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92-626: The region of North Africa practiced many religions including various forms of pagan rituals , Judaism , and Christianity . The first Islamic forces encountered fierce opposition by the various city-states resulting from the departure of the Byzantines . The weakest of them in the southern and southwestern parts of the Berber territory were the first to fall to the Islamic troops under the Egyptian Caliph in

184-405: A derivative of Arabic . However, these areas are not generally considered part of North Africa, but rather Southern Europe, due to their proximity to mainland Europe and their European-based cultures and religion. The Maghreb or western North Africa on the whole is believed to have been inhabited by Berbers and their ancestors since at least 10,000 B.C., while the eastern part of North Africa or

276-425: A diplomatic mission , mostly in intergovernmental organizations or international non-governmental organisations or agencies . Attachés monitor various issues related to their area of specialty (see examples below) that may require some action. To this end, attachés may undertake the planning for events to be attended, decisions which will be taken, managing arrangements and agendas, conducting research, and acting as

368-403: A continental scale rather than being confined to a particular corner of Africa. In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans , of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans / H. sapiens , representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago through

460-596: A date of up to 1.8 million BCE. Recent finds in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco have been found to contain some of the oldest Homo sapiens remains; This suggests that, rather than arising only in East Africa around 200,000 years ago, early Homo sapiens may already have been present across the length of Africa 100,000 years earlier. According to study author Jean-Jacques Hublin, "The idea is that early Homo sapiens dispersed around

552-594: A distinctive Maghrebi ancestry formed from a mixture of Near Eastern and African ancestry, which is still found as a part of the genome of modern Northwest Africans. Later during the Neolithic , from around 7,500 years ago onwards, there was a migration into Northwest Africa of European Neolithic Farmers from the Iberian Peninsula (who had originated in Anatolia several thousand years prior), as well as pastoralists from

644-603: A joint military venture into Europe and ultimately to Rome and around the Mediterranean Sea. A Moorish chief, Tariq ibn Ziyad , headed these stronger forces under the green flag of Islam and embarked for Europe, taking over most of the Iberian Peninsula . It is then that North Africa west of Egypt was referred to as "al- Maghreb " or the "West" by the peoples of the Middle East . The tolerance of Islamic preachers among

736-565: A locally initiated attempt of expansion westward. This first attempt in late 7th century (660 A.D.) resulted in a decisive defeat of the Islamic troops. The Berber queen Dihya (or Kahina) led the indigenous resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . For five years she ruled a free Berber state from the Aurès Mountains to the oasis of Gadames (695–700 CE) but finally was killed in combat near

828-579: A merging of populations in East and Southern Africa . The cave paintings found at Tassili n'Ajjer , north of Tamanrasset, Algeria, and at other locations depict vibrant and vivid scenes of everyday life in central North Africa during the Neolithic Subpluvial period (about 8000 to 4000 BCE). Some parts of North Africa began to participate in the Neolithic revolution in the 6th millennium BCE, just before

920-537: A military attaché serves on the diplomatic staff of an embassy or consulate while retaining a military commission. A science attaché advises on issues pertaining to science and technology. A health attaché advises on global health issues and may serve multiple functions. A "diplomat who collects, analyzes, and acts on information concerning health in a foreign country or countries and provides critical links between public health and foreign affairs stakeholders." Earlier known more as Medical Attaché. Health attaches are

1012-436: A mosque. Instead, an area of ground is cleaned and enclosed with a circle of loose stones. This place is then used for religious ceremonies. In these barren conditions, prayers are said facing Mecca. Pilgrimages to Mecca , on the other hand, are mostly rejected because they are seen as purely a matter of prestige. Ramadan is interpreted generously, often with the argument that the people suffer from hunger too often outside of

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1104-619: A narrow fertile thread that runs along the length of the country. Sheltered valleys in the Atlas Mountains, the Nile Valley and Delta , and the Mediterranean coast are the main sources of fertile farming land. A wide variety of valuable crops including cereals, rice and cotton, and woods such as cedar and cork , are grown. Typical Mediterranean crops, such as olives, figs, dates and citrus fruits, also thrive in these areas. The Nile Valley

