The Baetasii (or Betasii ) were a Germanic tribal grouping within the Roman province of Germania Inferior , which later became Germania Secunda . Their exact location is still unknown, although two proposals are, first, that it might be the source of the name of the Belgian village of Geetbets , and second, that it might be further east, nearer to the Sunuci with whom they interacted in the Batavian revolt , and to the Cugerni who lived at Xanten . The area of Gennep , Goch and Geldern has been proposed for example.
54-569: The name Baetasii could stem from the Proto-Celtic root *baidos ('wild boar'; compare with Welsh baedd ). The suffix -asio- is rather common in the Gaulish language, whereas it has hardly any connection with Germanic. As with many of the tribal groups of Germania Inferior, such as the Toxandrians , and Tungrii , the origins of the tribe are unknown, but it is likely that their ancestry included
108-464: A chain shift . The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages . The many unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against
162-422: A P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland, [1] , or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages. Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /kʷ/
216-633: A date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture , in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age. The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on
270-644: A fusion of Roman and Germanic societies was occurring. During the period of Merovingian rule, the Franks began to adopt Christianity following the baptism of Clovis I in 496, an event that inaugurated the alliance between the Frankish kingdom and the Roman Catholic Church . Unlike their Gothic , Burgundic and Lombardic counterparts, who adopted Arianism , the Salians adopted Catholic Christianity early on; giving them
324-643: A large group who decided to hijack some Roman ships and return with them from the Black Sea ;– reaching the Atlantic after causing chaos through Greece, Sicily and Gibraltar. It has been proposed that the meaning of the term Frank changed over time and that these pirate Franks were actually Frisii , or some other coastal people. Centuries before the Vikings , the term "Saxon" came to refer to coastal Germanic groups specialised in raiding Roman territories by boat, whereas
378-595: A mixture of older populations and Germanic immigrants from the east of the Rhine who had been arriving for generations. Germania Inferior was on the west of the Rhine and had been described by Julius Caesar , at the time of Roman conquest of the area, as part of Belgic Gaul . Many of the tribal names and personal names which he reported from this area, are considered to be Celtic , not Germanic. However already long before his time there appears to have been an influx of people coming from
432-467: A relationship with the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and their subjects in conquered territories. The division of the Frankish kingdom among Clovis’s four sons (511) was an event that would repeat in Frankish history over more than four centuries. By then, the Salic Law had established the exclusive right to succession of male descendants. This principle turned out to be an exercise in interpretation, rather than
486-551: Is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages * ɸ (possibly a stage *[pʰ]) and * h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Next to consonants, PC * ɸ underwent different changes: the clusters * ɸs and * ɸt became * xs and * xt respectively already in PC. PIE * sp- became Old Irish s ( f- when lenited, exactly as for PIE * sw- ) and Brythonic f ; while Schrijver 1995 , p. 348 argues there
540-454: Is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as *īsarnom ) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BC to 1st century BC); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. However, Schumacher and Schrijver suggest
594-440: Is the hypothetical ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages , and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European . It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method . Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Proto-Celtic is often associated with the Urnfield culture and particularly with
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#1733093176025648-621: Is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax , though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian . So, the main sources for reconstruction come from Insular Celtic languages with the oldest literature found in Old Irish and Middle Welsh , dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD. Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age , ca. 1200–900 BC. The fact that it
702-656: Is uncertain, Childeric I and his son Clovis I , who gained control over Roman Gaul were said to be related, and the legal code they published for the Romance speaking country between the Loire and the Silva Carbonaria , a region the Franks later called Neustria , was called the Salic law . Their dynasty, the Merovingians , were named after Childeric's father Merovech , whose birth
756-544: Is uncertain. Archaeological and other evidence agrees that the area was largely de-populated apart from military positions along the Rhine. It became the home of new groups who crossed the Rhine, especially the Sallii . These became part of the amalgamation of tribes known as the Franks . They united under kings, and became dominant in northern Germania Inferior, giving it an older name, Toxandria . They later became semi-independent within
