Peking University ( PKU ) is a public university in Haidian , Beijing , China. It is affiliated with and funded by the Ministry of Education of China . The university is part of Project 211 , Project 985 , and the Double First-Class Construction . It is also a member in the C9 League .
131-799: Established as the Imperial University of Peking in 1898 by a royal charter from the Guangxu Emperor , it is the second oldest university in China after Tianjin University (established in 1895). In May 1912, the government of the Republic of China ordered the Imperial University of Peking to be renamed Peking University. Peking University merged with Yenching University after the nationwide restructuring of schools and departments in 1952. In April 2000,
262-506: A Taiwanese history professor, proposes an alternative view: that the Guangxu Emperor might have been led into a trap by the reformists led by Kang Youwei , who in turn was in Lei's opinion tricked by British missionary Timothy Richard and former Japanese prime minister Itō Hirobumi into agreeing to appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors. British ambassador Claude MacDonald claimed that
393-462: A childhood fascination, some say in an effort to pass the time until Cixi's death. He also read widely and spent time learning English from Cixi's Western-educated lady-in-waiting, Yu Deling . His relationship with Empress Longyu , Cixi's niece (and the Emperor's own first cousin), also improved to some extent. The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908, a day before Cixi's death, at the age of 37. For
524-457: A coup on 21 September, after which he was held under virtual house arrest until his death one decade later. Emperor Guangxu was the second son of Yixuan, Prince Chun (a son of the Daoguang Emperor ), and his mother, Yehenara Wanzhen, was the sister of Empress Dowager Cixi . After Emperor Tongzhi 's death in 1874, he was supported by the two Empress Dowagers (Ci'an and Cixi) to succeed
655-583: A dinner for the diplomatic corps. On 7 February 1887, the emperor was officially old enough to begin to rule in his own right, but the regency of Empress Dowager Cixi continued beyond that, and the foreign diplomats were not informed of either fact. The French minister requested an audience with the emperor twice, in November 1887 and in the spring of 1888, but this was denied both times. In 1886, several courtiers, including Prince Chun and Weng Tonghe, had petitioned Empress Dowager Cixi to postpone her retirement from
786-467: A high dose at one time. The Guangxu Emperor was succeeded by Cixi's choice as heir, his nephew Puyi , who took the regnal name "Xuantong". In January 1912, the Guangxu Emperor's consort, who had become Empress Dowager Longyu , placed her seal on the abdication decree , ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. Longyu died childless in 1913. After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912,
917-400: A long time, there were several theories about the emperor's death, none of which was accepted fully by historians. Most were inclined to believe that Cixi, herself very ill, poisoned the Guangxu Emperor because she was afraid he would reverse her policies after her death. China Daily quoted a historian, Dai Yi , who speculated that Cixi might have known of her imminent death and worried that
1048-463: A memorial to the throne signed by young metropolitan officials and jinshi graduates that urged him to not trust his ministers and deal with the foreign powers on his own. In early June 1898 the grand councilor Weng Tonghe introduced the Guangxu Emperor to the reformist official Kang Youwei , and the emperor was impressed him, especially after reading Kang's two books about the reforms in Russia by Peter
1179-610: A naval squadron under command of the brother of Emperor Wilhelm II , the admiral Prince Heinrich , who was later received by the Qing monarch at the Summer Palace in May 1898. Germany's example was followed by demands from Russia, Britain, France, and Japan. China's relatively weak forces were not in a position to challenge them, and the United States, which was opposed to European concessions ,
1310-432: A navy of 21 battleships . The emperor also required court bureaucrats to read the writings of the earlier reformist official Feng Guifen and present a report on his suggestions in ten days, encouraged imperial princes to study abroad, and tried to streamline the government by firing 5,000 state employees. One of the early stumbling blocks for this effort happened on 15 June, when the Guangxu Emperor suddenly dismissed
1441-669: A partnership with the Freie Universität Berlin since 1981 and the Higher School of Economics since 2015, and in 2019, became a partner of Washington University in St. Louis through the McDonnell International Scholars Academy . On the 121st founding anniversary, Peking University unveiled the "Global Excellence Strategy", an international blueprint aiming to enhance Peking University's global presence during
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#17330848770711572-559: A protester threw ink in a plastic bottle and hit a wall near the portrait. He was then arrested. Due to its historical significance, Tiananmen is featured on the National Emblem of the People's Republic of China . It has also been featured in the designs of stamps and coins issued by the People's Republic of China. Tiananmen is open to the public each day of the week from 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Tickets must be booked online through
1703-633: A puppet, unable to enjoy the majesty and power of a monarch. During his reign, the Qing dynasty became increasingly impoverished and weak. The Sino-French War , the First Sino-Japanese War , and the Boxer Rebellion followed one after another, causing the dynasty to cede territory and pay indemnities, losing sovereignty and humiliating the nation, leaving the people in misery. Seeing the country's decline, Guangxu allied with intellectuals like Kang Youwei and his disciple Liang Qichao to launch
1834-475: A school. Yang Fuqing, Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, served as the honorary president. In 2022, Peking University and Lancet established a commission on healthy aging in China . The Commission's purpose is to re-focus the debate on aging not just on the risks of China's aging population but on opportunities by "unleashing the intellectual and vocational capacities of the older population and
1965-543: A self-disciplinarian early on. In 1876 he told Weng Tonghe that he considered frugality to be more important than the accumulation of wealth, and in another instance in 1878, he insisted on walking through snow and told his servants not to clear it out of his way. He also said that he considered the Tao to be more important than his own views. But, Weng noted that the emperor sometimes had extreme mood swings and did not want to participate in their daily lessons. Weng also instilled in
2096-506: A way that would intimidate other officials, which undermined his own call for unity on the project. Overall, there was no coherent structure to the Hundred Days' Reform, and the Guangxu Emperor was frantically trying to begin as many changes as he could with his edicts, causing the bureaucracy to be overwhelmed by the large number of documents being written. Although the decrees between June and August were largely accepted and were creating
