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35-470: The word Bhuvaneshvari is a compound of the words Bhuvana Iśwari , meaning "Goddess of the world" or "Queen of the universe", where the worlds are the tri-bhuvana or three regions of bhūḥ ( Earth ), bhuvaḥ ( atmosphere ) and svaḥ (Heavens). There are several temples dedicated to Bhuvaneshvari. This Hinduism-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sanskrit compounds Sanskrit inherits from its parent,

70-519: A block'), or the English surname Longbottom ('one who lives in a long "botham" [valley]'). The second element could essentially have been a noun, which within such a compound, can take on adjective declensions with the compound used adjectivally. Endocentric compounds can thus be transformed into possessives, normally accompanied, and explicitly recognized in the older language, by a change in accentuation: A few typical examples of such compounds: When

105-612: A far more complicated set of declensions, where the suffixes (or prefixes, or infixes ) change depending on the gender of the noun , the quantity of the noun , and other possible factors. This complexity and the possible lengthening of words is one of the disadvantages of inflected languages. Notably, many of these languages lack articles . There may also be irregular nouns where the declensions are unique for each word (like irregular verbs with conjugation ). In inflected languages, other parts of speech such as numerals , demonstratives , adjectives, and articles are also declined. It

140-482: A more complex example, the sentence: becomes nonsensical in English if the words are rearranged (because there are no cases): But if English were a highly inflected language, like Latin or some Slavic languages such as Croatian , both sentences could mean the same thing. They would both contain five nouns in five different cases: mum – vocative (hey!), dog – nominative (who?), boy – genitive (of whom?), cat – accusative (whom?), street – locative (where?);

175-496: A special subcategory of karmadhārayas . dvigu compounds of bahuvrīhi type are noted below. In a nañ-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element is a privative , a negator: a- , an- or na- , just like the English un- , Latin-derived in-, non- or Greek-derived a-, an- . These are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own. These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them. In an aluk-tatpuruṣa compound, in contrast to

210-508: Is agreed that Ancient Greeks had a "vague" idea of the forms of a noun in their language. A fragment of Anacreon seems to confirm this idea. Nevertheless, it cannot be concluded that the Ancient Greeks actually knew what the cases were. The Stoics developed many basic notions that today are the rudiments of linguistics . The idea of grammatical cases is also traced back to the Stoics, but it

245-435: Is an exocentric compound consisting of a noun preceded by a grammatical modifier which, taken together, functions as a single nominalised adjective . A bahuvrīhi compound can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice" or "much-riced". In English, examples of bahuvrīhi would be "lowlife" and "blockhead" (they respectively denote 'one whose life is low' and 'one whose head resembles

280-462: Is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples: Words may be organised in a compound to form a metonym , and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral. Some Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of dvandva which they call ekaśeṣa-dvandva , where only one stem remains in what

315-667: Is never regarded as declined in Modern English, although formally, the words that and possibly she correspond to forms of the predecessor of the ( sē m., þæt n., sēo f.) as it was declined in Old English. Just as verbs in Latin are conjugated to indicate grammatical information, Latin nouns and adjectives that modify them are declined to signal their roles in sentences. There are five important cases for Latin nouns: nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and ablative . Since

350-819: Is not declined in Modern English. There are isolated situations where certain nouns may be modified to reflect gender, though not in a systematic fashion. Loan words from other languages, particularly Latin and the Romance languages, often preserve their gender-specific forms in English, e.g. alumnus (masculine singular) and alumna (feminine singular). Similarly, names borrowed from other languages show comparable distinctions: Andrew and Andrea , Paul and Paula , etc. Additionally, suffixes such as -ess , -ette , and -er are sometimes applied to create overtly gendered versions of nouns, with marking for feminine being much more common than marking for masculine. Many nouns can actually function as members of two genders or even all three, and

385-631: Is often restricted to specific contexts, depending on the dialect or the speaker. It is most typically used to refer to a single person of unknown gender (e.g. "someone left their jacket behind") or a hypothetical person where gender is insignificant (e.g. "If someone wants to, then they should"). Its use has expanded in recent years due to increasing social recognition of persons who do not identify themselves as male or female (see gender-nonbinary ). The singular they still uses plural verb forms, reflecting its origins. Some English adjectives and adverbs are declined for degree of comparison . The unmarked form

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420-402: Is still not completely clear what the Stoics exactly meant with their notion of cases. In Modern English , the system of declensions is so simple compared to some other languages that the term declension is rarely used. Most nouns in English have distinct singular and plural forms. Nouns and most noun phrases can form a possessive construction. Plurality is most commonly shown by

455-417: Is subjective, and the objective whom (although it is increasingly common to use who for both). The one situation where gender is still clearly part of the English language is in the pronouns for the third person singular. Consider the following: The distinguishing of neuter for persons and non-persons is peculiar to English. This has existed since the 14th century. However, the use of singular they

490-623: Is the positive form, such as quick . Comparative forms are formed with the ending -er ( quicker ), while superlative forms are formed with -est ( quickest ). Some are uncomparable; the remainder are usually periphrastic constructions with more ( more beautiful ) and most ( most modestly ). See degree of comparison for more. Adjectives are not declined for case in Modern English (though they were in Old English), nor number nor gender. The demonstrative determiners this and that are declined for number, as these and those . The article

