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61-565: Berkane is considered a major player in the citrus fruit industry in North-Morocco, and high-quality fresh fruit and vegetables are plentiful year round. It is known for its farms of clementines, also a large statue of an orange is at the center of town. It is very close to Saïdia, a popular beach resort town on the Mediterranean, as well as Tafoughalt , a small village in the nearby mountains known for its healthy air and herb markets. Berkane

122-497: A papeda Citrus hystrix – Kaffir lime Citrus cavaleriei – Ichang papeda Citrus japonica – Kumquat Important hybrids: Citrus × aurantiifolia – Key lime Citrus × aurantium – Bitter orange Citrus × latifolia – Persian lime Citrus × limon – Lemon Citrus × limonia – Rangpur Citrus × paradisi – Grapefruit Citrus × sinensis – Sweet orange Citrus × tangerina – Tangerine See also List of citrus fruits . Citrus

183-455: A high quantity of citric acid , which with other organic acids including ascorbic acid (vitamin C) give them their characteristic sharp taste. Citrus fruits are diverse in size and shape, as well as in color and flavor, reflecting their biochemistry; for instance, grapefruit is made bitter-tasting by a flavanone, naringin . Most commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting

244-576: A linear furanocoumarin derived from psoralen . This claim has been confirmed for lime and bergamot . In particular, bergamot essential oil has a higher concentration of bergapten (3–3.6 g/kg) than any other Citrus -based essential oil. A systematic review indicates that citrus fruit consumption is associated with a 10% reduction of risk for developing breast cancer. Many citrus fruits, such as oranges , tangerines , grapefruits , and clementines , are generally eaten fresh. They are typically peeled and can be easily split into segments. Grapefruit

305-568: A range of gum resins termed duaka and kankamon and mok rotu. Among the most important trading points of the incense trade route from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea was Gerrha in the Persian Gulf, reported by the historian Strabo to have been founded by Babylonian exiles as a Chaldean colony. Gerrha exercised influence over the incense trade routes across Arabia to

366-491: A small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, and mandarin. Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit , lemons, limes, and some tangerines . The multiple hybridisations have made the taxonomy of Citrus complex. Apart from these core species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and Clymenia spp. are now generally considered to belong within

427-584: A standstill by the poor economic conditions of the third century, however, when the economic situation improved again under the Tetrarchy many things had changed. By this time, the two main routes in use seem to have been the Wadi Sirhan , now carrying trade which formerly would have passed through Palmyra , and Aila , receiving goods from India and Arabia which before had gone to the Egyptian Red Sea ports. At

488-460: A wasp on one of the fruits. The impressionist Edouard Manet depicted a lemon on a pewter plate. In modern art, Arshile Gorky painted Still Life with Lemons in the 1930s. Citrus fruits "were the clear status symbols of the nobility in the ancient Mediterranean", according to the paleoethnobotanist Dafna Langgut. In Louisa May Alcott 's 1868 novel Little Women , the character Amy March states that "It's nothing but limes now, for everyone

549-455: A wide range of appearance and fruit flavors. The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that Severinia (such as the Chinese box orange ) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of Citrus split into

610-485: Is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the family Rutaceae . Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits , including important crops such as oranges , mandarins , lemons , grapefruits , pomelos , and limes . Citrus is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia , and Australia. Indigenous people in these areas have used and domesticated various species since ancient times. Its cultivation first spread into Micronesia and Polynesia through

671-618: Is also evidence to support that products from the Dhofar region were traded with the Sumerian-Magan people of Dilmun and Qatar as the Sumerian people used some of these resins for medicinal purposes. The tolls levied by the owners of wells and other facilities added to the overall cost of these luxury goods. The Nabateans built Petra , which stood halfway between the opening to the Gulf of Akaba and

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732-469: Is also famous for being the birthplace of the Olympic athlete Hicham El Guerrouj , who holds the world record for the fastest mile but he has never been a major social player in the development of his native town. Berkane is a sprawling city centered on Avenue Mohammed V, a commercial and business strip, and boulevard Ibn Sina/Rue Dehb or Alhob (meaning "The Street of Gold and or street of love"). This boulevard

793-415: Is lined with many of the most popular cafés and jewelry shops. The city sprawls into the hillsides and connects via bridge to a small neighboring town named Sidi Slimane , giving the impression that it is much larger than the census claims. The major cities and towns are: [1] The province is named after its largest city, Berkane . The name of the city comes from the word "aberkan" which means "black" in