2227-772: Is a satellite campus of Peking University located in Shenzhen , Guangdong. It was founded in September, 2001 in collaboration with the Shenzhen Municipal Government and is located in University Town of Shenzhen along with satellite campuses of Tsinghua University and Harbin Institute of Technology. Dr. Wen Hai, a renowned economist in China and the vice-president of Peking University is the present chancellor of PKU Shenzhen. The school houses seven research departments as well as
2358-663: Is on Xueyuan Road where the country's most distinguished colleges are, and is a fitting site for academics and research. During the Third Front construction, Peking University opened a branch in Hanzhong , Shaanxi. In 2001, Peking University's Shenzhen campus, the Shenzhen Graduate School , opened its doors. The campus is located in the northwest part of Shenzhen City. Peking University consists of 30 schools and 12 departments, with 125 majors for undergraduates, 2 majors for
2489-477: Is separated from the plaza by Chang'an Avenue . The Chinese name of the gate ( 天安门 / 天安門 ), is made up of the Chinese characters for "heaven", "peace" and "gate" respectively, which is why the name is conventionally translated as "Gate of Heavenly Peace". However, this translation is somewhat misleading, since the Chinese name is derived from the much longer phrase "receiving the mandate from heaven , and pacifying
2620-455: Is vandalized. In 1989, three dissidents, including Yu Dongyue , attacked the portrait with eggs during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre . Yu was sentenced to life imprisonment but was released on bail 17 years later in 2006. On May 12, 2007, the portrait of Mao caught fire. A 35-year-old unemployed man from Urumqi was arrested for the incident. About 15% of the portrait was damaged, and had to be repaired later. On April 5, 2010,
2751-630: The Arthur M. Sackler Museum of Art and Archaeology. Notable items in these museums include funerary objects that were excavated in Beijing and date back thousands of years from the graves of royals of the Warring States period . There are ritual pottery vessels as well as elaborate pieces of jewelry on display. There are also human bones set up in the traditional burial style of that period. Beyond its main campus, Peking University Health Science Center (PKUHSC)
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#17330848770712882-558: The Beijing International MBA at Peking University (BiMBA), which is ranked among the top six MBA programs by Quacquarelli Symonds in its TopMBA ranking of the best MBA programs in Asia Pacific for the year 2014–2015. BiMBA has also been ranked as the second most valuable full-time MBA in China by Forbes (after CEIBS ) and among Asia's best business schools by Bloomberg Business . Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School
3013-549: The Boxer Rebellion . He was examined by a physician at the French Legation and diagnosed with chronic nephritis ; he was also discovered to be impotent at the time. During the Boxer Rebellion , Emperor Guangxu fiercely opposed the idea of using usurpers as a means to counter foreign invasion. His letter to then United States president Theodore Roosevelt is still preserved in U.S. government archives. On 14 August 1900,
3144-669: The Chenghua Emperor ordered Zigui ( 自圭 ), the Minister of Works, to rebuild the gate. Thus, the design was changed from the original paifang form to the gatehouse that is seen today. It suffered another blow in the war at the end of the Ming dynasty, when in 1644 the gate was burnt down by rebels led by Li Zicheng . Following the establishment of the Qing dynasty and the Manchu conquest of China proper ,
3275-588: The Chinese Academy of Sciences , 19 members of the Chinese Academy of Engineering and 25 members of the World Academy of Sciences . Following China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War , intellectuals - including Kang Youwei , Liang Qichao , and Yan Fu - called for reforms to the country's education system. In June 1896, Minister Li Duanfen proposed to create a university in the capital. On 11 June 1898,
3406-582: The Chinese Republic funded the construction of the Guangxu Emperor's mausoleum in the Western Qing Tombs . The tomb was robbed during the Chinese Civil War and the underground palace (burial chamber) is now open to the public. In 1912, Sun Yat-sen praised the Guangxu Emperor for his educational reform package that allowed China to learn more about Western culture . After the establishment of
3537-454: The Guangxu Emperor , as part of the Hundred Days' Reform , authorised the creation of the Imperial University of Peking ( Chinese : 京師大學堂 ; pinyin : Jīngshī Dàxuétáng ; lit. 'Capital Grand Study Hall'). The Imperial University was formally established on 3 July 1898 when the emperor approved the royal charter written by Liang. Minister Sun Jianai was charged with
3668-1199: The Medal of the Republic , Zhong Nanshan , and chief economist of the World Bank, Justin Yifu Lin . Notable alumni in the humanities and arts include author Lu Xun , philosopher and essayist Hu Shih , polymath Lin Yutang , philosopher Liang Shuming , Qing-dynasty educator Gu Hongming , anthropologist Fei Xiaotong , translator Li Bulou , computer scientist Wang Xuan , and author Jin Yong . Notable international alumni include emeritus professor and linguist Michael Halliday , author Julia Ebner , and philosopher Professor Li Chenyang . Notable alumni in business include co-founder and CEO of Baidu , billionaire Robin Li , and cryptocurrency entrepreneur Justin Sun . Other notable alumni include chess grandmaster , four-time Women's World Chess Champion, and Rhodes Scholar Hou Yifan . Peking University has benefited from
3799-598: The Peking University HSBC Business School and Peking University School of Transnational Law . On August 29, 2016, Peking University signed a strategic agreement with the Shenzhen Municipal Government to further develop its Shenzhen Graduate School, the university plans build a brand new campus near the existed graduate school and open undergraduate programs. Every year, there are approximately 7,000 international students studying at Peking University. Peking University offers dual degree programs at
3930-465: The Second Sino-Japanese War . Since the founding date of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, a singular portrait of Mao has been hung on the gate. The portrait is replaced annually before National Day . On only one occasion, on March 9, 1953, it was temporarily replaced by a portrait of Joseph Stalin to commemorate his death . In 2011, Alexander Pann Han-tang, chairman of
4061-543: The Summer Palace starting from 1891, but he never became capable of skillfully managing imperial court politics. The decisions that he made and the administrative process continued to be overseen by the empress dowager. Weng Tonghe reportedly observed that while the emperor attended to day-to-day state affairs, in more difficult cases the emperor and the Grand Council sought Cixi's advice. She also decided on appointments to
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4192-532: The United Front Work Department , Shi Taifeng , former Governor of the Central Bank of China, Yi Gang , former Interpol -president, Meng Hongwei , and former minister of commerce and Communist Party Secretary of Chongqing , Bo Xilai . Notable alumni in the sciences include Nobel laureate Tu Youyou , who for her work in discovering artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin used to treat malaria ,