1196-551: A nomadic way of life, speak primarily the Tuareg language Tamasheq and write Tifinagh . Quran schools were and are reserved for young men. Attendance is irregular, as many Tuareg are still nomadic today. Centuries-old mosques exist in Gao , Agadez and Timbuktu , and a few in southern Ahaggar and in the Aïr , but they are not used nearly as much as in other Muslim areas. Most people avoid visiting

1288-513: A realm, but was suppressed in 731 by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi . At this point, Berbers were superficially Islamized and hung onto their traditions with varying degrees of religious assimilation to Islam. Berbers stationed in Galacia may have converted to Chrisitanity. These joined in the Berber revolt in 740-742). Accounts of their siege of Mérida make it clear that they were not Muslims at the time. During

1380-601: A reliable standing army. This major factor, accompanied by the dynasty's eventual collapse into decadence, opened the way for Tahert's demise under the assault of the Fatimids . Between the 11th and 12th centuries, the Islamized Berber dynasty of the Almoravids ( Lempta tribe ) spread in western North Africa. They veiled their faces and were feared as skilled camel riders for their extremely quick robberies. They forced Islam on

1472-505: A representative of the interests of their state when necessary, to the types of organizations mentioned above, and also to national academies and to industry. Sometimes an attaché has special responsibilities or expertise. Examples include a cultural attaché , customs attaché, police officer attaché, labor attaché, legal attaché, liaison officer attaché, military/defense attaché , press attaché , agricultural attaché , commercial attaché, maritime attaché and science attaché . Typically,

1564-560: A second official language after Arabic. French also serves as an administrative language in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. The most spoken dialects are Maghrebi Arabic , a form of ancient Arabic dating back from the 8th century AD, and Egyptian Arabic . The largest and most numerous ethnic group in North Africa are the Arabs . In Algeria and Morocco, Berbers are the second largest ethnic group after

1656-570: A well that still bears her name, Bir al Kahina in Aures . In 670, the Islamic coalition under the command of Uqba ibn Nafi established its camp on the Tunis peninsula and founded the city of Kairouan , about 160 kilometers south of present-day Tunis . The Muslims used the city as a base for further operations against Numidians in the West and along the highlands of modern Algeria. Successive and repeated attacks on

1748-623: Is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation. Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE. When Egypt entered the Bronze Age,

1840-458: Is a person who is assigned ("to be attached") to the diplomatic or administrative staff of a higher placed person or another service or agency. Although a loanword from French , in English the word is not modified according to gender . An attaché is normally an official, who serves either as a diplomat or as a member of the support staff, under the authority of an ambassador or other head of

1932-589: Is a significant minority of Coptic Christians . The Copts are the largest Christian denomination in the Middle East and North Africa . The Maghreb formerly had a significant Jewish population, almost all of whom emigrated to France or Israel when the North African nations gained independence. Prior to the modern establishment of Israel, there were about 500,000 Jews in Northern Africa, including both Sephardi Jews (refugees from Spain, France and Portugal from

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2024-588: Is celebrated on the 12th day of the month Rabi' al-Awwal of the Islamic calendar , but is rejected by many Muslims as an unacceptable bidʿa (innovation). At best, gatherings take place to tell or hear stories and legends from the life of the Prophet. The mosques are (brightly) lit up. The Tuareg consider it to be the ultimate festival. They call it "mulud". At midnight, crowds of people from all directions stream to special places of worship that have been prepared and planned for

2116-629: Is particularly fertile and most of Egypt lives close to the river. Elsewhere, irrigation is essential to improve crop yields on the desert margins. The inhabitants of North Africa are roughly divided in a manner corresponding to the principal geographic regions of North Africa: the Maghreb , the Nile valley, and the Sahel . The countries making up North Africa all have Modern Standard Arabic as their official language. Additionally, Algeria and Morocco recognize Berber as

2208-472: Is to banish the devil and his negative power (iblis). The festivals common in Islam are rarely celebrated by the Tuareg, or they are celebrated in a form that deviates significantly from the traditions. For example, Friday prayers on the holy day do not take place in mosques, let alone in a Masjed-e Jāme' . The fasting month of Ramadan is not strictly observed. Events such as Lailat al-Qadr (Night of Destiny ),

