99-563: Gianchetti (also bianchetti, poutine in Nice , nonnat in Provence ) are the whitebait of fish of the Mediterranean ( sardines and anchovies , etc.), caught with special nets in the early months of the year. The relatively low catch means that the prices at market are rather high, even in comparison to other whitebait. Since the 1990s frozen gianchetti have also been available. A speciality of
198-616: A committee to review the Royal Society's meteorological instruments and to help assess the instruments of the Royal Greenwich Observatory . His first paper, Factitious Airs , appeared in 1766. Other committees on which he served included the committee of papers, which chose the papers for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , and the committees for the transit of Venus (1769), for
297-423: A craftsman named Harrison, was the first of the precision balances of the 18th century, and as accurate as Lavoisier's (which has been estimated to measure one part in 400,000). Cavendish worked with his instrument makers, generally improving existing instruments rather than inventing wholly new ones. Cavendish, as indicated above, used the language of the old phlogiston theory in chemistry. In 1787, he became one of
396-578: A degree (at the time, a common practice). He then lived with his father in London, where he soon had his own laboratory complete with dog-room. Lord Charles Cavendish spent his life firstly in politics and then increasingly in science, especially in the Royal Society of London. In 1758, he took Henry to meetings of the Royal Society and also to dinners of the Royal Society Club. In 1760, Henry Cavendish
495-478: A magical aspect. Place Rossetti is in the centre of the old town, streets Jesus , Rossetti , Mascoïnat and the Pont-vieux (old bridge). Henry Cavendish Henry Cavendish FRS ( / ˈ k æ v ən d ɪ ʃ / KAV -ən-dish ; 10 October 1731 – 24 February 1810) was an English-French natural philosopher and scientist who was an important experimental and theoretical chemist and physicist . He
594-694: A manager (1800) and took an active interest, especially in the laboratory, where he observed and helped in Humphry Davy 's chemical experiments. About the time of his father's death, Cavendish began to work closely with Charles Blagden , an association that helped Blagden enter fully into London's scientific society. In return, Blagden helped to keep the world at a distance from Cavendish. Cavendish published no books and few papers, but he achieved much. Several areas of research, including mechanics , optics , and magnetism , feature extensively in his manuscripts, but they scarcely feature in his published work. Cavendish
693-494: A material, the relationship between electric potential and current (now called Ohm's law ) (1781), laws for the division of current in parallel circuits (now attributed to Charles Wheatstone ), and the inverse square law of variation of electric force with distance, now called Coulomb's law . Cavendish died at Clapham on 24 February 1810 (as one of the wealthiest men in Britain) and was buried, along with many of his ancestors, in
792-475: A new eudiometer of his invention, with which he achieved the best results to date, using what in other hands had been the inexact method of measuring gases by weighing them. Then, after a repetition of a 1781 experiment performed by Priestley, Cavendish published a paper on the production of pure water by burning hydrogen in " dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of combustion, now known to be oxygen ). Cavendish concluded that rather than being synthesised,
891-707: A population of nearly one million on an area of 744 km (287 sq mi). Located on the French Riviera , the southeastern coast of France on the Mediterranean Sea , at the foot of the French Alps , Nice is the second-largest French city on the Mediterranean coast and second-largest city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region after Marseille . Nice is approximately 13 kilometres (8 mi) from
990-511: A red colour ( ruscetti , rossetti ) are tougher and scaly to the palate: they are largely used to flavour fish-based sauces. Nice Nice ( / n iː s / NEESS ; French pronunciation: [nis] ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with
1089-660: A separate city until the time of the Lombard invasions. The ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez , now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria . In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens ; but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, and for most of the 10th century remained masters of the surrounding country. During
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#17330849157751188-444: A set of "ten inlaid satinwood chairs with matching cabriole legged sofa". Because of his asocial and secretive behaviour, Cavendish often avoided publishing his work, and much of his findings were not told even to his fellow scientists. In the late nineteenth century, long after his death, James Clerk Maxwell looked through Cavendish's papers and found observations and results for which others had been given credit. Examples of what
1287-479: A small bubble of unreacted gas was left in the original sample. Using his observations, Cavendish observed that, when he had determined the amounts of phlogisticated air ( nitrogen ) and dephlogisticated air (oxygen), there remained a volume of gas amounting to 1/120 of the original volume of nitrogen. By careful measurements he was led to conclude that "common air consists of one part of dephlogisticated air [oxygen], mixed with four of phlogisticated [nitrogen]". In
