year and high salinity with minimal seasonal variation. A recent underwater expedition to

4312-437: The Red Sea inside the Bab al-Mandab , as the first fleet from Europe in modern times to have sailed these waters. Later in 1524 the city was delivered to Governor Heitor da Silveira as an agreement for protection from the Ottomans . In 1798, France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea. Although he failed in his mission, the engineer Jean-Baptiste Lepère , who took part in it, revitalised

4410-408: The Red Sea is dominated by persistent north-west winds , with speeds ranging between 7 km/h (4.3 mph) and 12 km/h (7.5 mph). The rest of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are subjected to regular and seasonally reversible winds. The wind regime is characterized by seasonal and regional variations in speed and direction with average speed generally increasing northward. Wind

4508-465: The Red Sea offshore from Sudan and Eritrea found surface water temperatures 28 °C (82 °F) in winter and up to 34 °C (93 °F) in the summer, but despite that extreme heat, the coral was healthy with much fish life with very little sign of coral bleaching , with only 9% infected by Thalassomonas loyana , the 'white plague' agent. Favia favus coral there harbours a virus, BA3, which kills T. loyana . Scientists are investigating

4606-413: The Red Sea. The biblical Book of Exodus tells the account of the Israelites ' crossing of the sea , which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph ( Hebrew : יַם סוּף ). Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (882‒942), in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch , identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al-Qulzum , meaning the Gulf of Suez . In

4704-412: The Red Sea. The net value of the latter predominates, resulting in an overall drift to the north end of the Red Sea. Generally, the velocity of the tidal current is 50–60 cm/s (20–24 in/s) with a maximum of 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) at the mouth of the al-Kharrar Lagoon. However, the range of the north-northeast current along the Saudi coast is 8–29 cm/s (3–11 in/s). The north part of

4802-407: The Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius , invaded Nubia to end the Meroitic raids. He pillaged northern Nubia and sacked Napata (22 BC) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed some of the statues, and others were returned following

4900-410: The West Cemetery. The earliest king was Analmaye (542–538 BC) and the last king of the first phase is Nastasen (335–315 BC) In the fifth century BC, Greek historian Herodotus described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians." Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of

4998-454: The Wild-flesh-Eaters and Calf-Eaters, each tribe governed by its chief; and behind them, farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Meroe. Kings were buried in Meroë , in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. In 350 AD Meroë was destroyed by Axum . The first king of the fourth period was Shorkaror (1st century AD), while the last rulers may have been King Yesebokheamani or King Talakhidamani in

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5096-418: The adjacent sabkhas, especially during storms. Winter mean sea level is 0.5 m (1.6 ft) higher than in summer. Tidal velocities passing through constrictions caused by reefs, sand bars and low islands commonly exceed 1–2 m/s (3–7 ft/s). Coral reefs in the Red Sea are near Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. Detailed information regarding current data is lacking, partially because

5194-407: The area is recognized by the Egyptian government, which set up the Ras Mohammed National Park in 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect local marine life, which has become a major draw for diving enthusiasts who should be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous, a few are hazardous to humans. There is extensive demand for desalinated water to meet the needs of

5292-495: The biblical narrative through his son Nimrod and the fact that his name derives from a Nubian kingdom. Cush's sons were Nimrod , Seba , Havilah , Sabtah , Raamah , and Sabtechah . Josephus gives an account of the nation of Cush, son of Ham and grandson of Noah : "For of the four sons of Ham, time has not at all hurt the name of Cush; for the Ethiopians , over whom he reigned, are even at this day, both by themselves and by all men in Asia, called Cushites " ( Antiquities of

5390-401: The central Suakin Trough it reaches its maximum depth of 3,040 m (9,970 ft). Approximately 40% of the Red Sea is quite shallow at less than 100 m (330 ft) deep, and about 25% is less than 50 m (160 ft) deep. The extensive shallow shelves are noted for their marine life and corals . More than 1,000 invertebrate species and 200 types of soft and hard coral live in

5488-414: The city of Meroë, which was then called Saba. The city was built near the confluence of two great rivers and was encircled by a formidable wall, and governed by a renegade king. To ensure the safety of his men who traversed that desert country, Moses had invented a stratagem whereby the Egyptian army would carry along with them baskets of sedge, each containing an ibis, only to be released when they approached

5586-480: The coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea) at Dahab ). The Red Sea also hosts many offshore reefs, including several true atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes, and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. Both offshore and coastal reefs are visited by pelagic species of fish, including many of