854-477: Is more commonly halved and eaten out of the skin with a spoon. Lemonade is a popular beverage prepared by diluting the juice and adding sugar. Lemon juice is mixed in salad dressings and squeezed over fruit salad to stop it from turning brown: its acidity suppresses oxidation by polyphenol oxidase enzymes. A variety of flavours can be derived from different parts and treatments of citrus fruits. The colourful outer skin of some citrus fruits, known as zest ,

915-592: Is sucking them in their desks in schooltime, and trading them off for pencils, bead rings, paper dolls, or something else… If one girl likes another, she gives her a lime; if she’s mad with her, she eats one before her face, and doesn’t offer even a suck." Incense trade route The incense trade route was an ancient network of major land and sea trading routes linking the Mediterranean world with eastern and southern sources of incense , spices and other luxury goods , stretching from Mediterranean ports across

976-567: Is used as a flavouring in cooking. The whole of the bitter orange (and sometimes other citrus fruits) including the peel with its essential oils is cooked with sugar to make marmalade . By the 17th century, orangeries were added to great houses in Europe, both to enable the fruit to be grown locally and for prestige, as seen in the Versailles Orangerie . Some modern hobbyists grow dwarf citrus in containers or greenhouses in areas where

1037-619: The Austronesian expansion ( c.  3000 –1500 BCE). Later, it was spread to the Middle East and the Mediterranean ( c.  1200 BCE ) via the incense trade route , and from Europe to the Americas. Renowned for their highly fragrant aromas and complex flavor, citrus are among the most popular fruits in cultivation. With a propensity to hybridize between species, making their taxonomy complicated, there are numerous varieties encompassing

1098-519: The Berber language . The province is divided administratively into the following: 34°55′03″N 2°19′03″W  /  34.917614°N 2.317469°W  / 34.917614; -2.317469 This Oriental (Morocco) location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Citrus Ancestral species: Citrus maxima – Pomelo Citrus medica – Citron Citrus reticulata – Mandarin orange Citrus micrantha –

1159-616: The Dead Sea at a point where the Incense Route from Arabia to Damascus was crossed by the overland route from Petra to Gaza . This position gave the Nabateans a hold over the trade along the Incense Route. In order to control the Incense Route from the Nabateans a Greek military expedition was undertaken, without success, by Antigonus Cyclops , one of Alexander of Macedonia 's generals. The Nabatean control over trade increased and spread to

1220-548: The Levant and Egypt through Northern East Africa and Arabia to India and beyond. These routes collectively served as channels for the trading of goods such as Arabian frankincense and myrrh ; Indian spices , precious stones , pearls , ebony , silk and fine textiles ; and from the Horn of Africa , rare woods, feathers , animal skins, Somali frankincense , gold, and slaves . The incense land trade from South Arabia to

1281-498: The Mediterranean Sea . It was also shipped to Babylon and Palmyra via the Persian Gulf . The Roman trade with India kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.): At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia , and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under

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1342-536: The Negev Desert , are spread along routes linking them to the Mediterranean end of the Incense and Spice route. Together they reflect the hugely profitable trade in frankincense and myrrh from South Arabia to the Mediterranean, which flourished from the 3rd century B.C. until the 2nd century A.D. With the vestiges of their sophisticated irrigation systems, urban constructions, forts, and caravanserai they bear witness to

1403-707: The Philippines . This was followed by the spread of citrus species into Taiwan and Japan in the Early Pliocene (5.33 to 3.6 mya ), resulting in the tachibana orange ( C. tachibana ); and beyond the Wallace Line into Papua New Guinea and Australia during the Early Pleistocene (2.5 million to 800,000 years ago), where further speciation events created in the Australian limes . A fossil leaf from

1464-623: The Pliocene of Valdarno , Italy is described as † Citrus meletensis . In China, fossil leaf specimens of † Citrus linczangensis have been collected from late Miocene coal-bearing strata of the Bangmai Formation in Yunnan province. C. linczangensis resembles C. meletensis in having an intramarginal vein, an entire margin, and an articulated and distinctly winged petiole . Many cultivated Citrus species are natural or artificial hybrids of

1525-645: The Ptolemies , only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. According to a historian: The third century would thus appear to be a significant time in the history of the incense trade in Arabia. During the political and economic crisis of that century the nature of the trade changed dramatically; prior to that time the incense route from South Arabia seems to have continued to function. Much of this trade seems to have been brought to