1386-405: A stabbing attack killed three people at the local Notre-Dame de Nice . One of the victims, a woman, was beheaded by the attacker. Several additional victims were injured. The attacker, who was shot by the police, was taken into custody. The Islamic state claimed responsibility for both attacks. In 2021, the city was proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as "Nice, Winter Resort Town of
1485-486: A territorial reward for French assistance in the Second Italian War of Independence against Austria , which saw Lombardy united with Piedmont-Sardinia . King Victor-Emmanuel II, on 1 April 1860, solemnly asked the population to accept the change of sovereignty, in the name of Italian unity, and the cession was ratified by a regional referendum . Italophile manifestations and the acclamation of an "Italian Nice" by
1584-521: A truck was deliberately driven into a crowd of people by Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel on the Promenade des Anglais . The crowd was watching a fireworks display in celebration of Bastille Day . A total of 87 people were killed, including the perpetrator, who was shot dead by police. Another 434 were injured, with 52 in critical care and 25 in intensive care, according to the Paris prosecutor. On 29 October 2020,
1683-495: A very early use of fire 380,000 years ago. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia , after Nike , the goddess of victory. Through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength. From 1388 it was a dominion of Savoy , then became part of the French First Republic between 1792 and 1815, when it
1782-563: A well-defended city gate on the main road from Turin . In 1388, the commune placed itself under the protection of the Counts of Savoy . Nice participated – directly or indirectly – in the history of Savoy until 1860. The maritime strength of Nice now rapidly increased until it was able to cope with the Barbary pirates ; the fortifications were largely extended and the roads to the city improved. In 1561 Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy abolished
1881-593: A winter resort town for the European aristocracy and the resulting mix of cultures found in the city, UNESCO proclaimed Nice a World Heritage Site in 2021. The city has the second largest hotel capacity in the country, and it is the second most visited metropolis in Metropolitan France , receiving four million tourists every year. It also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It
1980-495: Is a bay of the Mediterranean in Nice. Before Nice was urbanised, the coastline at Nice was just bordered by a deserted stretch of shingle beach (covered with large pebbles). The first houses were located on higher ground well away from the sea, as wealthy tourists visiting Nice in the 18th century did not come for the beach, but for the gentle winter weather. The areas close to the water were home to Nice's dockworkers and fishermen. In
2079-527: Is commemorated in many of the city's museums, including Musée Marc Chagall , Musée Matisse and Musée des Beaux-Arts . International writers have also been attracted and inspired by the city. Frank Harris wrote several books including his autobiography My Life and Loves in Nice. Friedrich Nietzsche spent six consecutive winters in Nice, and wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra there. Additionally, Russian writer Anton Chekhov completed his play Three Sisters while living in Nice. Nice's appeal extended to
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#17330849157752178-431: Is considered to be one of the so-called pneumatic chemists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, along with, for example, Joseph Priestley , Joseph Black , and Daniel Rutherford . Cavendish found that a definite, peculiar, and highly inflammable gas, which he referred to as "Inflammable Air", was produced by the action of certain acids on certain metals . This gas was hydrogen , which Cavendish correctly guessed
2277-762: Is named after Giuseppe Garibaldi , hero of the Italian unification (born in Nice in 1807 when Nice was part of the Napoleonic Empire, before reverting to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia). The square was built at the end of the 18th century and served as the entry gate to the city and end of the road from Turin. It took several names between 1780 and 1870 (Plaça Pairoulièra, Place de la République, Place Napoléon, Place d'Armes, Place Saint-Augustin, Piazza Vittorio) and finally Place Garibaldi in September 1870. A statue of Garibaldi, who
2376-421: Is noted for his discovery of hydrogen , which he termed "inflammable air". He described the density of inflammable air, which formed water on combustion, in a 1766 paper, On Factitious Airs . Antoine Lavoisier later reproduced Cavendish's experiment and gave the element its name. A shy man, Cavendish was distinguished for great accuracy and precision in his researches into the composition of atmospheric air ,
2475-546: Is the historical capital city of the County of Nice ( French : Comté de Nice , Niçard: Countèa de Nissa ). The first known hominid settlements in the Nice area date back about 400,000 years ( homo erectus ); the Terra Amata archeological site shows one of the earliest uses of fire, construction of houses, as well as flint findings dated to around 230,000 years ago. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by colonists from