4323-605: The University of Tokyo . PKU also has a longstanding relationship with Stanford University which operates a joint research center and base for Stanford students and scholars at the Stanford Center at Peking University, located in the Lee Jung Sen Building. The Peking University HSBC Business School has joint degree programs with University of Hong Kong and Chinese University of Hong Kong . The university has maintained
4454-591: The Yingtai Pavilion of Zhongnanhai , completely losing his ruling power. In November 1908, he died of arsenic poisoning at Yingtai. He reigned for 34 years, ruled directly for nine of those years, and died at the age of 38 without leaving any descendants. He was buried in the Chongling Mausoleum of the Western Qing Tombs. The emperor's life was turbulent and full of hardships. He was not originally
4585-528: The bachelor's , master's , and doctoral levels with the renowned Waseda University (早稲田大学) in Northeast Asia . It is one of the most engaged partners with Waseda, having established a strong cooperative relationship of the highest level. This partnership began with an academic agreement in 1982, enhancing dual degree programs and joint research initiatives since 2003. Under the PKU-Waseda project, each year,
4716-542: The civil examination system . Other edicts were for the construction of the Lu-Han railway, a system of budgets similar to that of Western governments, the replacement of the Green Standard Army with a Western-style national army based on conscription, and the creation of a naval academy. Among the lesser known measures that the Guangxu Emperor wanted to take was his naval armament program, which called for China to have
4847-610: The " Fourth Industrial Revolution ". The "Global Excellence Strategy" aims to strengthen international cooperation, overcome development barriers, gather global resources, and stimulate collegial relationships. The Global Excellence Strategy is based upon the English word "CLOUDS", representing the "cloud era" of the "Fourth Industrial Revolution". Each letter stands for a corresponding word, namely creativity, leadership , openness , uniqueness , diversity and shaping. Peking University has participated in many joint art-research projects, such as
4978-443: The "Double First-class" construction alliance in mathematics. On April 2, 2021, Peking University Nanchang Innovation Research Institute was inaugurated. On July 15, 2021, Peking University School of Integrated Circuits was inaugurated. On September 6, 2021, the new Changping campus of Peking University was officially opened, welcoming the first batch of teachers and students. On September 30, Peking University Lanyuan Centre
5109-462: The 21st the Guangxu Emperor was detained and met with Empress Dowager Cixi. The following day, he issued a decree that asked Cixi to take control of the government, who proceeded to remove the reform-minded officials and replaced them with conservative loyalists. An edict on 26 September undid some of the more radical changes the emperor had made, while keeping in place those reforms that did not go directly against Qing tradition. Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖),
5240-477: The Asia Pacific Taiwan Federation of Industry and Commerce, and a close friend of Taiwanese president Ma Ying-jeou , proposed that the picture of Sun Yat-sen be displayed at Tiananmen Square instead for the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of China . However, this proposal was rejected. The portrait weighs 1.5 metric tons (2 short tons), and is replaced by a spare whenever it
5371-857: The Center for the Art of East Asia (CAEA) with the University of Chicago , and Department of Digital Art and Design with UNESCO . Notable alumni include the current chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and the third-ranking member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee Zhao Leji . Other alumni in politics include former premier of China Li Keqiang , former vice premier of China Hu Chunhua , current minister of Education, Chen Baosheng ; current minister of Natural resources, Wang Guanghua ; current Head of
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5502-622: The Central People's Government" ( 中央 人民 政府 万岁 ; Zhōngyāng Rénmín Zhèngfǔ wànsuì ) for the founding ceremony of the PRC, but later it was changed to "Long Live the Great Solidarity of the World's Peoples". Both placards were changed to use simplified Chinese instead of traditional Chinese characters in 1964. The phrasing has significant symbolic meaning, as the phrase used for long live , like
5633-529: The China and Asia-Pacific Studies major at Cornell, which requires students to spend a semester studying at Peking University while working at internships. In 2006, PKU launched a joint undergraduate program with Yale University in which students will spend a semester overseas, living and studying together with the host institute's students. PKU's School of International Studies also launched joint degree programs with London School of Economics , Paris School of International Affairs , Seoul National University , and
5764-824: The Gaungxu Emperor became more frequent after that. He received the new Austro-Hungarian minister in a special audience in October 1891, the British minister in December 1892, and the German and Belgian ministers in 1893. The Guangxu Emperor followed his principle of frugality in early 1892, when he tried to implement a series of draconian measures to reduce expenditures by the Imperial Household Department , which proved to be one of his few administrative successes. This dispute over
5895-479: The Grand Council and the Six Ministries . In December 1890 the emperor issued a decree stating that he wanted to have an immediate audience with the foreign diplomatic corps in Beijing and to make this an annual occurrence going forward. They presented a list of conditions for the protocol at the ceremony, and it was accepted by the Qing. The audience took place on 5 March 1891, with the Guangxu Emperor receiving
6026-682: The Great and in Japan by the Meiji Emperor . He personally met with Kang on 14 June, and started issuing reform decrees on 11 June. The first order, the edict of 11 June 1898, declared the intent of the Qing emperor to pursue reform as response to calls from certain officials since the war with Japan, and asked every one of his subjects to contribute to strengthening China, a project that was going to be based on "Western learning" while maintaining respect for traditional morals. Guangxu also received Cixi's approval for
6157-402: The Guangxu Emperor a duty of filial piety toward the Empress Dowagers Cixi and Ci'an, which, aside from being a Chinese tradition, was also because Weng owed much of his successful career to the patronage of Cixi. In 1881, when the Guangxu Emperor was nine, Empress Dowager Ci'an died unexpectedly, leaving Empress Dowager Cixi as sole regent for the boy. In Weng's diaries during those days, Guangxu
6288-401: The Guangxu Emperor married, Cixi retired from the regency on 4 March 1889. Even after the Guangxu Emperor began formal rule he found that the power structure of the Qing court still depended on Empress Dowager Cixi, and he did not know how far his own authority extended. The emperor tried to take a leading role in the government, especially after she began spending several months of the year at