5684-769: The coast of Africa ] and Aqaba [A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island ( 27°57′N 34°36′E  /  27.950°N 34.600°E  / 27.950; 34.600 ) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinai Peninsula ]. On the South. A line joining Husn Murad ( 12°40′N 43°30′E  /  12.667°N 43.500°E  / 12.667; 43.500 ) and Ras Siyyan ( 12°29′N 43°20′E  /  12.483°N 43.333°E  / 12.483; 43.333 ). Exclusive economic zones in Red Sea: Note: Hala'ib Triangle disputed between Sudan and Egypt and calculated for both. Red Sea has names in many languages of

5782-417: The currents are weak and both spatially and temporally variable. The variation of temporal and spatial currents is as low as 0.5 m (1.6 ft) and are governed all by wind. During the summer, northwesterly winds drive surface water south for about four months at a velocity of 15–20 cm/s (6–8 in/s), whereas in winter the flow is reversed resulting in the inflow of water from the Gulf of Aden into

5880-423: The effect of high salinity caused by evaporation in the north and relatively hot water in the south. The climate of the Red Sea is the result of two monsoon seasons: a northeasterly monsoon and a southwesterly monsoon. Monsoon winds occur because of differential heating between the land and the sea. Very high surface temperatures and high salinities make this one of the warmest and saltiest bodies of seawater in

5978-429: The enemy's country. The purpose of the birds was to kill the deadly serpents that lay all about that country. Having successfully laid siege to the city, the city was eventually subdued by the betrayal of the king's daughter, who had agreed to deliver the city to Moses on condition that he would consummate a marriage with her, under the solemn assurance of an oath. Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth

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6076-427: The erosion and accretion of the coastal rock exposure and the submerged coral beds. The Red Sea was formed by the Arabian Peninsula being split from the Horn of Africa by movement of the Red Sea Rift . This split started in the Eocene and accelerated during the Oligocene . The sea is still widening (in 2005, following a three-week period of tectonic activity it had grown by 8 m [26 ft]), and it

6174-403: The exercise of state power over subsistence production. The Kingdom of Kush which housed the city of Meroë represents one of a series of early states located within the middle Nile. It was one of the earliest and most advanced states found on the African continent. Looking at the specificity of the surrounding early states within the middle Nile, one's understanding of Meroë in combination with

6272-399: The historical developments of other historic states may be enhanced through looking at the development of power relation characteristics within other Nile Valley states. The site of the city of Meroë is marked by more than two hundred pyramids in three groups, of which many are in ruins. They have the distinctive size and proportions of Nubian pyramids . Meroë was the southern capital of

6370-425: The major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows: The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem. For example more than 1200 fish species have been recorded in the Red Sea, of which 10% are endemic, found nowhere else. Since the opening of the Suez Canal in November 1869, over a thousand marine species from the Red Sea—from plankton, seaweeds, invertebrates to fishes—have migrated northward and settled in

6468-416: The maritime explorations, during the reign of Darius the Great, a canal was constructed linking the Nile River to the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez. This canal is sometimes referred to as the ancient Suez Canal. It played a pivotal role in improving trade and communication between the Nile Valley and the Red Sea, and beyond to the Indian Ocean. This canal was a predecessor to the modern Suez Canal , which

6566-400: The names of the Ogdoad gods Heh and Hauhet ). Historically, it was also known to western geographers as Mare Mecca (Sea of Mecca), and Sinus Arabicus (Gulf of Arabia). Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. The association of the Red Sea with the biblical account of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea is ancient, and was made explicit in

6664-404: The northern Red Sea. The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans. From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world. Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea, but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD. From antiquity until the 20th-century , the Red Sea was also a trade route of

6762-409: The peace treaty signed in 22 BC between Rome and Meroë under Augustus and Amanirenas , respectively. One looted head , from a statue of the emperor Augustus , was buried under the steps of a temple in Meroë; it is now kept in the British Museum . The next recorded contact between Rome and Meroë was in the autumn of 61 AD. The Emperor Nero sent a party of Praetorian soldiers under the command of

6860-420: The people of Meroë also had southern deities such as Apedemak , the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast , depending upon the region), they also continued worshipping ancient Egyptian gods that they had brought with them. Among these deities were Amun , Tefnut , Horus , Isis , Thoth and Satis , though to a lesser extent. The collapse of their external trade with other Nile Valley states may be considered one of