2574-703: The Cimetière du Château include celebrated jeweler Alfred Van Cleef , Emil Jellinek-Mercedes , founder of the Mercedes car company, film director Louis Feuillade , poet Agathe-Sophie Sasserno , dancer Carolina Otero , Asterix comics creator René Goscinny , The Phantom of the Opera author Gaston Leroux , French prime minister Léon Gambetta , and the first president of the International Court of Justice José Gustavo Guerrero . Because of its historical importance as
2673-672: The French colonies , Morocco and North and South America. After July 1940 and the establishment of the Vichy Regime , antisemitic aggressions accelerated the exodus, starting in July 1941 and continuing through 1942. On 26 August 1942, 655 Jews of foreign origin were rounded up by the Laval government and interned in the Auvare barracks. Of these, 560 were deported to Drancy internment camp on 31 August 1942. Due to
2772-456: The Ligurian cuisine and Provençal cuisine , gianchetti are generally lightly boiled in salted water and served hot, dressed with oil and lemon juice; another classic approach is to make fritters of the fish together with an egg and flour batter; finally they may simply be dipped in flour and deep fried . In Provence they are also used to make a traditional soup or omelettes . The gianchetti of
2871-638: The Middle Ages , Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy . As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa , and both the King of France and the Holy Roman Emperor endeavoured to subjugate it; but in spite of this it maintained its municipal liberties. During the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence , but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded
2970-610: The Promenade des Anglais followed by a hairpin turn at the Hotel Negresco to come back eastward and around the Jardin Albert I before heading again east along the beach on the Quai des Etats-Unis. As war broke out in September 1939, Nice became a city of refuge for many displaced foreigners, notably Jews fleeing the Nazi progression into Eastern Europe. From Nice many sought further shelter in
3069-548: The Tramway de Nice electrified its horse-drawn streetcars and spread its network to the entire département from Menton to Cagnes-sur-Mer . By the 1930s more bus connections were added in the area. In the 1930s, Nice hosted international car racing in the Formula Libre (predecessor to Formula One ) on the so-called Circuit Nice. The circuit started along the waterfront just south of the Jardin Albert I, then headed westward along
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3168-736: The commune . Conquered in 1792 by the armies of the First French Republic , the County of Nice continued to be part of France until 1814; but after that date it reverted to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia . After the Treaty of Turin was signed in 1860 between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III as a consequence of the Plombières Agreement , the county was again and definitively ceded to France as
3267-607: The principality of Monaco and 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the French–Italian border . Nice's airport serves as a gateway to the region. The city is nicknamed Nice la Belle ( Nissa La Bella in Niçard), meaning 'Nice the Beautiful', which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of today's Nice contains Terra Amata , an archaeological site which displays evidence of
3366-457: The torsion balance built by geologist John Michell , who died before he could begin the experiment. The apparatus was sent in crates to Cavendish, who completed the experiment in 1797–1798 and published the results. The experimental apparatus consisted of a torsion balance with a pair of 2-inch 1.61-pound lead spheres suspended from the arm of a torsion balance and two much larger stationary lead balls (350 pounds). Cavendish intended to measure
3465-509: The 1890s (around 100 years later) two British physicists, William Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh , realised that their newly discovered inert gas , argon , was responsible for Cavendish's problematic residue; he had not made an error. What he had done was perform rigorous quantitative experiments, using standardised instruments and methods, aimed at reproducible results; taken the mean of the result of several experiments; and identified and allowed for sources of error. The balance that he used, made by
3564-515: The Earth's density by a trivial web of algebraic relations, none of these sources are wrong, but they do not match the exact word choice of Cavendish, and this mistake has been pointed out by several authors. Cavendish's stated goal was to measure the Earth's density. The first time that the constant got this name was in 1873, almost 100 years after the Cavendish experiment. Cavendish's results also give
3663-548: The Earth's mass . Cavendish's electrical and chemical experiments, like those on heat, had begun while he lived with his father in a laboratory in their London house. Lord Charles Cavendish died in 1783, leaving almost all of his very substantial estate to Henry. Like his theory of heat, Cavendish's comprehensive theory of electricity was mathematical in form and was based on precise quantitative experiments. Working with his colleague, Timothy Lane , he created an artificial torpedo fish that could dispense electric shocks to show that
3762-693: The Greek city of Phocaea in western Anatolia . It was given the name of Níkaia ( Νίκαια ) in honour of a victory over the neighbouring Ligurians (people from the northwest of Italy , probably the Vediantii kingdom); Nike ( Νίκη ) was the Greek goddess of victory. The city soon became one of the busiest trading ports on the Ligurian coast; but it had an important rival in the Roman town of Cemenelum , which continued to exist as