810-516: The Civitas Tungrorum . Joining the military was eventually a way to become a Roman citizen, and by early 2nd century CE the inscriptions show that the soldiers referred to their origin as " Traianenses Baetasii ", replacing their exclusive tribal affiliation with a new Roman identity. Like other peoples in the northern part of Germania Inferior, what happened to them in the later part of the Roman era
864-635: The Carbonaria Silva from a fort named Dispargum , which was in "Thuringia". The most common interpretations of these names are neither in Salian Batavia nor in Toxandria. In 451, Chlodio's opponent Flavius Aëtius , de facto ruler of the Western Roman Empire , called upon his Germanic allies on Roman soil to help fight off an invasion by Attila 's Huns . Franks answered the call and fought in
918-625: The Chauci during the Roman Empire, most of whom apparently became Saxons . (The difference between Saxons and Franks in the earliest records which mention them is not clear.) In 358, the Salians came to some form of agreement with the Romans, which allowed them to keep settlements south of the delta in Toxandria, between the rivers Scheldt , Meuse , and Demer , roughly the area of the Campine , which contains
972-521: The Hallstatt culture . Celtic languages share common features with Italic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier Italo-Celtic linguistic unity. Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology , and some for its morphology , recorded material
1026-585: The Ripuarians . Recent scholarship, however, has often questioned the ethnic significance of both these terms. Various etymologies are proposed. The ethnonym is unrelated to the name for the dancing priests of Mars, who were also called Salii . In line with theories that the Salians already existed as a tribe outside the Roman Empire, the name may have derived from the name of the IJssel river, formerly called Hisloa or Hisla , and in ancient times, Sala , which may be
1080-610: The Salians ( Latin : Salii ; Greek : Σάλιοι, Salioi ), were a northwestern subgroup of the early Franks who appear in the historical record in the fourth and fifth centuries. They lived west of the Lower Rhine in what was then the Roman Empire and today the Netherlands and Belgium . The traditional historiography sees the Salians as one of the main divisions of the Franks alongside
1134-537: The Salii were pushed from their home in Batavia (the civitas of Nijmegen ), into Toxandria (both within the empire), by the non-Roman Chamavi . The account implies that they entered into the civitas of Tongeren . The first historian to say that the Salians had been pushed into the empire from outside was Zosimus , but his description of events seems to be confused and derived from others. The account of Zosimus, that
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#17330931760251188-578: The Somme in northern France . These Franks, headed by a certain Chlodio , conquered an area which included Turnacum (the modern Belgian city of Tournai ) and Cameracum (the modern French city of Cambrai ). According to Lanting & van der Plicht (2010), this probably happened in the period 445–450. Chlodio is never referred to as Salian, only Frankish, and his origins unclear. He is said by Gregory of Tours (II.9) to have launched his attack on Tournai through
1242-763: The 2nd century BCE when the Cimbri moved through the area. In the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder places the Betasi in his list of tribes in this region in between the Frisiabones and the Leuci , but this may not indicate position in any meaningful way. They contributed troops to the Roman military, including some who are known to have been stationed in Britain. Tacitus also mentioned
1296-508: The Betasii are often mentioned as " Traianenses Baetasii ", which has been taken as evidence that the Betasii, like the Cugerni (or Cuberni) lived in the northeastern " Civitas Traiana " with its capital near modern Xanten. Xanten itself was the area where the Cugerni lived and was on the Rhine border, so this would put the Betasii one step away from the Rhine. Geetbets, in contrast, would have been in
1350-614: The Betasii, as a people of this region during the Batavian revolt . Some of them joined Claudius Labeo , who held a bridge over the Meuse, with a force of Betasii, Tungri and Nervii . For this reason, it is often thought that the Betasii lived close to the Tungri and Nervii, and possibly near the river Meuse (Dutch Maas , Latin Mosa ). Amongst evidence of Betasii from inscriptions made concerning soldiers,
1404-460: The Franks were strongly associated with the inland Rhine region. In the later period when the Salians first appear in the record, the term Frank was not associated with seafaring or coastal tribes. Their origins before they lived in Batavia are uncertain. Much later, it was only Zosimus, and not Ammianus Marcellinus whose work he possibly partly followed, who claimed that the Salians had once lived under
1458-517: The Germani using names of people which may only be poetic: "Salian now tills his fields, the Sygambrian beats his straight sword into a curved sickle". (The Sugambri had apparently long ago been defeated and moved by the Romans.) From the first half of the fifth century onwards, a group of Franks pushed south west through the boundary of the Roman inhabited Silva Carbonaria and expanded their territory to
1512-498: The Rhine to get around other Frankish tribes who effectively protected the Roman frontier, and into the Roman river delta. The emperor Julian the Apostate took the opportunity to allow the Salii to settle in Toxandria, south of Batavia, where they had previously been expelled: "[Julian] commanded his army to attack them briskly; but not to kill any of the Salii, or prevent them from entering