1586-796: The Roman-Persian Wars the areas under the Roman Byzantine Empire were captured by Khosrow I of the Persian Sassanian Dynasty. The Arabs, led by 'Amr ibn al-'As , crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640. This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt and the fall of ports such as Alexandria , used to secure trade with India by the Greco-Roman world since the Ptolemaic dynasty . Several centuries after

1647-665: The citron ( C. medica ) or a conifer tree ( Thuja ). The Latin word is related to the ancient Greek word for the cedar of Lebanon , κέδρος ( kédros ), perhaps from a perceived similarity of the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Citrus plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m (16–49 ft) tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs , each flower 2–4 cm (0.79–1.57 in) diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented, due to

1708-421: The citrons ( Citrus medica ) of South Asia; the pomelos ( C. maxima ) of Mainland Southeast Asia ; the mandarins ( C. reticulata ), kumquats ( C. japonica ), mangshanyegan ( C. mangshanensis ), and ichang papedas ( C. cavaleriei ) of southeastern China; the kaffir limes ( C. hystrix ) of Island Southeast Asia ; and the biasong and samuyao ( C. micrantha ) of

1769-559: The Indian and Arab middlemen weakened with the development of monsoon trade by the Greeks through the discovery of the direct route to India ( Hippalus ), forcing the Parthian and Arabian middlemen to adjust their prices so as to compete on the Roman market with the goods now being bought in by a direct sea route to India. Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under

1830-586: The Mahra region. Assyrian documents indicate that Tiglath-Pileser III advanced through Phoenicia to Gaza . Gaza was eventually sacked and the ruler of Gaza escaped to Egypt but later continued to act as a vassal administrator. The motive behind the attack was to gain control of the South Arabian incense trade which had prospered along the region. I.E.S. Edwards connects the Syro-Ephraimite War to

1891-545: The Mediterranean and controlled the aromatics trade to Babylon in the 1st century BC. Gerrha was one of the important entry ports for goods shipped from India. Due to its prominent position in the incense trade, Yemen attracted settlers from the Fertile Crescent . The frankincense and myrrh trees were crucial to the economy of Yemen and were recognized as a source of wealth by its rulers. Recent exploration discovered an ancient trade route through eastern Yemen in

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1952-587: The Mediterranean by Arab traders around the 10th century CE. Sweet oranges were brought to Europe by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century. Oranges were introduced to Florida by Spanish colonists. In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures. The generic name Citrus originates from Latin , where it denoted either

2013-529: The Mediterranean flourished between roughly the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD. The Egyptians had traded in the Red Sea , importing spices, gold and exotic wood from the " Land of Punt " and from Arabia. Indian goods were brought in Arabian and Indian vessels to Aden . Rawlinson identifies the long-debated "ships of Tarshish ," as a Tyrian fleet equipped at Ezion-Geber that made several trading voyages to

2074-705: The Red Sea each year. An earlier commentator on the significance of the trade, in terms of the connectivity of civilisations on both sides of the Red Sea from the time of the Queen of Sheba, was the British explorer Theodore Bent ; it was Bent who identified the trading site of Moscha Limen in February 1895. Frankincense from Dhofar was collected at Moscha Limen . It was shipped to Qana and taken overland to Shabwa and further North to Najran , Mecca , Medina , Petra and to Gaza on

2135-666: The West and the North. The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the east. According to a historian, "The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden . In response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favoured the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea." The monopoly of

2196-518: The center of origin of the genus Citrus is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas , in a region stretching from eastern Assam , northern Myanmar , to western Yunnan . It diverged from a common ancestor with Poncirus trifoliata . A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya ) resulted in a sudden speciation event . The species resulting from this event include

2257-760: The control of a single power. According to one historian: The trade with Arabia and India in incense and spices became increasingly important, and Greeks for the first time began to trade directly with India. The discovery, or rediscovery, of the sea-route to India is attributed to a certain Eudoxos , who was sent out for this purpose towards the end of the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes II (died 116 BC). Eudoxos made two voyages to India, and subsequently, having quarrelled with his Ptolemaic employers, perished in an unsuccessful attempt to open up an alternative sea route to India, free of Ptolemaic control, by sailing around Africa. The establishment of direct contacts between Egypt and India

2318-458: The damaging citrus tristeza virus , while the aphid-like Asian citrus psyllid can carry the bacterium which causes the serious citrus greening disease . This threatens production in Florida, California, and worldwide. Citrus groves are attacked by parasitic Nematodes including citrus ( Tylenchulus semipenetrans ) and sheath nematodes ( Hemicycliophora spp.). Citrus plants can develop