3861-473: The Honourable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S. (1921). According to the 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica , among Cavendish's discoveries were the concept of electric potential (which he called the "degree of electrification"), an early unit of capacitance (that of a sphere one inch in diameter), the formula for the capacitance of a plate capacitor , the concept of the dielectric constant of
3960-451: The Ligurian towns of Ventimiglia , Bordighera and Ospedaletti , giving rise to a local branch of the movement of the Italian irredentists which considered the re-acquisition of Nice to be one of their nationalist goals. Giuseppe Garibaldi , born in Nice, strongly opposed the cession to France, arguing that the ballot was rigged by the French. Furthermore, for the niçard general his hometown
4059-628: The Old Town. The landward side was protected by the River Paillon , which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill . Another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the port area was also defended by walls. Under Monoprix in Place de Garibaldi are excavated remains of
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4158-574: The Opera, was immediately abolished and replaced by French. Discontent over annexation to France led to the emigration of a large part of the Italophile population, also accelerated by Italian unification after 1861. A quarter of the population of Nice, around 11,000 people from Nice, decided to voluntarily exile to Italy. The emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy took the name of Niçard exodus . Many Italians from Nizza then moved to
4257-602: The Riviera". On 18 July 2024, seven people from the same family, including three young children, three adults and a teenager were killed in an arson attack . The fire also critically injured one other person and caused thirty other people to suffer from smoke inhalation . The Promenade des Anglais ("Walkway of the English") is a promenade along the Baie des Anges ("Bay of the Angels"), which
4356-603: The Russian upper classes. Prince Nicholas Alexandrovich , heir apparent to Imperial Russia , died in Nice and was a patron of the Russian Orthodox Cemetery, Nice where Princess Catherine Dolgorukova , morganatic wife of the Tsar Alexander II of Russia , is buried. Also buried there are General Dmitry Shcherbachev and General Nikolai Yudenich , leaders of the anti-Communist White Movement . Those interred at
4455-636: The activity of the Jewish banker Angelo Donati and of the Capuchin friar Père Marie-Benoît the local authorities hindered the application of anti-Jewish Vichy laws. The first résistants to the new regime were a group of high school seniors of the Lycée de Nice, now Lycée Masséna [ fr ] , in September 1940, later arrested and executed in 1944 near Castellane . The first public demonstrations occurred on 14 July 1942 when several hundred protesters took to
4554-586: The birth of her second son, Frederick, and shortly before Henry's second birthday, leaving Lord Charles Cavendish to bring up his two sons. Henry Cavendish was styled as "The Honourable Henry Cavendish". From the age of 11 Henry attended Newcome's School , a private school near London. At the age of 18 (on 24 November 1748) he entered the University of Cambridge in St Peter's College, now known as Peterhouse , but left three years later on 23 February 1751 without taking
4653-429: The burning of hydrogen caused water to be condensed from the air. Some physicists interpreted hydrogen as pure phlogiston . Cavendish reported his findings to Priestley no later than March 1783, but did not publish them until the following year. The Scottish inventor James Watt published a paper on the composition of water in 1783; controversy about who made the discovery first ensued. In 1785, Cavendish investigated
4752-728: The church that is now Derby Cathedral . The road he used to live on in Derby has been named after him, as has a road near his house in Clapham, of which the north part is part of the South Circular Road . The University of Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory was endowed by one of Cavendish's later relatives, William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire (Chancellor of the University from 1861 to 1891). Cavendish inherited two fortunes that were so large that Jean Baptiste Biot called him "the richest of all
4851-467: The city back to the Duke of Savoy, who was on that same occasion recognised as King of Sicily. In the peaceful years which followed, the "new town" was built. From 1744 until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French and Spaniards were again in possession. In 1775 the king, who in 1718 had swapped his sovereignty of Sicily for the Kingdom of Sardinia, destroyed all that remained of the ancient liberties of
4950-472: The city include: The Place Masséna is the main square of the city. Before the Paillon River was covered over, the Pont-Neuf was the only practicable way between the old town and the modern one. The square was thus divided into two parts (North and South) in 1824. With the demolition of the Masséna Casino in 1979, the Place Masséna became more spacious and less dense and is now bordered by red ochre buildings of Italian architecture . The recent rebuilding of