6419-458: The Guangxu Emperor was taught by Weng Tonghe , who had also been involved in the disastrous upbringing of the Tongzhi Emperor yet somehow managed to be exonerated of all possible charges, and his education was also overseen by his father, Prince Chun. The emperor was taught calligraphy , the Chinese classics (including the Four Books ), and the Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchu languages. Starting in 1881 he began reading historical works, including
6550-551: The Guangxu Emperor would continue his reforms after her death. Another theory is that the Guangxu Emperor was poisoned by Yuan Shikai , who knew that if the emperor were to come to power again, Yuan would likely be executed for treason. There were no reliable sources to prove who murdered the Guangxu Emperor. The medical records kept by the Guangxu Emperor's physician show the emperor suffered from "spells of violent stomachaches" and that his face had turned blue, typical symptoms of arsenic poisoning. To dispel persistent rumours that
6681-459: The Guangxu Emperor, along with Cixi, Empress Longyu and some other court officials, fled from Beijing as the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance marched on the capital to relieve the legations that had been besieged during the Boxer Rebellion . Returning to the capital on 7 January 1902, after the withdrawal of the foreign powers, the Guangxu Emperor spent the next few years working in his isolated palace with watches and clocks , which had been
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#17330848770716812-424: The Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, attempting to save and rejuvenate the nation. However, this movement threatened the position of the privileged classes of traditional Chinese society and was soon suppressed by the conservative forces led by Cixi, resulting in his confinement and loss of political power and personal freedom until his untimely death. His tragic fate is rare among emperors. Although historians do not deny
6943-437: The Imperial City itself, was traditionally reserved for Emperors of China , but is now available to the common people. The reviewing stands in the foreground are used on International Workers Day ( May Day ) and on the National Day (October 1) of the People's Republic of China. In front of the stands is the Imperial City's moat , still filled with water but now containing decorative illuminated fountains. In ancient times,
7074-436: The Imperial City, and the historical events that have taken place on Tiananmen Square , the gate has great political significance. In 1925, when China was ruled by the Nationalist government , a large portrait of Sun Yat-sen was hung at the gate after his death. In 1945, to celebrate the victory over Japan, Chiang Kai-shek 's portrait was hung. On July 7, 1949, portraits of Zhu De and Mao Zedong were hung to commemorate
7205-399: The Imperial Family was preparing to leave the Forbidden City due to the occupation of Beijing by the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900. Like his predecessor, the Tongzhi Emperor , the Guangxu Emperor died without issue. After his death in 1908, Empress Dowager Longyu ruled in cooperation with Zaifeng . Empress Imperial Noble Consort Enthroned in 1626 as Khan , Hong Taiji changed
7336-494: The Peking-Waseda partnership, is rare on a global scale. The dormitories for international students at the main campus are located at Shaoyuan Garden (勺园) and Zhongguanyuan Global Village (中关新园). Its international students are made up of students from most countries in the world including most of Western Europe, North America, and South America, Asia, Australia and many countries in Africa. In 2005, Peking University and Cornell University signed an agreement formally establishing
7467-546: The People's Republic of China in 1949, historian Fan Wenlan (范文瀾) called the Guangxu Emperor "a Manchu noble who could accept Western ideas". Some historians believe that the Guangxu Emperor was the first Chinese leader to implement modernizing reforms and capitalism. Imperial power in the Qing dynasty saw its nadir under Guangxu, and he was the only Qing emperor to have been put under house arrest during his own reign. Domestic honours Foreign honours The Guangxu Emperor had one empress and two consorts in total. The emperor
7598-409: The Qing dynasty as the only way to make up for his perceived failure. Already in December 1897 the emperor wrote an edict that asked bureaucrats with military knowledge to recommend reforms that could be made. Following the war and the scramble for concessions, there was growing support for reform in China among the gentry and the nobility in the spring of 1898. In April the emperor was presented with
7729-411: The Tiananmen was among the most important gates encountered when entering Beijing's Imperial City along with the Yongdingmen , Qianmen , the Gate of China . Proceeding further inward, the next gate is the ' Upright Gate ', identical in design to the Tian'anmen; behind it is the southern entrance of the Forbidden City itself, known as the Meridian Gate . Because of the gate's position at the front of
7860-448: The Tongzhi Emperor and were seen as having been a negative influence on him, so they were distrusted. Zaitian was younger than both and was the nephew of Cixi. His father, Prince Chun, was also more liked than Prince Gong, and was known for being a scholar and a supporter of patriotic policies. These were the factors that influenced the selection of Zaitian to become emperor. A decree announced on 13 January that Zaitian had been chosen as
7991-411: The basis for reform, starting in September they began targeting the positions of the Manchu nobility and the gentry. These were not only too sudden for a China still under significant neo-Confucian influence and other elements of traditional culture , but later came into conflict with Cixi, who held real power. Many officials, deemed useless and dismissed by the Guangxu Emperor, begged her for help. But
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#17330848770718122-423: The budget continued until early 1894. But its other effects were humiliating and alienating senior Manchu officials in the bureaucracy, who remained in contact with Cixi, and reducing his potential allies at the imperial court. The Guangxu Emperor inherited the system of the Qing dynasty that had emerged in 1861, at the start of the Tongzhi Emperor's reign. The source of authority were the two empresses dowager, while
8253-419: The center of Beijing , China . It is widely used as a national symbol . First built during the Ming dynasty in 1420, Tiananmen was the entrance to the Emperor's residence, through which all visitors to the palace walked. In 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China from the balcony, which now features a large portrait of him. Tiananmen is located to the north of Tiananmen Square , and
8384-515: The columns. However, the examples in front of the Imperial City were purely decorative, and instead connoted the majesty of the imperial government. The western and eastern walls have giant placards; the left one reads "Long Live the People's Republic of China" ( 中华 人民 共和国 万岁 ; Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó wànsuì ), while the right one reads "Long Live the Great Solidarity of the World's Peoples" ( 世界 人民 大 团结 万岁 ; Shìjiè rénmín dà tuánjié wànsuì ). The right placard used to read "Long Live