2379-432: The deficiency condition chlorosis , characterized by yellowing leaves. The condition is often caused by an excessively high pH ( alkaline soil ), which prevents the plant from absorbing nutrients such as iron, magnesium , and zinc needed to produce chlorophyll . Some Citrus species contain significant amounts of furanocoumarins . In humans, some of these act as strong photosensitizers when applied topically to

2440-723: The demise of the incense trade, coffee was responsible for bringing back Yemen to international commerce via the Red Sea port of al-Mocha . Finally, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in the 15th century, marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia. UNESCO 's World Heritage Committee meeting on November 27, 2000, in Cairns , Australia attached World Heritage Site status to The Frankincense Trail in Oman . The official citation reads: The frankincense trees of Wadi Dawkah and

2501-633: The desire of the Israelites and the Aramaeans to control the northern end of the Incense Route, which ran up from Southern Arabia and could be tapped by commanding Transjordan . Archaeological inscriptions also speak of booty retrieved from the land of the mu-u-na-a-a , possibly Meunites mentioned in the Old Testament . Some scholars identify this group as the Minaeans of South Arabia, who were involved with

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2562-415: The desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness. The trees are not generally frost hardy. They thrive in a consistently sunny, humid environment with fertile soil and adequate water. The colour of citrus fruits only develops in climates with a ( diurnal ) cool winter. In tropical regions with no winter at all, citrus fruits remain green until maturity, hence

2623-515: The earliest evidence are seeds recovered from the Hala Sultan Tekke site of Cyprus , dated to around 1200 BCE. Other archaeobotanical evidence includes pollen from Carthage dating back to the 4th century BCE; and carbonized seeds from Pompeii dated to around the 3rd to 2nd century BCE. The earliest complete description of the citron was written by Theophrastus , c.  310 BCE . Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges were introduced to

2684-749: The early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthy foods. In 2019–20, world production of oranges was estimated to be 47.5 million tonnes, led by Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and China as the largest producers. Among the diseases of citrus plantations are citrus black spot (a fungus), citrus canker (a bacterium), citrus greening (a bacterium, spread by an insect pest), and sweet orange scab (a fungus, Elsinöe australis ). Citrus plants are liable to infestation by ectoparasites which act as vectors to plant diseases: for example, aphids transmit

2745-407: The east bringing back gold , silver , ivory and precious stones. These goods were transshipped at the port of Ophir . One historian said: In the ancient period, it would seem that South Arabia and the Horn of Africa were the major suppliers of incense, while in modern times the commercial centre for the trade in gums has been Aden and Oman . Early ritual texts from Egypt show that incense

2806-558: The end of the sixth century Isidore of Seville enumerated the aromatics still being imported into Visigothic Spain . Of aromatic trees ( de arboris aromaticis ) Isidore listed in his encyclopedia myrrh , pepper , cinnamon , amomum ( cardamom ?) and cassia ; of aromatic herbs ( de herbis aromaticis ), nard , saffron , cardamom, would have arrived through the trade routes, others were available in Spain: thyme, aloes, rose, violet, lily, gentian , wormwood , fennel and others. Following

2867-761: The genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange , pomelo , and citron . Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids between these three species, their main progenies, and other wild Citrus species within the last few thousand years. Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia , Near Oceania , and northeastern and central Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression , leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu et al. (2018) has shown that

2928-551: The genus Citrus . The false oranges, Oxanthera from New Caledonia , have been transferred to the Citrus genus on phylogenetic evidence. The earliest introductions of citrus species by human migrations was during the Austronesian expansion ( c.  3000 –1500 BCE), where Citrus hystrix , Citrus macroptera , and Citrus maxima were among the canoe plants carried by Austronesian voyagers eastwards into Micronesia and Polynesia . The citron ( Citrus medica )

2989-470: The incense trade and occupied the northern trading outposts of the Incense Route. Aromatics from Dhofar and luxury goods from India brought wealth to the kingdoms of Arabia. The aromatics of Dhofar were shipped out from the natural harbour of Khor Rori towards the western inhospitable South Arabian coast. The caravans carried these products north to Shabwa and from there on to the kingdoms of Qataban , Saba , Ma'in , and Palestine up to Gaza. There