5049-479: The city is referred to as the "Zone Piétonne", or "Pedestrian Zone". Cars are not allowed (with exception to delivery trucks), making this avenue a popular walkway. Old Nice is also home to the Opéra de Nice . It was constructed at the end of the 19th century under the design of François Aune, to replace King Charles Félix's Maccarani Theater. Today, it is open to the public and provides a regular program of performances. Other sights include: Religious buildings in
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#17330849157755148-515: The city's main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais ("Walkway of the English"), was inaugurated by Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught ; it owes its name to visitors to the resort. These included Queen Victoria along with her son Edward VII who spent winters there, as well as Henry Cavendish , born in Nice, who discovered hydrogen. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to notable painters, such as Marc Chagall , Henri Matisse , Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman . Their work
5247-408: The composition of common (i.e. atmospheric) air , obtaining impressively accurate results. He conducted experiments in which hydrogen and ordinary air were combined in known ratios and then exploded with a spark of electricity. Furthermore, he also described an experiment in which he was able to remove, in modern terminology, both the oxygen and nitrogen gases from a sample of atmospheric air until only
5346-403: The conventions of the time, when the Negresco first opened in 1913 its front opened on the side opposite the Mediterranean. Another place worth mentioning is the small street parallel to the Promenade des Anglais, leading from Nice's downtown, beginning at Place Masséna and running parallel to the promenade in the direction of the airport for a short distance of about four blocks. This section of
5445-449: The crowd are reported on this occasion. A plebiscite was voted on 15 and 16 April 1860. The opponents of annexation called for abstention, hence the very high abstention rate. The "yes" vote won 83% of registered voters throughout the county of Nice and 86% in Nice, partly thanks to pressure from the authorities. This is the result of a masterful operation of information control by the French and Piedmontese governments, in order to influence
5544-409: The currently accepted figure. Cavendish's work led others to accurate values for the gravitational constant ( G ) and Earth's mass. Based on his results, one can calculate a value for G of 6.754 × 10 N-m /kg , which compares favourably with the modern value of 6.67428 × 10 N-m /kg . Books often describe Cavendish's work as a measurement of either G or the Earth's mass. Since these are related to
5643-410: The earliest outside France to convert to the new antiphlogistic theory of Lavoisier, though he remained sceptical about the nomenclature of the new theory. He also objected to Lavoisier's identification of heat as having a material or elementary basis. Working within the framework of Newtonian mechanism, Cavendish had tackled the problem of the nature of heat in the 1760s, explaining heat as the result of
5742-430: The early 21st century. Historian of science Russell McCormmach proposed that "Heat" is the only 18th-century work prefiguring thermodynamics . Theoretical physicist Dietrich Belitz concluded that in this work Cavendish "got the nature of heat essentially right". As Cavendish performed his famous density of the Earth experiment in an outbuilding in the garden of his Clapham Common estate, his neighbours would point out
5841-412: The force of gravitational attraction between the two. He noticed that Michell's apparatus would be sensitive to temperature differences and induced air currents, so he made modifications by isolating the apparatus in a separate room with external controls and telescopes for making observations. Using this equipment, Cavendish calculated the attraction between the balls from the period of oscillation of
5940-679: The former Italian zone. Reprisals intensified between December 1943 and July 1944, when many partisans were tortured and executed by the local Gestapo . American paratroopers entered the city on 30 August 1944 and Nice was finally liberated. The consequences of the war were heavy: the population decreased by 15% and economic life was totally disrupted. In the second half of the 20th century, Nice enjoyed an economic boom primarily driven by tourism and construction. Two men dominated this period: Jean Médecin , mayor for 33 years from 1928 to 1943 and from 1947 to 1965, and his son Jacques , mayor for 24 years from 1966 to 1990. Under their leadership, there
6039-405: The gravitational attraction of mountains (1774), and for the scientific instructions for Constantine Phipps's expedition (1773) in search of the North Pole and the Northwest Passage . In 1773, Henry joined his father as an elected trustee of the British Museum , to which he devoted a good deal of time and effort. Soon after the Royal Institution of Great Britain was established, Cavendish became
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#17330849157756138-426: The institutions of the European Union. In 2003, local Chief Prosecutor Éric de Montgolfier alleged that some judicial cases involving local personalities had been suspiciously derailed by the local judiciary, which he suspected of having unhealthy contacts through Masonic lodges with the defendants. A controversial official report stated later that Montgolfier had made unwarranted accusations. On 14 July 2016,
6237-427: The late 1780s. His theory was at once mathematical and mechanical: it contained the principle of the conservation of heat (later understood as an instance of conservation of energy ) and even included the concept (although not the label) of the mechanical equivalent of heat . Following his father's death, Henry bought another house in town and also a house in Clapham Common (built by Thomas Cubitt ), at that time to