8515-584: The country's largest institution of higher learning, with 14 departments and an enrollment of more than 2,000 students. President Cai, inspired by the German model of academic freedom, introduced faculty governance and democratic management to the university. Cai recruited an intellectually diverse faculty that included some of the most prominent figures in the progressive New Culture Movement , including Hu Shih , Liu Bannong , Ma Yinchu , Li Dazhao , Chen Duxiu , Lu Xun and Liang Shuming . Meanwhile, leading conservatives Gu Hongming and Huang Kan also taught at
8646-434: The death of her husband. However, the Guangxu Emperor detested his wife and spent most of his time with his favourite concubine, Consort Zhen (better known as the "Pearl Consort"). Rumours allege that in 1900, Consort Zhen was drowned by being thrown into a well on Cixi's order after she begged Empress Dowager Cixi to let the Guangxu Emperor stay in Beijing for negotiations with the foreign powers. That incident happened when
8777-406: The decisive response by Empress Dowager Cixi was caused by the accusation from the official Yang Chongyi that the Guangxu Emperor had committed treason by inviting the former Japanese prime minister Ito Hirobumi to advise him (Ito was in China at the time to meet with the emperor). Yang claimed that Guangxu had done this on the advice of Kang Youwei and the wanted revolutionary Sun Yat-sen . Guangxu
8908-405: The decrees of earlier emperors. Guangxu could work diligently and already knew some of the classics, but he was not always interested in his daily lessons. As part of the emperor's education he was taught that his main obligation as ruler was "keeping the state in order" and "maintaining universal peace," as stated in the Confucian classic Great Learning . The Guangxu Emperor seemed to become
9039-405: The dynastic name to "Great Qing" in 1636 and claimed the title of emperor. In 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor began to rule over China proper , replacing the Ming dynasty . Tiananmen The Tiananmen / ˈ t j ɛ n ə n m ə n / (also Tian'anmen , or the Gate of Heaven-Sent Peace , is the entrance gate to the Forbidden City imperial palace complex and Imperial City in
9170-418: The dynasty". ( 受命于天，安邦治國 ). The Manchu translation, Abkai elhe obure duka , lies closer to the original meaning of the gate and can be literally translated as the "Gate of Heavenly Peacemaking". The gate had a counterpart in the northern end of the imperial city called the Di'anmen ( 地安門 , Dì'ānmén; Manchu: Na i elhe obure duka ), which may be roughly translated as the "Gate of Earthly Peace". The gate
9301-426: The early 1880s, though this stopped in 1883 when Cixi recovered from her illness. His reign saw the outbreak of the Sino-French War in 1884 over influence in Vietnam . By the time the war ended in 1885, the French destroyed the Chinese fleet at Fuzhou , patrolled the coast of southern China unobstructed, occupied part of Taiwan, and ended the status of Vietnam as a tributary of China. This prompted Britain to end
9432-403: The edict. Between June and September 1898 the emperor carried out the Hundred Days' Reform , aimed at a series of sweeping political, legal and social changes. The goal was to make China a modern constitutional empire, but still within the traditional framework, as with Japan's Meiji Restoration . The emperor's initial focus was establishing the Imperial University in Beijing and reforming
9563-482: The education system. The last part of his edict of 11 June instructed the Grand Council and the Zongli Yamen , the Qing dynasty's foreign office, to establish the Imperial University right away. The Guangxu Emperor then issued edicts for a massive number of far-reaching modernizing reforms with the help of more progressive officials such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao . Changes ranged from infrastructure to industry and
9694-415: The emperor had been poisoned, the Qing imperial court produced documents and doctors' records suggesting that the Guangxu Emperor died from natural causes, but these did not allay suspicion. On 4 November 2008, forensic tests revealed that the level of arsenic in the emperor's remains was 2,000 times higher than that of ordinary people. Scientists concluded that the poison could only have been administered in
9825-518: The emperor to make his own decisions instead of remaining influenced by the empress dowager. After the Japanese attacked and sank a Chinese warship on 25 July without any declaration of war, the ministers of the Qing emperor advised him to declare war on Japan. In that document, made on 1 August, the Guangxu Emperor accused Japan of sending armies to force the king of Korea to change his system of government and of violating international law. He also used
9956-460: The empire, the gate itself has unique imperial roof decorations . Two lions stand in front of the gate, and two more guard the bridges. In Chinese culture, lions are believed to protect humans from evil spirits. Two stone columns, called huabiao , each with an animal ( hou ) on top of it, also stand in front of the gate. Originally, these installations were designed for commoners to address their grievances by either writing or sticking petitions on
10087-450: The events in the autumn of 1898. In February 1895, as peace negotiations with the Japanese were underway, the Guangxu Emperor spoke with his top negotiator before he met with the Japanese, Li Hongzhang, and allegedly told him during their conversation that China needed large scale reforms. In April, after the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed but before it was ratified by the Qing government,
10218-475: The execution of generals who were defeated. During the war, even though the Guangxu Emperor was nominally the sovereign ruler of the Qing Empire, officials often ignored him and instead sent their memorials to Cixi for her approval. Eventually, two sets of Grand Council memoranda were created, one for the emperor and the other for the empress dowager, a practice that continued until it was rendered unnecessary by
10349-430: The failures and limitations during his reign, he is still regarded as a relatively progressive and enlightened monarch of the dynasty. His image in historical research and literary works is also mostly positive. The Guangxu Emperor was born on 14 August 1871, receiving the name Zaitian, and was the second son of Yixuan (Prince Chun) , and his primary spouse Yehenara Wanzhen , a younger sister of Empress Dowager Cixi . He
10480-580: The foreign ministers to China at an audience in the "Pavilion of Purple Light," in what is now part of Zhongnanhai , something that had also been done by the Tongzhi Emperor in 1873. That summer, under pressure from the foreign legations and in response to revolts in the Yangtze River valley that were targeting Christian missionaries, the emperor issued an edict ordering Christians to be placed under state protection. The audience of foreign diplomats with
10611-468: The former Beijing Medical University merged into the Peking University. Peking University has six faculties, namely Humanities, Social Sciences, Economics and Management, Science, Information Technology and Engineering, as well as Health Science. It consists of 55 schools and departments, 60 research entities, and ten affiliated hospitals. By 2017, Peking University's staff include 76 academicians of
10742-403: The gate was once again rebuilt, beginning in 1645, and was given its present name upon completion in 1651. The gate was reconstructed again between 1969 and 1970. The gate as it stood was by then 300 years old, and had badly deteriorated, partly due to heavy usage in the 1950s and 1960s. As the gate was a national symbol, Zhou Enlai ordered that the rebuilding was to be kept secret. The whole gate