2300-686: The Abbasids , who succeeded the Umayyads as the rulers of the Caliphate, moved the caliphate capital to Baghdad and reestablished Islamic authority in Ifriqiya , appointing Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as governor of Kairouan . Although nominally serving at the caliph's pleasure, al-Aghlab and his successors, the Aghlabids , ruled independently until 909, presiding over a court that became a center for learning and culture. To

2392-519: The Afroasiatic language family . The Tuareg Berber languages are notably more conservative than those of the coastal cities. Over the years, Berbers have been influenced by contact with other cultures: Egyptians , Greeks , Punic people , Romans , Vandals , Arabs , Europeans , and Africans . The cultures of the Maghreb and the Sahara therefore combines Arab, indigenous Berber and African elements. In

2484-587: The Canary Islands , which are all closer or as close to the African continent than Europe. Northwest Africa has been inhabited by Berbers since the beginning of recorded history , while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Egyptians . In the seventh and eighth centuries, Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula swept across the region during the early Muslim conquests . The Arab migrations to

2576-686: The Feast of Breaking the Fast ("ʿĪdu l-Fitr"), the Feast of Sacrifice , the Ascension of Mohammed , the Night of Forgiveness ("Lailatu l-Barā'a"), or the "Jalsa Salana" (Festival of Spiritual Edification) are of little importance. However, a festival that is not regularly celebrated by the rest of the Islamic population is of great importance to the Tuareg: the holiday Mawlid an-Nabi in honor of Muhammad's birthday. Mawlid an-Nabi

2668-480: The Levant , both of whom also significantly contributed to the ancestry of modern Northwest Africans. The proto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the late Bronze - and early Iron ages. The majority of the people of the Maghreb and the Sahara regions speak varieties of Arabic and almost exclusively follow Islam. The Arabic and Berber languages are distantly related, both being members of

2760-580: The Middle Ages much of the area was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire . The Barbary pirates operated from the largely independent Barbary states located on the coast of North Africa. The Spanish Empire conquered several coastal cities between the 16th and 18th centuries. After the 19th century, the imperial and colonial presence of France , the United Kingdom , Spain and Italy left

2852-507: The Middle East / West Asia , a process that began with the Neolithic Revolution c.  10,000 BC and pre Dynastic Egypt. The countries of North Africa are also a major part of the Arab world . The Islamic and Arab influence in North Africa has remained dominant ever since, with the region being major part of the Muslim world . North Africa is associated with the Middle East in

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2944-634: The Nile Valley has mainly been home to the Egyptians and Nubians . Ancient Egyptians record extensive contact in their Western desert with people that appear to have been Berber or proto-Berber. As the Tassili n'Ajjer and other rock art findings in the Sahara have shown, the Sahara also hosted various populations before its rapid desertification in 3500 B.C and even today continues to host small populations of nomadic trans-Saharan peoples . Laboratory examination of

3036-510: The Strait of Gibraltar , whereupon they overcame the fickle Roman defense. The loss of North Africa is considered a pinnacle point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire as Africa had previously been an important grain province that maintained Roman prosperity despite the barbarian incursions, and the wealth required to create new armies. The issue of regaining North Africa became paramount to

3128-717: The Uan Muhuggiag child mummy and Tin Hanakaten child, suggested that the Central Saharan peoples from the Epipaleolithic , Mesolithic , and Pastoral periods possessed dark skin complexions. The archaeological evidence from the Holocene period has shown that Nilo-Saharan speaking groups had populated the central and southern Sahara before the influx of Berber and Arabic speakers, around 1500 years ago, who now largely populate

3220-698: The exegesis of the Koran and other religious texts. Practical relevance is revealed in setting the date for the departure of camel caravans, at weddings or funerals. They are considered the "people of God" and uphold duties of generosity and hospitality. The Ineslemen earn their living (traditionally food, today money or monetary assets such as goats) from this activity. They also record their experiences in "slips of paper" and deal with magical formulas; these were often sewn into items of clothing or kept in metal containers that were worn as neck amulets. The records also contain instructions for healing purposes (albaraka = blessing);