6336-504: The military procession of 14 July (Bastille Day) or other traditional celebrations and banquets. The Place Masséna is a two-minute walk from the Promenade des Anglais , old town, town centre, and Albert I Garden ( Jardin Albert Ier ). It is also a large crossroads between several of the main streets of the city: avenue Jean Médecin , avenue Félix Faure , boulevard Jean Jaurès , avenue de Verdun and rue Gioffredo . The Place Garibaldi also stands out for its architecture and history. It
6435-437: The motion of matter. In 1783, he published a paper on the temperature at which mercury freezes and in that paper made use of the idea of latent heat , although he did not use the term because he believed that it implied acceptance of a material theory of heat. He made his objections explicit in his 1784 paper on air. He went on to develop a general theory of heat, and the manuscript of that theory has been persuasively dated to
6534-451: The outcome of the vote in relation to the decisions already taken. The irregularities in the plebiscite voting operations were evident. The case of Levens is emblematic: the same official sources recorded, faced with only 407 voters, 481 votes cast, naturally almost all in favor of joining France. The Italian language that was the official language of the County, used by the Church, at the town hall, taught in schools, used in theaters and at
6633-427: The period 1860–1914, despite the repression carried out since the annexation. The French government implemented a policy of Francization of society, language and culture. The toponyms of the communes of the ancient County have been francized, with the obligation to use French in Nice, as well as certain surnames (for example the Italian surname "Bianchi" was francized into "Leblanc", and the Italian surname "Del Ponte"
6732-409: The properties of different gases, the synthesis of water, the law governing electrical attraction and repulsion , a mechanical theory of heat, and calculations of the density (and hence the mass ) of the Earth . His experiment to measure the density of the Earth (which, in turn, allows the gravitational constant to be calculated) has come to be known as the Cavendish experiment . Henry Cavendish
6831-446: The savants and the most knowledgeable of the rich". At his death, Cavendish was the largest depositor in the Bank of England . He was a shy man who was uncomfortable in society and avoided it when he could. He could speak to only one person at a time, and only if the person were known to him and male. He conversed little, always dressed in an old-fashioned suit, and developed no known deep personal attachments outside his family. Cavendish
6930-419: The second half of the 18th century, many wealthy English people took to spending the winter in Nice, enjoying the panorama along the coast. This early aristocratic English colony conceived the building of a promenade with the leadership and financial support of Rev. Lewis Way . With the initial promenade completed, the city of Nice, intrigued by the prospect, greatly increased the scope of the work. The Promenade
7029-545: The source of shock from these fish was electricity. He published an early version of his theory of electricity in 1771, based on an expansive electrical fluid that exerted pressure. He demonstrated that if the intensity of electric force were inversely proportional to distance, then the electric fluid more than that needed for electrical neutrality would lie on the outer surface of an electrified sphere; then he confirmed this experimentally. Cavendish continued to work on electricity after this initial paper, but he published no more on
7128-453: The south-west of London. The London house contained the bulk of his library, while he kept most of his instruments at Clapham Common, where he carried out most of his experiments. The most famous of those experiments, published in 1798, was to determine the density of the Earth and became known as the Cavendish experiment . The apparatus Cavendish used for weighing the Earth was a modification of
7227-427: The square, the cathédrale Sainte-Réparate and the fountain in the centre, place Rossetti is a must-see spot in the old town. By day, the place is invaded by the terraces of traditional restaurants and the finest ice-cream makers. By night, the environment changes radically, with tourists and youths flocking to the square, where music reverberates on the walls of the small square. The square's lighting at night gives it
7326-621: The streets along the Avenue de la Victoire and in the Place Masséna. In November 1942 German troops moved into most of unoccupied France, but Italian troops moved into a smaller zone including Nice. A certain ambivalence remained among the population, many of whom were recent immigrants of Italian ancestry. However, the resistance gained momentum after the Italian surrender in 1943 when the German army occupied
7425-636: The subject. Cavendish wrote papers on electrical topics for the Royal Society but the bulk of his electrical experiments did not become known until they were collected and published by James Clerk Maxwell a century later, in 1879, long after other scientists had been credited with the same results. Cavendish's electrical papers from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London have been reprinted, together with most of his electrical manuscripts, in The Scientific Papers of