10873-524: The grand councilor Weng Tonghe from all of his posts, even though he had been the one to draft his first reform edict. It has been debated by historians what the immediate reason for the action was, but it occurred after Weng had been a voice of caution leading up the summer of 1898, and he may have been seen by the emperor as an obstacle to his plans. The emperor was also impatient and wanted immediate results, so he may have fired him in an emotional moment. On several occasions he also tried to write his edicts in
11004-409: The heir to the throne but was forcibly elevated after Emperor Tongzhi died without an heir. From a young age, he was forced to leave his home and enter the palace, where he was strictly controlled and disciplined by Cixi, enduring many hardships and sorrows. Even after he reached adulthood and began his personal rule, Cixi was unwilling to relinquish her control over state power, making him continue to be
11135-439: The implementation. IUP served as the country's foremost institute for higher learning, but also as its highest educational authority. William Alexander Parsons Martin was appointed as the first president. Most of the reforms were abolished when the conservative Empress Dowager Cixi seized power on 21 September. The university survived with altered objectives and reduced scope. It opened on 31 December with 160 students, instead of
11266-594: The outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War over influence in Korea. The Guangxu Emperor was reportedly eager for the war against Japan and became associated with the pro-war faction in the imperial court, which believed that China would easily win. This was in contrast to the Empress Dowager Cixi and Viceroy Li Hongzhang , who both wanted to reach a peaceful resolution. The conflict was also an opportunity for
11397-426: The planned 500. Following the Xinhai Revolution , the Imperial University of Peking was renamed "Government University of Peking" in 1912 and then "National University of Peking" in 1919 ( simplified Chinese : 国立北京大学 ; traditional Chinese : 國立北京大學 ; pinyin : Guólì Běijīng Dàxué ). The noted scholar Cai Yuanpei was appointed president on January 4, 1917, and helped transform Peking University into
11528-477: The previous emperor, candidates were considered from the generation of Tongzhi. The reason for this is that the empress dowagers wanted the candidate to take the place of the Tongzhi Emperor as the successor to the Xianfeng Emperor , whose only son had been Tongzhi. The other proposed candidates besides Zaitian were the two sons of Prince Gong , Zaicheng and Zaiying , but they were of the same age group as
11659-685: The protest on May 4, students, workers and merchants from nearly all China's major cities went on strike and boycotted Japanese goods in China. The Beiyang government eventually agreed to release the arrested students and fired the three officials under intense public pressure, China's representatives in Paris refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles. During the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign of 1973 to 1976, critique groups formed at Peking University and Tsinghua University disseminated commentaries under
11790-538: The pseudonym of "Liang Xiao." The pseudonym sounds like a person's name but is a homophone for "two schools." In October 2015, Peking University alumni Professor Tu Youyou was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of artemisinin . Having saved millions of lives, artemisinin has made significant contributions to global health in regard to the fight against malaria . On February 20, 2017,
11921-481: The reformists had actually "much injured" the modernization of China. Lei claims that Cixi learned of the plot and decided to put an end to it to prevent China from coming under foreign control. The Guangxu Emperor's duties after 1898 became rather limited. The emperor was effectively removed from power as emperor (despite keeping the title), but he did retain some status. The emperor was kept informed of state affairs, reading them with Cixi prior to audiences, and
12052-411: The regency. Despite Cixi's agreement to remain as regent, that same year the Guangxu Emperor had begun to write comments on memorials to the throne . In the spring of 1887, he partook in his first field-plowing ceremony, and by the end of the year he had begun to rule under Cixi's supervision. By the mid-1880s the Guangxu Emperor also developed the ideas that he wanted guide his rule, including preserving
12183-424: The second bachelor's degree , 282 programs for Master's degree candidates and 258 programs for doctoral candidates . In addition to basic research , the university also conducts applied research . At present, Peking University has 216 research institutions and research centres, including 2 national engineering research centers, 81 key national disciplines, and 12 national key laboratories. With 8 million holdings,
12314-449: The services of notable academics and staff. These include founder of the People's Republic of China Mao Zedong (who worked as a library staff at the university), educator, politician, and revolutionary Cai Yuanpei (served as Chancellor of Peking University), and others. Guangxu Emperor The Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908), also known by his temple name Emperor Dezong of Qing , personal name Zaitian ,
12445-527: The successor to the Xianfeng Emperor. The same decree also announced that Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi would be his co-regents. He ascended to the throne at the age of four, on 25 February 1875, and adopted "Guangxu" (meaning "continuation of splendor") as his regnal name , therefore he is known as the "Guangxu Emperor". His personal name Zaitian was no longer used after that point. Beginning in March 1876,
12576-480: The system that existed during the regency effectively remained intact. Eventually, in February 1889, in preparation for Cixi's retirement, the Guangxu Emperor was married. Much to the emperor's dislike, Cixi selected her niece, Jingfen, to be empress. She became known as Empress Longyu . She also selected a pair of sisters, who became Consorts Jin and Zhen , to be the emperor's concubines. The following week, with
12707-615: The term "dwarfs" for the Japanese, an ancient Chinese derogatory term, reflecting the widespread contemptuous view of Japan that many Qing officials had. China suffered major defeats at the Battle of Pyongyang and the Battle of the Yalu River within two days in September 1894, largely destroying the Huai Army and the Beiyang Fleet , the Qing dynasty's best military forces. The Guangxu Emperor
12838-422: The throne, being adopted at the age of three by Emperor Xianfeng and the two Empress Dowagers, thereby inheriting the throne. During the early years of his reign, the two dowagers jointly handled state affairs. As Ci'an died in 1881, Cixi continued to act as the sole regent. In 1889, Guangxu got married and announced his personal rule. After the failure of the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, he was confined by Cixi in
12969-554: The top universities in mainland China . In 2015, the Chinese University Alumni Association in partnership with China Education Center considered it first among all Chinese universities . The joint THE-QS World University Rankings 2005 & 2006 ranked Peking University 1st in the Asia & Oceania region and 14th in the world in 2006. In 2014, the U.S. News & World Report ranked Peking University 39th in