6958-413: The plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs . Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal , but none lasted for long. The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869. During the first half of the 20th-century, the Red Sea slave trade attracted substantional international condemnation. After

7056-428: The population and the industries along the Red Sea. There are at least 18 desalination plants along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia which discharge warm brine and treatment chemicals ( chlorine and anti-scalants ) that bleach and kill corals and cause diseases in the fish. This is only localized, but it may intensify with time and profoundly impact the fishing industry. The Red Sea serves an important role in

7154-505: The prime causes of the decline of royal power and disintegration of the Meroitic state in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and the Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. The language was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet : Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which

7252-855: The region The English term Red Sea is a direct translation of the Ancient Greek Erythra Thalassa ( Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα ). The sea itself was once referred to as the Erythraean Sea by Europeans. As well as Mare Rubrum in Latin (alternatively Sinus Arabicus , literally "Arabian Gulf"), the Romans called it Pontus Herculis (Sea of Hercules). Other designations include the Arabic : البحر الأحمر , romanized :  Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar (alternatively بحر القلزم Baḥr Al-Qulzum , literally "the Sea of Clysma "),

7350-747: The regnal claims of Ezana : I, Ezana , King of the Axumites and Himyarites and of Reeidan and of the Sabaites and of Sileel (?) and of Hasa and of the Bougaites and of Taimo... While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the Kingdom of Kush, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroë around 300. Jewish oral tradition avers that Moses , in his younger years, had led an Egyptian military expedition into Sudan (Kush), as far as

7448-506: The reliefs on the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing the names with representations of queens and some kings, with some chapters of the Book of the Dead ; some steles with inscriptions in the Meroitic language, and some vessels of metal and earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum and partly in

7546-736: The royal palace are in Meroë. Kings and many queens are buried in Meroë , in the South Cemetery. Napata remained relevant for the Amun Temple. The first King of the period was Aktisanes (Early 3rd century BC) and the last king of the period was Sabrakamani (first half 3rd century BC). The seat of government and the royal palace are in Meroë . Kings are buried in Meroë , in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. Napata remained relevant for

7644-536: The rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley north to south, over a straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi). The King of Meroë was an autocratic ruler who shared his authority only with the Queen Mother, or Candace . However, the role of the Queen Mother remains obscure. The administration consisted of treasurers , seal bearers, heads of archives and chief scribes , among others. Although

7742-556: The sea. The Red Sea is the world's northernmost tropical sea, and has been designated a Global 200 ecoregion. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows: On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez [A line running from Ràs Muhammed (27°43'N) to the South point of Shadwan Island (34°02'E) and thence Westward on a parallel (27°27'N) to

7840-521: The second island, Jadid, emerged in September 2013. Approximately 40% of the Red Sea is quite shallow at less than 100 m (330 ft) deep, with about 25% less than 50 m (160 ft) deep. Undiscovered oil reserves in the region have been estimated at 5,041 MMBO. Undiscovered gas reserves in the region have been estimated at 112,349 BCFG. Undiscovered natural gas reserves have been estimated at 3,077 MMBNGL. Most of these plays are controlled by

7938-655: The settlement called the Western Cemetery. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period , especially from the reign of Arakamani (c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata ( Gebel Barkal ). Royal burials formed the Pyramids of Meroë , containing the remains of the Kings and Queens of Meroë from c. 300 BC to about 350 AD. The seat of government and

8036-484: The south near the Gulf of Aden, but it fluctuates between 0.20 m (0.66 ft) and 0.30 m (0.98 ft) away from the nodal point. The central Red Sea (Jeddah area) is therefore almost tideless, and as such the annual water level changes are more significant. Because of the small tidal range the water during high tide inundates the coastal sabkhas as a thin sheet of water up to a few hundred metres rather than flooding

8134-469: The southern part and 41 ‰ in the northern part around the Gulf of Suez , with an average of 40 ‰. (Average salinity for the world's seawater is ~35 ‰ on the Practical Salinity Scale, or PSU; that translates to 3.5% of actual dissolved salts). In general, tide ranges between 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in the north, near the mouth of the Gulf of Suez and 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in

8232-621: The structure of the basin. Normal faults are common as the Red Sea occupies an active diverging margin. These targets are commonly found below the Salt deposits of the Middle Miocene . Modern development is focused on the following fields. The Durwara 2 Field was discovered in 1963, while the Suakin 1 Field and the Bashayer 1A Field were discovered in 1976, on the Egyptian side of the Red Sea. The Barqan Field