3312-482: The hammada , a level rocky plateau without soil or sand; and the reg , a desert pavement . The Sahara covers the southern part of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, and most of Libya. Only two regions of Libya are outside the desert: Tripolitania in the northwest and Cyrenaica in the northeast. Most of Egypt is also desert, with the exception of the Nile River and the irrigated land along its banks. The Nile Valley forms

3404-572: The Almovarid Agag Alemin, who was a famous Ulama (Koran scholar) and had formed a schoolmaster group around him, was able to give the Tuareg class of the "Islandemen" (sing. "Aneslem", comprising the class of Marabouts ) a certain orientation. Nevertheless, the Tuareg remained very passive in the formation of the Islamic faith. The advance of the European powers accelerated the Islamization of

3496-652: The Arab majority. Arabs constitute 70% to 80% of the population of Algeria, 92% 97% of Libya, 67% to 70% of Morocco and 98% of Tunisia's population. The Berbers comprise 20% of Algeria, 10% of Libya, 35% of Morocco and 1% of Tunisia's population. The region is predominantly Muslim with a Jewish minority in Morocco and Tunisia , and significant Christian minority—the Copts —in Egypt , Algeria , Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia. In 2001,

3588-569: The Arab-Islamic culture. The explorer and ethnographer Henri Lhote , who wrote a respectable standard work on the Tuareg, wrote in a chapter about the Kel Ahaggar of Algeria and the religious conditions of the Saharan inhabitants: “Even if, like all new converts, they try to conceal old religious customs, it is nevertheless true that such customs can be recognized here and there.” It is possible that

3680-500: The Arabs) and the "slaves" to the "blacksmiths" ("Inaden"). (Tuareg: Ineslemen , a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic). The "Ineslemen" correspond to Marabouts , and thus represent the religious class of Koran scholars who were able to gain this position through inheritance or through suitable academic degrees. Their status is comparable to that of the aristocracy ("nobles"). They deal with

3772-621: The Berbers did not guarantee their support for the Umayyad Dynasty —which held control over most of the Islamic Caliphate . Their ruling proxies alienated the Berbers by taxing them heavily; treating converts as second-class citizens; and enslaving the southern and weaker nomadic tribes. As a result, widespread opposition took the form of open revolt in 739-40 under the banner of Kharijite Islam . The Kharijites had been fighting Umayyad rule in

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3864-643: The Berbers who were situated between the two. "After the fall of the Caliphate, the Taifa kingdoms of Toledo , Badajoz , Málaga and Granada had Berber rulers." The ancestors of today's Tuareg (from the Arabic word "terek = abandoned by God", if etymologically correct) were open to Arab cultural influences, which was especially true of religion. Although this happened in a rather passive, syncretic way, their own traditional ideas lost more and more importance in this acculturation process . Today they are largely assimilated into

3956-510: The East, and many Berbers were attracted by the sect's egalitarian precepts. The issue at hand is the same Numidians had fought against with the Romans (State Religion) whereby the control of the faith as an inherited right of those in control of the state. The new sect known as Kharijism was born on the premise that any suitable Muslim could be elected caliph without regard to race, station, or descent from

4048-448: The Islamic prophet Muhammad . After the revolt, Kharijites established a number of tribal kingdoms in the North African highlands. Their safety was purchased with taxation without representation. A set of Islamic representatives and tax collectors were established as attaches , and known as the Marabouts from the Arabic word "mourabitoun" or attaches whose role was restricted to that of a relay between local tribal council of elders of

4140-399: The Maghreb began immediately after, which started a long process of Islamization and Arabization that has defined the cultural landscape of North Africa ever since. Many but not all Berbers and Egyptians gradually merged into Arab - Islamic culture . The countries and people of North Africa share a large amount of their genetic, ethnic, cultural and linguistic identity and influence with

4232-514: The Maghreb remained focused on small-scale subsistence in small, highly mobile groups. Some Phoenician and Greek colonies were established along the Mediterranean coast during the 7th century BCE. The most notable nations of antiquity in western North Africa are Carthage , Numidia and Mauretania . The Phoenicians colonized much of North Africa including Carthage and parts of present-day Morocco (including Chellah , Essaouira and Volubilis ). The Carthaginians were of Phoenician origin, with