1566-588: The Rhineland or Ripuarian Franks. The Lex Ripuaria originated about 630 and has been described as a later development of the Frankish laws known from Lex Salica . On the other hand, following the interpretation of Springer the Lex Salica may simply have meant something like "Common Law". Apart from some isolated fragments, there is no record of the Salian Frankish language but it is presumed to be ancestral to
1620-409: The Roman Empire, living in the Rhine delta in the modern Netherlands. Although often treated as a tribe it has also been argued by Matthias Springer that this might represent a misunderstanding. All of the classical mentions of them seem to derive from one mention by Ammianus Marcellinus of "Franks, those namely whom custom calls the Salii ". Ammianus, who served in the Roman military, reported that
1674-483: The Roman empire. Some specific tribes who entered the empire later, such as the Ubii who lived on the west bank of the Rhine, are understood to be speakers of Germanic languages, and records exist concerning their immigration and settlement. However for the Betasii, there is no such clear record and it is their position which generally leads to them being understood as being a group settled during imperial times, and Germanic in
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1728-413: The Roman territories, because they came not as enemies, but were forced there [...] As soon as the Salii heard of the kindness of emperor Julian the Apostate, some of them went with their king into the Roman territory, and others fled to the extremity of their country, but all humbly committed their lives and fortunes to Caesar's gracious protection." The Salians were then brought into Roman units defending
1782-452: The Salians had been pushed into the empire as a single tribe, is still often accepted. In this case, their homeland may have been between the Rhine and the IJssel in the modern day Dutch region of the Veluwe , Gelderland , and they may have given their name to the region of Salland . It has also been proposed that the Salii might have been one of the peoples making up the large nation of
1836-464: The Salians' original residence. Today this area is called Salland . Alternatively, the name may derive from a proposed Germanic word * saljon meaning friend or comrade, indicating that the term initially implied an alliance. In that case, the name may have originated in the empire itself, or the river and/or region might be named after the inhabitants (rather than the reverse). The Salians, unlike other Franks, first appear living inside
1890-629: The Visigoths and the Alemanni , his sons drove the Visigoths to Spain and subdued the Burgundians , Alemanni and Thuringians . After 250 years of this dynasty, marked by internecine struggles, a gradual decline occurred. The position in society of the Merovingians was taken over by Carolingians , who came from a northern area around the river Meuse in what is now Belgium and the southern Netherlands. In Gaul,
1944-615: The battle of the Catalaunian Fields in a temporary alliance with Romans and Visigoths , which temporarily ended the Hunnic threat to Western Europe. The Notitia dignitatum listing Roman military units in the 5th century mentions the Salii iuniores Gallicani based in Hispania , the Salii seniores based in Gaul. There is also record of a numerus Saliorum . While their relationship to Chlodio
1998-564: The east of the Rhine, including, in the particular area where the Betasii lived, the tribal grouping which Tacitus later claimed to be the original tribal group which had been called "Germani", the so-called " Germani Cisrhenani ". Whether these original Germani had all spoken a Germanic language is unknown. Caesar and Tacitus were more interested in the fact that tribes from the east of the Rhine, who all eventually came to be referred to as Germani , were less softened by civilization, and therefore difficult to defeat in battle or incorporate into
2052-521: The empire from other Frankish raiders. Ammianus Marcellinus (late 4th century), on the other hand, mentions the Chamavi, normally considered Frankish, as the Germanic tribe who had entered the empire in this area at this time. Unlike the Salii, these Chamavi were expelled from Roman lands. Their grain was disappointingly unready for Roman use. In a poem from 400, Claudian celebrates Stilicho 's pacification of
2106-947: The empire, started moving into more populated Romanized areas to their south, and then proceeded to conquer a large part of Western Europe which became the Holy Roman empire . If any of the Betasii remained in the area, they became part of this development. Votive stones dedicated to the deity Hercules Magusanus were found on the territory of the Baetasii. Proto-Celtic language Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Proto-Celtic , or Common Celtic ,
2160-653: The family bond was made clear by the Salic Law , which ordained that an individual had no right to protection if not part of a family. While the Goths or the Vandals had been at least partly converted to Christianity since the mid-4th century, polytheistic beliefs are thought to have flourished among the Salian Franks until the conversion of Clovis to Catholicism shortly before or after 500, after which paganism diminished gradually. On
2214-432: The following evidence: Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops * bʰ , * dʰ , * gʰ/ǵʰ , merge with * b , * d , * g/ǵ in PC. The voiced aspirate labiovelar * gʷʰ did not merge with * gʷ , though: plain * gʷ became PC * b , while aspirated * gʷʰ became * gʷ . Thus, PIE * gʷen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welsh ben , but PIE * gʷʰn̥- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu . PIE * p