7524-602: The three days of demonstration took the name of " Niçard Vespers ". The revolt was suppressed by French troops. On 13 February, Garibaldi was not allowed to speak at the French parliament meeting in Bordeaux to ask for the reunification of Nice to the newborn Italian unitary state , and he resigned from his post as deputy. The failure of Vespers led to the expulsion of the last pro-Italian intellectuals from Nice, such as Luciano Mereu or Giuseppe Bres, who were expelled or deported. The pro-Italian irredentist movement persisted throughout
7623-403: The torsion balance, and then he used this value to calculate the density of the Earth. Cavendish found that the Earth's average density is 5.48 times greater than that of water. John Henry Poynting later noted that the data should have led to a value of 5.448, and indeed that is the average value of the twenty-nine determinations Cavendish included in his paper. The error in the published number
7722-510: The town centre. Place Garibaldi is close to the eastern districts of Nice, Port Lympia (Lympia Harbour), and the TNL commercial centre. This square is also a junction of several important streets: the boulevard Jean-Jaurès , the avenue de la République , the rue Cassini and the rue Catherine-Ségurane . Entirely enclosed and pedestrianised, this square is located in the heart of the old town. With typical buildings in red and yellow ochres surrounding
7821-553: The tramline gave the square back to the pedestrians, restoring its status as a real Mediterranean square. It is lined with palm trees and stone pines, instead of being the rectangular roundabout of sorts it had become over the years. Since its construction, the Place Masséna has always been the spot for great public events. It is used for concerts, and particularly during the summer festivals, the Corso carnavalesque (carnival parade) in February,
7920-553: The two monarchs concluded a ten years' truce . In 1543, Nice was attacked by the united Franco-Ottoman forces of Francis I and Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha , in the Siege of Nice ; though the inhabitants repulsed the assault which followed the terrible bombardment, they were ultimately compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa was allowed to pillage the city and to carry off 2,500 captives. Pestilence appeared again in 1550 and 1580. In 1600, Nice
8019-429: The use of Latin as an administrative language and established the Italian language as the official language of government affairs in Nice. During the struggle between Francis I and Charles V great damage was caused by the passage of the armies invading Provence ; pestilence and famine raged in the city for several years. In 1538, in the nearby town of Villeneuve-Loubet , through the mediation of Pope Paul III ,
8118-472: The votes in the legislative elections (26,534 votes out of 29,428 votes cast), and Garibaldi was elected deputy at the National Assembly . Pro-Italians took to the streets cheering "Viva Nizza! Viva Garibaldi!". The French government sent 10,000 soldiers to Nice, closed the Italian newspaper Il Diritto di Nizza and imprisoned several demonstrators. The population of Nice rose up from 8 to 10 February and
8217-399: Was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal for this paper. Gas chemistry was of increasing importance in the latter half of the 18th century, and became crucial for Frenchman Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 's reform of chemistry, generally known as the chemical revolution . In 1783, Cavendish published a paper on eudiometry (the measurement of the goodness of gases for breathing). He described
8316-467: Was born on 10 October 1731 in Nice , where his family was living at the time. His mother was Lady Anne de Grey, fourth daughter of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Kent , and his father was Lord Charles Cavendish , the third son of William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire . The family traced its lineage across eight centuries to Norman times, and was closely connected to many aristocratic families of Great Britain. Henry's mother died in 1733, three months after
8415-549: Was briefly taken by the Duke of Guise . By opening the ports of the county to all nations, and proclaiming full freedom of trade (1626), the commerce of the city was given great stimulus, the noble families taking part in its mercantile enterprises. Captured by Nicolas Catinat in 1691, Nice was restored to Savoy in 1696; but it was again besieged by the French in 1705 , and in the following year its citadel and ramparts were demolished. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) once more gave
8514-457: Was considered to be agnostic . As his biographer, George Wilson, comments, "As to Cavendish's religion, he was nothing at all." The arrangement of his residence reserved only a fraction of space for personal comfort as his library was detached, the upper rooms and lawn were for astronomical observation and his drawing room was a laboratory with a forge in an adjoining room. He also enjoyed collecting fine furniture, exemplified by his purchase of
8613-412: Was due to a simple arithmetical mistake on his part. What was extraordinary about Cavendish's experiment was its elimination of every source of error and every factor that could disturb the experiment, and its precision in measuring an astonishingly small attraction, a mere 1/50,000,000 of the weight of the lead balls. The result that Cavendish obtained for the density of the Earth is within 1 per cent of