3050-453: The locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops. The genus is commercially important with cultivars of many species grown for their fruit. Some cultivars have been developed to be easy to peel and seedless, meaning they are parthenocarpic . The fragrance of citrus fruits is conferred by flavonoids and limonoids in the rind. The flavonoids include various flavanones and flavones . The carpels are juicy; they contain

3111-553: The main genus, Citrus , and the genus Poncirus (such as the trifoliate orange ), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts . A DNA study published in Nature in 2018 concludes that the genus Citrus evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas , in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar . The three ancestral species in

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3172-410: The pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits consists of the white, spongy albedo or pith. The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. This surrounds a variable number of carpels , shaped as radial segments. The seeds, if present, develop inside the carpels. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles , or pulp. From the endocarp, string-like "hairs" extend into

3233-403: The presence of essential oil glands. The fruit is a hesperidium , a specialised berry with multiple carpels , globose to elongated, 4–30 cm (1.6–11.8 in) long and 4–20 cm (1.6–7.9 in) diameter, with a leathery rind or "peel" called a pericarp . The outermost layer of the pericarp is an "exocarp" called the flavedo , commonly referred to as the zest . The middle layer of

3294-585: The production and release of ethylene is gradual. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization , world production of all citrus fruits in 2016 was 124 million tonnes, with about half of this production as oranges. At US $ 15.2 billion equivalent in 2018, citrus trade makes up nearly half of the world fruit trade, which was US$ 32.1 billion that year. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development , citrus production grew during

3355-657: The remains of the caravan oasis of Shisr/Wubar and the affiliated ports of Khor Rori and Al-Balid vividly illustrate the trade in frankincense that flourished in this region for many centuries, as one of the most important trading activities of the ancient and medieval world. The World Heritage Committee, headed by Themba Wakashe, recorded Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev on UNESCO's World Heritage List on July 15, 2005. The official citation reads: The four Nabatean towns of Haluza , Mamshit , Avdat and Shivta , along with associated fortresses and agricultural landscapes in

3416-449: The skin, while others interact with medications when taken orally in the grapefruit juice effect . Due to the photosensitizing effects of certain furanocoumarins, some Citrus species cause phytophotodermatitis , a potentially severe skin inflammation resulting from contact with a light-sensitizing botanical agent followed by exposure to ultraviolet light. In Citrus species, the primary photosensitizing agent appears to be bergapten ,

3477-480: The tropical "green oranges". The terms 'ripe' and 'mature' are widely used synonymously, but they mean different things. A mature fruit is one that has completed its growth phase. Ripening is the sequence of changes within the fruit from maturity to the beginning of decay. These changes involve the conversion of starches to sugars, a decrease in acids, softening, and s change in the fruit's colour. Citrus fruits are non- climacteric and respiration slowly declines and

3538-406: The weather is too cold to grow it outdoors; Citrofortunella hybrids have good cold resistance. Lemons appear in paintings, pop art, and novels. A wall painting in the tomb of Nakht in 15th century BC Egypt depicts a woman in a festival, holding a lemon. In the 17th century, Giovanna Garzoni painted a Still Life with Bowl of Citrons , the fruits still attached to leafy flowering twigs, with

3599-481: Was also introduced early into the Mediterranean basin from India and Southeast Asia. It was introduced via two ancient trade routes: an overland route through Persia , the Levant and the Mediterranean islands; and a maritime route through the Arabian Peninsula and Ptolemaic Egypt into North Africa. Although the exact date of the original introduction is unknown due to the sparseness of archaeobotanical remains,

3660-748: Was being brought to the upper Nile by land traders, but perhaps the most spectacular evidence of this trade is provided by the frescos dated to around 1500 BC on the walls of the temple at Thebes commemorating the journey of a fleet that the Queen of Egypt had sent to the Land of Punt . Five ships are depicted in these reliefs, piled high with treasure, and one of them shows thirty-one small incense trees in tubs being carried on board. The Periplus Maris Erythraei and other Greek texts refer to several coastal sites in Somalia , Southern Arabia and India involved with trade in frankincense , myrrh , cassia , bdellium and

3721-519: Was probably made possible by a weakening of Arab power at this period, for the Sabaean kingdom of South-western Arabia collapsed and was replaced by Himyarite Kingdom around 115 BC. Imports into Egypt of cinnamon and other eastern spices, such as pepper, increased substantially, though the Indian Ocean trade remained for the moment on quite a small scale, no more than twenty Egyptian ships venturing outside

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