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2268-585: The genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's -osyo , which would have yielded -osjo . As in the masculine paradigm, the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's -osyo , which would have yielded -osjo . E.g. * ɸlāmā 'hand' (feminine) ( Old Irish lám ; Welsh llaw , Cornish leuv , Old Breton lom ) E.g. * sūlis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) ( Brittonic sulis ~ Old Irish súil ) E.g. * mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) ( Gaulish Mori - ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh môr ) Sallii The Salian Franks , also called
2322-453: The modern Dutch province of North Brabant , and adjacent parts of the two bordering Belgian Limburg and Antwerp Provinces . The first mention of Franks in the area was about 286 AD, during the reign of emperor Probus (276–282), when Carausius was put in charge of defending the coasts of the Straits of Dover against Saxon and Frankish pirates. In the time of Probus there is also record of
2376-529: The modern family of Low Franconian dialects, which are represented today by Dutch and Flemish dialects, and Afrikaans . Before the Merovingian takeover, the Salian tribes apparently constituted a loose confederacy that only occasionally banded together, for example to negotiate with Roman authority. Each tribe consisted of extended family groups centered on a particularly renowned or noble family. The importance of
2430-614: The modern sense of speaking a Germanic language. It has been proposed that like their neighbours the Cugerni, they descend from the Sicambri , who were already actively jumping to this side of the Rhine in Caesar's time, and who Strabo records as living in this area. On the other hand there have been suggestions that they might represent the descendants, at least partly, of the Germani tribes described by Caesar as having been in this region since at least
2484-649: The outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches. The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis. One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for
2538-872: The parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders , three numbers and five to eight cases. The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention: while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling . These cases were nominative , vocative , accusative , dative , genitive , ablative , locative and instrumental . Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. There are * o -stems, * ā -stems, * i -stems, * u -stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, * r -stems and * s -stems. However, Celtiberian shows -o- stem genitives ending in -o rather than -ī : aualo "[son] of Avalos". Also note that
2592-448: The same exception occurred again in the High German consonant shift .) In Gaulish and the Brittonic languages , the Proto-Indo-European * kʷ phoneme becomes a new * p sound. Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios] , Welsh pedwar "four", but Old Irish cethair and Latin quattuor . Insofar as this new /p/ fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as
2646-462: The same name outside the Roman Empire, saying that they had been forced away by Saxons, and had come to share control of Batavia with the Romans. Whatever their origins, Zosimus says they were being pushed out of Batavia by a Saxon group known as the "Kouadoi", a Greek spelling of " Quadi " which some authors believe might be a misunderstanding for the Frankish Chamavi, who were mentioned by Ammianus. According to Zosimus, these Saxons had used boats on
2700-477: The simple implementation of a new model of succession. No trace of an established practice of territorial division can be discovered among Germanic peoples other than the Franks. The later Merovingian kings responsible for the conquest of Gaul are thought to have had Salian ancestry, because they applied so-called Salian law ( Lex Salica ) in their Roman-populated territories between the Loire and Silva Carbonaria , although they also clearly had connections with
2754-531: The syllabic nasals *m̩, *n̩, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im , en ~ in ). The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC): Eska has recently proposed that PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English . Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [tʰ kʰ]. And unaspirated voiced stops /b d ɡ/ were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially. This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from
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#17330931760252808-411: Was an intermediate stage * sɸ- (in which * ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone 1996 , pp. 44–45 finds it more economical to believe that * sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change * p to * ɸ did not happen when * s preceded. (Similarly, Grimm's law did not apply to * p, t, k after * s in Germanic , and
2862-420: Was associated with supernatural elements. Childeric and Clovis were described as Kings of the Franks, and rulers of the Roman province of Belgica Secunda . Clovis became the absolute ruler of a Germanic kingdom of mixed Galloroman-Germanic population in 486. He consolidated his rule with victories over the Gallo-Romans and all the other Frankish tribes and established his capital in Paris . After he had defeated
2916-579: Was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: Gaelic póg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p , without substituting c . The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet . The following monophthongs are reconstructed: The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed: The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from
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