4324-520: The Renaissance era) as well as indigenous Mizrahi Jews . Today, less than 3,000 remain in the region, almost all in Morocco and Tunisia, and are mostly part of a French-speaking urban elite. (See Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries .) Due to the recent African origin of modern humans , the history of Prehistoric North Africa is important to the understanding of pre-hominid and early modern human history in Africa. Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as

4416-450: The Roman myth of their origin being that Dido , a Phoenician princess, was granted land by a local ruler based on how much land she could cover with a piece of cowhide. She ingeniously devised a method to extend the cowhide to a high proportion, thus gaining a large territory. She was also rejected by the Trojan prince Aeneas according to Virgil , thus creating a historical enmity between Carthage and Rome , as Aeneas would eventually lay

4508-449: The Romans, resulting in the Carthaginian North African territories becoming the Roman province of Africa in 146 B.C. This led to tension and eventually conflict between Numidia and Rome. The Numidian wars are notable for launching the careers of both Gaius Marius , and Sulla , and stretching the constitutional burden of the Roman republic as Marius required a professional army, something previously contrary to Roman values, to overcome

4600-420: The Sahara in the modern era. After migrating to North Africa in the 1st millennium BC, Semitic Phoenician settlers from the Levant established over 300 coastal colonies throughout the region and built a powerful empire that controlled most of the region from the 8th century BC until the middle of the 2nd century BC. Several waves of Arab migrations to the Maghreb began in the 7th century, including

4692-443: The Sahara, the distinction between sedentary oasis inhabitants and nomadic Bedouin Arabs and Tuaregs is particularly marked. Egyptians over the centuries have shifted their language from Egyptian (in its late form, varieties of Coptic ) to modern Egyptian Arabic while retaining a sense of national identity that has historically set them apart from other people in the region. Most Egyptians are Sunni Muslim , although there

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4784-402: The Sahara. By the end of the 12th century, Islam had penetrated the entire Western Sahara and brought the Berber tribes under its influence. Islam invaded Europe in the west "under the suzerainty of the Arab Caliph of Damascus Abd al-Malik and his North African Viceroy, Musa ibn Nusayr ." The invasion of Iberia was made up of two Islamic armies, crossing the sea from Africa. The first

4876-416: The Saharan-Sahelian region. The Islamic leaders in particular stood up to the colonial administrations. They organized resistance, which culminated in the declaration of the Holy War in 1916 and resulted in the Kaocen uprising in the east and the Firhun (uprising in the west). The Tuareg leaders who took part in this uprising enjoy legendary fame to this day. Due to the lack of unity among the Tuareg tribes,

4968-495: The Taifa era, the petty kings came from a variety of ethnic groups; some—for instance the Zirid kings of Granada —were of Berber origin. The Taifa period ended when the Almoravid dynasty (1085-1145 A.D.) took over Al-Andalus ; they were succeeded by the Almohad dynasty (1147-1238 A.D.) from Morocco . The makeup of Al-Andalus at this point consisted of an Arab aristocracy, a Mūlādī population (made of "Muslims of local descent or of mixed Berber, Arab and Iberian origin"), and

5060-458: The Western Empire, but was frustrated by Vandal victories. The focus of Roman energy had to be on the emerging threat of the Huns . In 468 AD, the Romans made one last serious attempt to invade North Africa but were repelled. This perhaps marks the point of terminal decline for the Western Roman Empire . The last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 by the Heruli general Odoacer . Trade routes between Europe and North Africa remained intact until

5152-508: The afterlife (paradise) correspond to those of official Islam. The position of women in Tuareg society is particularly shaped by traditional cultural values from pre-Islamic times. The social significance of women differs significantly from the usual Islamic traditions. Women enjoy enormous freedom of behavior in their dealings with men and limit the dominance of the male sex. Women have equal rights and are not accountable for where they go and what they do, as long as they do not neglect caring for