525-441: Is the changing of the form of a word , generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection . Declensions may apply to nouns , pronouns , adjectives , adverbs , and determiners to indicate number (e.g. singular, dual, plural), case (e.g. nominative , accusative , genitive , dative ), gender (e.g. masculine, neuter, feminine), and a number of other grammatical categories . Meanwhile,

560-518: Is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages. Further, this development in the later language is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language. In Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by the following process: In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with

595-407: Is viewed as the compound of multiple words. While not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented. Āmreḍita compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from dív- (day) we obtain divé-dive ('day after day', daily) and from devá- (god) we obtain deváṃ-devam or devó-devas ('deity after deity'). Bahuvrīhi

630-471: The Proto-Indo-European language, the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages, especially German , Greek , and also English . However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound-usage in the literature, a development which

665-488: The ending -s (or -es ), whereas possession is always shown by the en clitic -'s or, for plural forms ending in s , by just an apostrophe. Consider, for example, the forms of the noun girl . Most speakers pronounce all forms other than the singular plain form ( girl ) exactly the same. By contrast, a few irregular nouns (like man /men) are slightly more complex in their forms. In this example, all four forms are pronounced distinctly. For nouns, in general, gender

700-495: The locative , the instrumental form of "down our street" could also be used: Different word orders preserving the original meaning are possible in an inflected language, while modern English relies on word order for meaning, with a little flexibility. This is one of the advantages of an inflected language. The English sentences above, when read without the made-up case suffixes, are confusing. These contrived examples are relatively simple, whereas actual inflected languages have

735-501: The same word , and thus are not declensions. Pronouns in English have more complex declensions. For example, the first person " I ": Whereas nouns do not distinguish between the subjective (nominative) and objective (oblique) cases, some pronouns do; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition , or case . Consider the difference between he (subjective) and him (objective), as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider who , which

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770-453: The vocative case usually takes the same form as the nominative, it is seldom spelt out in grammar books. Yet another case, the locative , is limited to a small number of words. The usual basic functions of these cases are as follows: The genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative also have important functions to indicate the object of a preposition. Given below is the declension paradigm of Latin puer 'boy' and puella 'girl': From

805-442: The adjective little would be in the same case as the noun it modifies ( boy ), and the case of the determiner our would agree with the case of the noun it determines ( street ). Using the case suffixes invented for this example, the original sentence would read: And like other inflected languages, the sentence rearranged in the following ways would mean virtually the same thing, but with different expressiveness: Instead of

840-410: The attributive member, six varieties of tatpuruṣa compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique case. The first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed dependent determinatives . In a karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa compound,

875-422: The composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided. A tatpuruṣa is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive , determines the second one. Based on the grammatical nature of

910-481: The first element of a bahuvrīhi is a numeral, the compound is called dvigu . An English example would be a halfwit ('one who has half of their mind'). A few typical examples of such compounds: Avyayībhāvas ('indeclinable') are adverbial compounds composed of an indeclinable element (an adverb, etc.) and a noun, together expressing an adverb or another indeclinable ( avyaya ) element. Declension In linguistics , declension (verb: to decline )

945-400: The first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification. In essence dvigu can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral . Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are

980-430: The following main classes: The first two of these, tatpuruṣa and bahuvrīhi , are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations. Alongside the term bahuvrīhi , tatpuruṣa has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding. The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate

1015-409: The freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one. The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed vigraha·vākya . Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: endocentric and exocentric . An endocentric compound, usually called determinative , is where the compound is essentially

1050-469: The gender classes of English nouns are usually determined by their agreement with pronouns, rather than marking on the nouns themselves. There can be other derivations from nouns that are not considered declensions. For example, the proper noun Britain has the associated descriptive adjective British and the demonym Briton . Though these words are clearly related, and are generally considered cognates , they are not specifically treated as forms of

1085-669: The inflectional change of verbs is called conjugation . Declension occurs in many of the world's languages. It is an important aspect of language families like Quechuan (i.e., languages native to the Andes ), Indo-European (e.g. German , Icelandic , Irish , Lithuanian and Latvian , Slavic , Sanskrit , Latin , Ancient and Modern Greek , Albanian , Romanian , Kurdish , Classical and Modern Armenian ), Bantu (e.g. Swahili , Zulu , Kikuyu ), Semitic (e.g. Modern Standard Arabic ), Finno-Ugric (e.g. Hungarian , Finnish , Estonian ), and Turkic (e.g. Turkish ). Old English

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1120-479: The standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence: These consist of two or more noun stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of dvandva pair constructions in Sanskrit: The result of itaretara-dvandva is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word

1155-406: The subject and object. As an example, even though both of the following sentences consist of the same words, the meaning is different: Hypothetically speaking, suppose English were a language with a more complex declension system in which cases were formed by adding the suffixes: The first sentence above could be formed with any of the following word orders and would have the same meaning: As

1190-464: The sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts: An exocentric compound refers to something outside the components: Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound. Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below: In traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds are divided into

1225-452: Was an inflectional language , but largely abandoned inflectional changes as it evolved into Modern English . Though traditionally classified as synthetic , Modern English has moved towards a mostly analytic language . Unlike English, many languages use suffixes to specify subjects and objects and word cases in general. Inflected languages have a freer word order than modern English, an analytic language in which word order identifies

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