13100-484: The treaty required, he was going to lose the "unity of the people." The emperor felt that he was unworthy of his ancestors because he failed as a leader, which was made worse after he was also forced to give concessions to the European powers in 1897–98. Luke Kwong wrote that this was part of what drove the Guangxu Emperor to begin the Hundred Days' Reform in the summer of 1898, because he saw taking radical action to revitalize
13231-499: The treaty's severe terms for China were publicized. Government bureaucrats throughout the empire urged the imperial court to reject it and continue fighting. The emperor did not want to take responsibility for ratifying the treaty, and neither did the Empress Dowager Cixi, who may have wanted to use the defeat against Japan to undermine Guangxu. He tried to shift the responsibility in an edict by asking two officials, Liu Kunyi and Wang Wenshao , to give their opinion on whether to agree to
13362-551: The treaty, because they had told him that the Chinese military was capable of achieving victory. Eventually the Guangxu Emperor ratified it. The emperor and the Qing government faced further humiliation in late 1897 when the German Empire used the murders of two priests in Shandong Province as an excuse to occupy Jiaozhou Bay (including Qingdao ), prompting a "scramble for concessions" by other foreign powers. Germany sent
13493-658: The tributary status of Burma in 1886, which China did not oppose militarily, and encouraged Japan to do the same in Korea . The negotiations with the French were carried out by the Viceroy of Zhili , Li Hongzhang , by other ministers in Beijing, and by the head of Chinese Maritime Customs , Robert Hart . The Guangxu Emperor had not given an audience to foreign diplomats in Beijing up to this point, though in August 1886 his father Prince Chun hosted
13624-889: The university library is the largest of its kind in Asia. Peking University, the Georgia Institute of Technology , and Emory University jointly administer the Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering . Over the past century, some Peking University alumni have become presidents of other major Chinese universities, including former Tsinghua President Luo Jialun, Renmin University President Yuan Baohua, Zhejiang University President Qian Sanqiang, Fudan University President Zhang Zhirang, Nankai University President Teng Weizao, Chinese University of Science and Technology President Guan Weiyan and many others. Several rankings have placed Peking University among
13755-740: The university officially signed a contract with the British Open University to establish the Oxford Campus of Peking University HSBC Business School, Peking University Oxford Center and Shenzhen Oxford Innovation Center. On June 29, 2020, the Sino-Russian Mathematics Center was established. The Sino-Russian Mathematics Center is led by Peking University and Moscow State University , and jointly constructed by relevant domestic units and other Russian universities and research institutes such as St. Petersburg University , relying on
13886-661: The university selects undergraduates to spend their third year studying at Waseda University in Japan , and then they return to Peking University for their fourth year. Simultaneously, Waseda University sends numerous students to Peking University as exchange students. Upon graduation, students receive two bachelor's degrees, one from each university. Additionally, joint master's student training programs and dual doctoral degree programs with Waseda University are also in operation. The comprehensive collaboration of offering dual degrees at all bachelor's , master's , and doctoral levels, as seen in
14017-514: The university's buildings constructed during the 1919 to 1922 period. There are several gates that lead into campus — East, West and South gates, with the West Gate being the most well known for the painted murals on its ceiling. Weiming Lake is in the north of the campus and is surrounded by walking paths and small gardens. The university hosts many museums, such as the Museum of University History and
14148-520: The university. A firm supporter for freedom of thought, Cai advocated for educational independence and resigned several times protesting the government 's policy and interference. On May 1, 1919, some students of Peking University learned that the Treaty of Versailles would allow Japan to receive Germany's colonising rights in Shandong province. An assembly at Peking University that included these students and representatives from other universities in Beijing
14279-642: The wealth of the country and avoiding selfishness or arrogance. Among his predecessors, he considered the Qianlong Emperor to be a model of good governance, and often visited places that the Qianlong Emperor had spent a lot of time at. He felt a sense of responsibility for following the example set by the Qianlong Emperor. Meanwhile, Prince Chun and the Grand Council prepared for the Guangxu Emperor to begin ruling directly by taking measures to make sure that
14410-642: The whole of Chinese society." In June 2022, the International University Sports Federation (FISU) released the first series of "Healthy Campus" list. Peking University, as the only Chinese university that has obtained platinum certification from the International University Sports Federation, participated in 4 projects and became the only representative from China among 130 projects worldwide. American architect and art historian Talbot Hamlin designed some of
14541-544: The world based on their publications for the time period 2015–2018. For the high quality of research in natural science and health science, Peking University ranked 6th among the leading institutions, and 4th among the leading universities globally in the Nature Index 2024 Research Leaders by Nature Research . In 2023, it ranked 8th among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings . In November 2024, Clarivate Analytics ranked Peking University 12th in
14672-522: The world for most Highly Cited Researchers . On October 24, 2018, Peking University Library, the largest library among Asian universities, held the opening ceremony of the 120th anniversary at the Yingjie Overseas Exchange Center. The National School of Development (formerly China Center for Economic Research) is ranked amongst the top five most influential think tanks in China. In 1998, Justin Yifu Lin et al. jointly founded
14803-570: The world respectively. Peking University was also ranked 15th in the world and 1st in the Asia-Pacific in The Three University Missions Ranking . The Academic Ranking of World Universities , also known as the "Shanghai Ranking", placed Peking University 24th in the world and 2nd in the Asia-Pacific & China. The U.S. News & World Report ranked Peking University 31st in the world, 4th in Asia and 2nd in China. Peking
14934-507: The world's top 20 universities for academic reputation where, it ranked 16 globally, and top 10 in the world and first in the Asia-Pacific for employer reputation. Since 2017, Peking has been placed among the world's top 20 most reputable universities by the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings , where it ranked 11 globally in 2023. The 2020 CWTS Leiden Ranking ranked Peking University at 8th in