8712-463: Was elected to both these groups, and he was assiduous in his attendance after that. He took virtually no part in politics, but followed his father into science, through his researches and his participation in scientific organisations. He was active in the Council of the Royal Society of London (to which he was elected in 1765). His interest and expertise in the use of scientific instruments led him to head
8811-646: Was extensive urban renewal, including many new constructions. These included the convention centre, theatres, new thoroughfares and expressways. The arrival of the Pieds-Noirs , refugees from Algeria after 1962 independence, also gave the city a boost and somewhat changed the make-up of its population and traditional views. By the late 1980s, rumors of political corruption in the city government surfaced; and eventually formal accusations against Jacques Médecin forced him to flee France in 1990. Later arrested in Uruguay in 1993, he
8910-410: Was extradited back to France in 1994, convicted of several counts of corruption and associated crimes and sentenced to imprisonment. On 16 October 1979, a landslide and an undersea slide caused two tsunamis that hit the western coast of Nice; these events killed between 8 and 23 people. In February 2001, European leaders met in Nice to negotiate and sign what is now the Treaty of Nice , amending
9009-553: Was fiercely in favour of the union of Nice with Italy, stands in the centre of the square. The recent rebuilding of the area to accommodate the new tramway line gave mostly the entire square to pedestrians. The architecture is in line with the Turin model, which was the norm of urban renewal throughout the entire realm of the House of Savoy. It is a crossroads between the Vieux Nice (old town) and
9108-605: Was first called the Camin dei Anglès (the English Way) by the Niçois in their native dialect Nissart . In 1823, the promenade was named La Promenade des Anglais by the French, a name that would stick after the annexation of Nice by France in 1860. The Hotel Negresco on the Promenade des Anglais was named after Henri Negresco who had the palatial hotel constructed in 1912. In keeping with
9207-540: Was francized into "Dupont"). Italian-language newspapers in Nice were banned. In 1861, La Voce di Nizza was closed (temporarily reopened during the Niçard Vespers), followed by Il Diritto di Nizza , closed in 1871. In 1895 it was the turn of Il Pensiero di Nizza , accused of irredentism. Many journalists and writers from Nice wrote in these newspapers in Italian. Among these are Enrico Sappia, Giuseppe André, Giuseppe Bres, Eugenio Cais di Pierlas and others. In 1900,
9306-405: Was included in Cavendish's discoveries or anticipations were Richter's law of reciprocal proportions , Ohm's law , Dalton's law of partial pressures, principles of electrical conductivity (including Coulomb's law ), and Charles's Law of gases. A manuscript "Heat", tentatively dated between 1783 and 1790, describes a "mechanical theory of heat". Hitherto unknown, the manuscript was analysed in
9405-746: Was proportioned two to one in water. Although others, such as Robert Boyle , had prepared hydrogen gas earlier, Cavendish is usually given the credit for recognising its elemental nature. In 1777, Cavendish discovered that air exhaled by mammals is converted to "fixed air" ( carbon dioxide ), not "phlogisticated air" as predicted by Joseph Priestley. Also, by dissolving alkalis in acids, Cavendish produced carbon dioxide, which he collected, along with other gases, in bottles inverted over water or mercury . He then measured their solubility in water and their specific gravity , and noted their combustibility . He concluded in his 1778 paper "General Considerations on Acids" that respirable air constitutes acidity. Cavendish
9504-432: Was returned to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia , the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, until its annexation by France in 1860. The natural environment of the Nice area and its mild Mediterranean climate came to the attention of the English upper classes in the second half of the 18th century, when an increasing number of aristocratic families began spending their winters there. In 1931, following its refurbishment,
9603-428: Was taciturn and solitary and regarded by many as eccentric. He communicated with his female servants only by notes. By one account, Cavendish had a back staircase added to his house to avoid encountering his housekeeper, because he was especially shy of women. The contemporary accounts of his personality have led some modern commentators, such as Oliver Sacks , to speculate that he was autistic . His only social outlet
9702-507: Was the Royal Society Club, whose members dined together before weekly meetings. Cavendish seldom missed these meetings, and was profoundly respected by his contemporaries. However, his shyness made conversation difficult; guests were advised to wander close to him and then speak as if "into vacancy. If their remarks were scientifically worthy, they might receive a mumbled reply". Cavendish was more likely not to reply at all. Cavendish's religious views were also considered eccentric for his time. He
9801-423: Was unquestionably Italian. Politically, the liberals of Nice and the partisans of Garibaldi also appreciated very little Napoleonic authoritarianism. Elements on the right (aristocrats) as on the left (Garibaldians) therefore wanted Nice to return to Italy. Savoy was also transferred to the French crown by similar means. In 1871, during the first free elections in the County, the pro-Italian lists obtained almost all
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