5244-445: The battles were ultimately lost. In Agadez , the Kaosen uprising in 1917 made it drastically clear that the religious leaders were dangerously influential and that was precisely why they were subjected to a cruel bloodbath. Although the Quran is considered a "holy book" by the Tuareg, it cannot be denied that access to the book was and still is difficult due to a lack of Arabic language skills. The Nigerien population, who are stuck in

5336-399: The caliphs centralized their command in Damascus and a coalition of Islamic forces from Medina , Damascus, Baghdad and Egypt returned in a second attempt following successive defeats in Greece . The Islamic forces in a coalition resumed their conquest of the Mediterranean Sea from the south, through North Africa . A more diplomatic second attempt resulted in a successful alliance with

5428-401: The coming of Islam. Some Berbers were members of the Early African Church (but evolved their own Donatist doctrine ), some were Berber Jews , and some adhered to traditional Berber religion . African pope Victor I served during the reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus . Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Ottomans and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were

5520-438: The continent and elements of human modernity appeared in different places, and so different parts of Africa contributed to the emergence of what we call modern humans today." Early humans may have comprised a large, interbreeding population dispersed across Africa whose spread was facilitated by a wetter climate that created a "green Sahara", around 330,000 to 300,000 years ago. The rise of modern humans may thus have taken place on

5612-458: The eleventh century, a reformist movement made up of members that called themselves the Almoravid dynasty expanded south into Sub-Saharan Africa . North Africa's populous and flourishing civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal . Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert. After

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5704-479: The entirety of the region under one form of European occupation. In World War II from 1940 to 1943 the area was the setting for the North African Campaign . During the 1950s and 1960s all of the North African states gained independence. There remains a dispute over Western Sahara between Morocco and the Algerian -backed Polisario Front . The wider protest movement known as the Arab Spring began with revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt which ultimately led to

5796-437: The exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration. The earliest inhabitants of central North Africa have left behind significant remains: early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa, for example, were found in Ain el Hanech, near Saïda ( c.  200,000 BCE ); in fact, more recent investigations have found signs of Oldowan technology there, and indicate

5888-406: The family. Research by Henri Lhote (see literature) is said to have shown that there are no requirements for virginity before marriage . There is not even a word for it in Berber usage. Matrilocality and its regulations allow for divorce from an unloved husband. Men can also be subject to property rights that discriminate against them. Only the inheritance law is interpreted in a more Koranic manner;

5980-452: The fasting month or that the Tuareg, as "travellers" (nomads), are free of such duties. Overall, scientists attest that the Tuareg have a superficial relationship to the religion of Islam. The Tuareg community is still strongly hierarchically structured today. A nomenclature is distinguished that ranges from the "nobles" ("Imajeren") to the "Koran scholars" ("Ineslemen"), "vassals" ("Imrad"), "black farmers" ("Izzegarren" - called " Haratin " by

6072-459: The festival. Everyone wears the finest clothing in their repertoire . There is singing and at dawn, daredevil camel rides are demonstrated. Another important festival is that of male circumcision. The newly circumcised men, around the age of 18, receive their face veils. This paves the way to the male gender role and the cultural values of modesty. Many rituals integrate Islamic and pre-Islamic elements into their symbolism. These include references to

6164-411: The foundations for Rome. Ancient Carthage was a commercial power and had a strong navy, but relied on mercenaries for land soldiers. The Carthaginians developed an empire in the Iberian Peninsula , Malta , Sardinia , Corsica and northwest Sicily , the latter being the cause of First Punic War with the Romans . Over a hundred years and more, all Carthaginian territory was eventually conquered by

6256-444: The ink of the written texts is softened with water and given as a drink to the person in need of healing, who then internalizes the texts in a certain way, or the ink is applied to metals and then smoked. The sick person inhales the vapors and subsequently recovers. What the procedures have in common is that they are subject to a high degree of secrecy. Valuable animals (especially camels) are also protected using amulet envelopes. The aim

6348-409: The mainly desert-based Mauretanian tribes (Morocco and west of modern Algeria) then Numidia . The new Muslim northwest African tribes in turn became ambassadors of the Muslim Caliphs, and brokers on their behalf in an attempt to assemble a coalition of forces to engage their common enemy Rome. The new approach was better received by the Numidian tribes of the highlands and were successfully recruited for