8330-466: The time, iron was one of the most important metals worldwide, and Meroitic metalworkers were among the best in the world. Meroë traded ivory, slaves, rare skins, ostrich feathers, copper, and ebony. Meroë also exported textiles and jewelry . Their textiles were based on cotton and working on this product reached its highest achievement in Nubia around 400 BC. Furthermore, Nubia was very rich in gold . It

8428-442: The unique properties of these coral and their commensal algae to see if they can be used to salvage bleached coral elsewhere. The Red Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water in the world, owing to high evaporation and low precipitation; no significant rivers or streams drain into the sea, and its southern connection to the Gulf of Aden , an arm of the Indian Ocean, is narrow. Its salinity ranges from between ~36  ‰ in

8526-481: The world. The average surface water temperature of the Red Sea during the summer is about 26 °C (79 °F) in the north and 30 °C (86 °F) in the south, with only about 2 °C (3.6 °F) variation during the winter months. The overall average water temperature is 22 °C (72 °F). Temperature and visibility remain good to around 200 m (660 ft). The sea is known for its strong winds and unpredictable local currents. The rainfall over

8624-462: The years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his work, The Egyptian Sudan: its History and Monuments … Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate , governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummified. The most interesting objects found were

8722-542: Was an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi , Sudan , approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum . Near the site is a group of villages called Bagrawiyah ( Arabic : البجراوية ). This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries from around 590 BC, until its collapse in the 4th century AD. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to

8820-443: Was called by that name. The city had originally borne the ancient appellation Saba , named after the country's original founder. The eponym Saba , or Seba , is named for one of the sons of Cush (see Genesis 10:7). The presence of numerous Meroitic sites within the western Butana region and on the border of Butana proper is significant to the settlement of the core of the developed region. The orientation of these settlements exhibit

8918-418: Was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of bilingual texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen Shanakdakhete . Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left like all Semitic orthographies. By the 3rd century BC,

9016-452: Was centered around a strong iron industry. Metalworking is believed to have taken place in Meroë, possibly through bloomeries and blast furnaces . Archibald Sayce reportedly referred to it as "the Birmingham of Africa", because of perceived vast production and trade of iron (a contention that is a matter of debate in modern scholarship). The centralized control of production within

9114-572: Was centered at Meroë in the modern-day nation of Sudan . Biblical scholar Kevin Burrell argues that Cush in the Table of Nations should be identified with Meluhha , a placename originally referring to a region east of Mesopotamia but which starting from the mid-2nd millennium BC onwards became equated with the territory of Kush in Nubia . According to Burrell, this explains both Cush's Mesopotamian connections in

9212-481: Was constructed in the 19th century and continues to be one of the world's most important waterways. The construction of the canal during Darius's reign is evidenced by ancient records, including inscriptions. Darius commemorated the completion of the canal by creating stelae (stone monuments) with inscriptions in several languages, describing the construction and its benefits. The canal not only facilitated trade but also solidified Darius's control over Egypt and enhanced

9310-702: Was discovered in 1969, and the Midyan Field in 1992, both within the Midyan Basin on the Saudi Arabian side of the Red Sea. The 20-m thick Middle Miocene Maqna Formation is an oil source rock in the basin. Oil seeps occur near the Farasan Islands , the Dahlak Archipelago , along the coast of Eritrea, and in the southeastern Red Sea along the coasts of Saudi Arabia and Yemen. In terms of mineral resources

9408-496: Was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for iron working . The location also afforded access to trade routes to the Red Sea . The city of Meroë was located along the middle Nile which is of much importance due to the annual flooding of the Nile river valley and the connection to many major river systems such as the Niger which aided with the production of pottery and iron characteristic to

9506-399: Was the lightly armed Muslim pilgrim convoys, rather than the well guarded cities of Mecca and Medina, and the belief in the Muslim world that Reynald was seeking to sack the holy cities, due to the proximity of those cities to the areas that Raynald raided. In 1513, trying to secure that channel to Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque laid siege to Aden but was forced to retreat. They cruised

9604-534: Was the same person as the Persian Zoroaster and that he was the inventor of magic and idolatry. The Persian historian al-Tabari (c. 915) recounts a tradition that the wife of Cush was named Qarnabil, daughter of Batawil, son of Tiras , and that she bore him the "Abyssinians, Sindis and Indians ". Explorer James Bruce , who visited the Ethiopian Highlands c. 1770, wrote of "a tradition among

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