15065-544: The world, 2nd in the Asia-Pacific and 1st in China. Peking had topped the newly launched Times Higher Education BRICS & Emerging Economies since its inception in 2014. The 2023 QS Rankings ranked Peking University 12th in the world and first in Asia. As of 2024, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked Peking University 13th in the world, with its teaching and research environment indicators placed at 9th and 7th in
15196-424: The young emperor had a secondary role, and the princes and ministers were responsible for actually running the machinery of the government. When Empress Dowager Cixi retired, Guangxu had control over the administration of the empire and she did not interfere with his actions, but the princes and ministers advised him to bring back the old system in 1894, at the start of the tensions with Japan. The summer of 1894 saw
15327-477: Was a decree that was issued by the Guangxu Emperor. But Yuan later said that the schemers could not convince him that it was really from the emperor, and when Yuan met with him on 20 September, Guangxu did not say anything about it to Yuan. He then left the emperor to meet with Ronglu and told him about the plot by the reformers, also telling him the emperor had nothing to do with it. Ronglu then met with Cixi and other ministers and princes, and started taking action. On
15458-509: Was also present at audiences, sitting on a stool to Cixi's left hand while Cixi occupied the main throne. He discharged his ceremonial duties, such as offering sacrifices during ceremonies, but never ruled alone again. In 1898, shortly after the collapse of the Hundred Days' Reform , the Guangxu Emperor's health began to decline, prompting Cixi to name Pujun, a son of the emperor's cousin, the reactionary Prince Duan , as heir presumptive. Pujun and his father were removed from their positions after
15589-520: Was angry and wanted to immediately leave the capital to personally take command of the troops at the front, but he was later talked out of it by his advisors. The emperor met with a German military advisor who had been present at the Battle of the Yalu, Constantin von Hanneken, to learn what exactly happened, suggesting that he may have not trusted his ministers to tell him the truth. He also signed edicts calling for
15720-531: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura ; nuclear physicists and contributors to Chinese nuclear weapons program Qian Sanqiang and Deng Jiaxian, and "father of the Chinese hydrogen bomb" physicist Yu Min , nuclear physicist Zhu Guangya , particle physicist and discoverer of the partial conservation of the axial current, Zhou Guangzhao ; mathematician and MacArthur Fellow Yitang Zhang , neurosurgeon Wang Zhongcheng , pulmonologist and recipient of
15851-436: Was covered in scaffolding, and the project was officially called a "renovation". The rebuilding aimed to leave the gate's external appearance unchanged while both making it more resistant to earthquakes and installing modern facilities such as an elevator, water supply, and heating system. The building is 66 meters (217 ft) long, 37 meters (121 ft) wide and 32 meters (105 ft) high. Like other official buildings of
15982-514: Was distracted by events in Cuba and the Spanish–American War . In the six months between November 1897 and May 1898 China had received unprecedented demands from foreign powers. After the Qing Empire's defeat to Japan and forced agreement to the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Guangxu Emperor reportedly expressed his wish to abdicate. He wrote that by giving away Taiwan to Japan, as
16113-429: Was forced by Empress Dowager Cixi to marry her niece (his cousin) Jingfen , who was two years his senior. Jingfen's father, Guixiang (Cixi's younger brother), and Cixi selected her to be the Guangxu Emperor's wife in order to strengthen the power of their own family. After the marriage, Jingfen was made empress and was granted the honorific title of "Longyu" ( 隆裕 ; lit. ' auspicious and prosperous ' ) after
16244-473: Was officially launched. The first dean of Lanyuan Centre is Ke Yang, Professor of Peking University School of Clinical Oncology and a foreign academician of the American Academy of Medical Sciences. In October, Peking University officially announced the establishment of Peking University School of Computer Science, which means the computer major of Peking University was officially upgraded from a department to
16375-605: Was originally named "Chengtianmen" ( traditional Chinese : 承天門 ; simplified Chinese : 承天门 ; pinyin : Chéngtiānmén ), or "Gate of Accepting Heavenly Mandate " in the Ming dynasty . It has subsequently been destroyed and rebuilt several times. The original building was first constructed in 1420, and was based on an eponymous gate of an imperial building in Nanjing . The gate was completely burned down by lightning in July 1457. In 1465,
16506-693: Was quickly organised. On May 4, students from thirteen universities marched to Tiananmen to protest the terms of Treaty of Versailles , demanded the Beiyang government to refuse to sign the treaty. Demonstrators also demanded the immediate resignation of three officials: Cao Rulin , Minister of the Ministry of Transportation , Zhang Zongxiang, China's Ambassador to Japan and Lu Zongyu, Minister of Currency, who they believed were in cooperation with Japanese. The protest ended up with some protesters being beaten and arrested, and Cao Rulin's house burned by protesters. Following
16637-626: Was ranked 2nd in the Asia-Pacific and the 19th worldwide in 2023 in terms of aggregate performance (THE+ARWU+QS) as reported by the Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities . In the QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2017, an annual ranking of university graduates' employability, Peking University was ranked 11th in the world and 2nd in Asia. In 2019, the QS World University Rankings ranked the university as one of
16768-411: Was reportedly seen with swollen eyes, had poor concentration and was seeking consolation from Weng. Weng too expressed his concern that Cixi was the one who had been suffering from chronic ill health, not Ci'an. During this time, the imperial eunuchs often abused their influence over the boy emperor. The Guangxu Emperor had also reportedly begun to hold some audiences on his own as an act of necessity in
16899-475: Was the eleventh emperor of the Qing dynasty , and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper , from 1875 to 1908. His reign was largely dominated by his maternal aunt Empress Dowager Cixi , who was his regent for much of his nominal rule except in the time from 1889 to 1898. He initiated the radical Hundred Days' Reform in the summer of 1898 but was abruptly stopped when the Empress Dowager launched
17030-528: Was the nephew of Cixi and the grandson of the Daoguang Emperor . On 12 January 1875, Zaitian's cousin, the Tongzhi Emperor , died without a son to succeed him. On that same day an imperial conference was held by the co-regents of the former emperor, the Empress Dowager Ci'an and the Empress Dowager Cixi. Breaking the imperial convention that a new emperor must always be of a generation after that of
17161-509: Was unable to effectively defend himself to Cixi from Yang's accusation. Both sides began plotting to take action against each other. Some of the reformers around the emperor asked Yuan Shikai to use the Beiyang Army to arrest Cixi and to execute Ronglu , a member of the conservative faction who had been appointed to command the military forces in Zhili earlier. According to one account, this
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