6440-401: The maternal line of inheritance, these animals also become the object of "ach ebowel" (milk of the nest). North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa ) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of the Western Sahara in

6532-405: The matrilineal line of ancestral women, pre-Islamic spirits, the earth, fertility and menstruation . The Tuareg worldview allows that the soul (Iman) is more personal than spirits. The souls of the deceased are free. Dead souls can bring messages; in return, services are provided, such as marriage arrangements. The future can sometimes be predicted by sleeping on the graves of ancestors. Ideas about

6624-625: The migration of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym westward into the Maghreb in the eleventh century, which introduced Arab culture and language to the countryside. Historians mark their movement as a critical moment in the Arabization of North Africa. As Arab nomads spread, the territories of the local Berber tribes were moved and shrank. The Zenata were pushed to the west and the Kabyles were pushed to

6716-642: The missing link for global diplomacy. The title is also used in reference to diplomacy and in the hierarchical administration of the Catholic Church , specifically in the Roman Curia , in cases where a priest, usually in the diplomatic corps of the Holy See or else released for service to the Holy See , serves in a nunciature in a given country or to an international or intergovernmental organization . Especially in

6808-649: The mountainous areas in the north and northwest, and in central Iberia, where they made al-ṭawā’if or ( Taifa ) kingdoms, including Toledo, Badajoz, Málaga and Granada. They formed "approximately two thirds of the Islamic population in Iberia." After the Abbasid revolution took power away from the Umayyads , Berbers in Iberia may have helped Abd ar-Rahman I establish his Umayyad caliphate in Al-Andalus in 756 A.D., because his mother

6900-482: The north. The Berbers took refuge in the mountains whereas the plains were Arabized. This heavily shifted the demographics of the Maghreb. The trans-Saharan slave trade resulted in increased levels of sub-Saharan African ancestry in North Africa. The Haratin are commonly perceived as an endogamous group of former slaves or descendants of slaves. DNA studies of Iberomaurusian peoples at Taforalt , Morocco dating to around 15,000 years ago have found them to have

6992-530: The number of Christians in North Africa was estimated at 9 million, the majority of whom live in Egypt, with the remainder live in Maghreb countries. The inhabitants of the Spanish Canary Islands are of mixed Spanish and North African Berber ancestry, and the people of Malta are of primarily Southern Italian/Sicilian, as well as, to a lesser extent, North African and Middle Eastern ancestry and speak

7084-484: The only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains. The early Muslim conquests included North Africa by 640. By 700, most of North Africa had come under Muslim rule. Indigenous Berbers subsequently started to form their own polities in response in places such as Fez and Sijilmasa . In

7176-529: The overthrow of their governments, as well as civil war in Libya. Large protests also occurred in Algeria and Morocco to a lesser extent. Many hundreds died in the uprisings. Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa : Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa : Attache In diplomacy , an attaché ( French pronunciation: [ataʃe] )

7268-530: The people of Western Sahara, who were rooted in traditional religious traditions. Other Arab-Islamic Bedouin groups, such as the Banū Hilāl (Sons of the Crescent Moon), subsequently migrated with their families and herds into the territories of the Berber tribes that had not yet been Islamized. Resistance to Islamization varied: many tribes avoided violent conflicts and retreated to the sparsely populated areas of

7360-460: The rapid desertification of the Sahara around 3500 B.C. largely due to a tilt in the Earth's orbit. It was during this period that domesticated plants and animals were introduced in the region, spreading from the north and east to the southwest. There has been an inferred connection between areas of rapid drying and the introduction of livestock in which the natural (orbital) aridification was amplified by

7452-623: The realm of geopolitics to form the Middle East-North Africa region. North Africa has three main geographic features: the Sahara desert in the south, the Atlas Mountains in the west, and the Nile River and delta in the east. The Atlas Mountains extend across much of northern Algeria , Morocco , and Tunisia . These mountains are part of the fold mountain system that also runs through much of Southern Europe . They recede to

7544-630: The region similarly, only differing from the UN in excluding the Sudan. The Sahel , south of the Sahara Desert , can be considered as the southern boundary of North Africa. North Africa includes the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla , and the plazas de soberanía . It can also be considered to include Malta , as well as other Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish regions such as Lampedusa and Lampione , Madeira , and

7636-429: The son inherits twice as much as the daughter. But these rules are also circumvented by giving away goods during one's lifetime ("alchabus"). Various goods are not transferable at all and can only be used ("ach iddaren"), which means that they remain in the woman's family, provided that matrilocal rules apply here too. This mostly involved farm animals and their milk. By removing them from the cycle of goods and remaining in

7728-649: The south and east, becoming a steppe landscape before meeting the Sahara desert, which covers more than 75 percent of the region. The tallest peaks are in the High Atlas range in south-central Morocco, which has many snow-capped peaks. South of the Atlas Mountains is the dry and barren expanse of the Sahara desert, the largest sand desert in the world. In places the desert is cut by irregular watercourses called wadis —streams that flow only after rainfall but are usually dry. The Sahara's major landforms include ergs , large seas of sand that sometimes form into huge dunes ;

7820-599: The spread of shrubs and open land due to grazing. Nevertheless, changes in northern Africa's ecology after 3500 BCE provided the backdrop for the formation of dynastic civilizations and the construction of monumental architecture such as the Pyramids of Giza . Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there

7912-560: The talented military leader Jugurtha . Kingdom of Mauretania remained independent until being annexed to the Roman Empire by Emperor Claudius in 42 AD. North Africa remained a part of the Roman Empire, producing notable citizens, including Augustine of Hippo , until incompetent leadership from Roman commanders in the early fifth century allowed the Germanic peoples , the Vandals , to cross

8004-403: The tribes (Aarch) and the central authority in Tunis. They had neither mosques nor authority. Their houses served as their quarters and were commonly constructed with a dome above whose Arabic term is qoba and Berber one ta qobe-tt (little dome). Other regions and tribes, however, like Sijilmasa and Tilimsan —which straddled the principal trade routes—proved more viable and prospered. In 750,

8096-470: The villages of the lower Numidian agricultural valleys by Abu al-Muhajir Dinar , Uqba's successor, forced the uncoordinated Numidian tribes to eventually work out a modus vivendi through Kusaila , a converted Numidian chief on behalf of an extensive confederation of Christian Berbers. Kusaila, who had been based in Tlemcen , converted to Islam and relocated his headquarters to Takirwan , near Kairouan. In 750

8188-595: The west of Aghlabid lands, Abd ar-Rahman ibn-Rustam ruled most of the central-west Maghreb from Tahert , southwest of Algiers . The rulers of the Rustamid imamate, which lasted from 761 to 909, each an Ibadi Kharijite imam , were elected by leading citizens. The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice. The court at Tahert was noted for its support of scholarship in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, as well as theology and law. The Rustamid imams, however, failed, by choice or by neglect, to organize

8280-469: The west, to Egypt and Sudan's Red Sea coast in the east. The most common definition for the region's boundaries includes Algeria , Egypt , Libya , Morocco , Tunisia , and Western Sahara , the territory disputed between Morocco and the partially recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic . The United Nations ' definition includes all these countries as well as the Sudan . The African Union defines

8372-558: Was a Berber. During the initial Umayyad conquest of Iberia in 711-712 A.D., Berbers formed their own military units based on tribal allegiances, with little contact with the Arabs. Uthman ibn Naissa , a Berber commander stationed in Cerdanya (eastern Pyrenees), signed an alliance with Odo the Great , duke over Vasconia and Aquitaine, detached himself from central Cordovan rule and shortly established

8464-470: Was led by Tariq ibn Ziyad (thought by researchers to be a Berber) in 711 A.D. A second army led by Musa ibn Nusayr followed in 712 A.D. The invasion combined approximately 10000 Berbers and 3000 Arabs (numbers are approximate and sources without specific numbers say "completely the Berbers with only a few Arabs" or "chiefly of Berbers and slaves, very few only being genuine Arabs." Berbers would make up as about 20 percent of Al-Andalusia's population, in

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