The Bedford Shale is a shale geologic formation in the states of Ohio , Michigan , Pennsylvania , Kentucky , West Virginia , and Virginia in the United States.
130-577: John Strong Newberry , director of the Ohio State Geological Survey , first identified the formation in 1870. He called it the "Bedford Shale" and designated its type locality at Tinkers Creek near Bedford, Ohio . Details of the type locality and of stratigraphic nomenclature for this unit as used by the U.S. Geological Survey are available on-line at the National Geologic Map Database. The Bedford Shale in northern Ohio
260-490: A 4.2-magnitude earthquake occurred on Saturday, May 2, 2015, shortly after noon, about five miles south of Galesburg, Michigan (9 miles southeast of Kalamazoo ) in central Michigan, about 140 miles west of Detroit, according to the Colorado-based U.S. Geological Survey 's National Earthquake Information Center . No major damage or injuries were reported, according to then-Governor Rick Snyder 's office. State government
390-531: A clean appearance) and tile . Loyalsburg Formation John Strong Newberry John Strong Newberry (December 22, 1822 – December 7, 1892) was an American physician, geologist and paleontologist. He participated as a naturalist and surgeon on three expeditions to explore and survey the western United States. During the Civil War he served in the US Sanitary Commission and was appointed secretary of
520-897: A cylindrical shape. The Bedford Shale of Michigan is a light gray or bluish-light gray in color. It is a silty shale, siltier and sandier in its upper part. The boundary with the Berea Sandstone exhibits thin veins ("stringers") of sandstone, indicating erosion of the Bedford Shale which was filled in later by sand. The Bedford Shale appears gray or greenish-gray in Kentucky, and contains sparse to abundant thin beds of siltstone , calcareous concretions , and nodules of pyrite . Limited areas of red Bedford Shale can be found in Boyd County . Siltstone and sandstone beds are particularly common from Lewis and Greenup counties southeast to Pike County; here,
650-529: A few hundred feet tall. It is divided by a low water divide running north and south. The larger portion of the state is on the west of this and gradually slopes toward Lake Michigan. The highest point in the Lower Peninsula is either Briar Hill at 1,705 feet (520 m), or one of several points nearby in the vicinity of Cadillac . The lowest point is the surface of Lake Erie at 571 feet (174 m). The geographic orientation of Michigan's peninsulas makes for
780-419: A few other places. These sand bodies all lie beneath the red shale, indicating they were laid down early in the Bedford Shale's depositional history. Two large siltstone lentils were created during the deposition of the Bedford Shale, the northern Sagamore and the southern Euclid. The Sagamore, which has a maximum thickness of 20 feet (6.1 m), is found on Sagamore Creek in southeastern Cuyahoga County, and
910-574: A few thin layers of siltstone may be found in all types of Bedford Shale. These are calcareous and 2 to 4 inches (5.1 to 10.2 cm) thick in central Ohio. Siltstone beds increase in number and thickness in the upper part of the Bedford shale south of Columbus. In southern Ross County, the upper third of the Bedford contains a large number of layers of thin, platy siltstone as well as occasional thin layers consisting of blebs of calcium carbonate , marcasite , and pyrite. Oscillation ripple marks can be seen on
1040-635: A landmark during the day to safely guide the passenger ships and freighters traveling the Great Lakes (see: lighthouses in the United States ). The state's rivers are generally small, short and shallow, and few are navigable. The principal ones include the Detroit River, St. Marys River, and St. Clair River which connect the Great Lakes; the Au Sable , Cheboygan , and Saginaw , which flow into Lake Huron;
1170-556: A long distance between the ends of the state. Ironwood , in the far western Upper Peninsula, lies 630 miles (1,010 kilometers) by highway from Lambertville in the Lower Peninsula's southeastern corner. The geographic isolation of the Upper Peninsula from Michigan's political and population centers makes the region culturally and economically distinct. Frequent attempts to establish the Upper Peninsula as its own state have failed to gain traction. A feature of Michigan that gives it
1300-607: A nearly bloodless siege in 1812. A U.S. attempt to retake Detroit resulted in a severe American defeat in the River Raisin Massacre . This battle, still ranked as the bloodiest ever fought in the state, had the highest number of American casualties of any battle of the war. Michigan was recaptured by the Americans in 1813 after the Battle of Lake Erie . They used Michigan as a base to launch an invasion of Canada, which culminated in
1430-430: A permanent community there would strengthen French control over the upper Great Lakes and discourage British aspirations. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent (about 0.85 acres (3,400 m ), the equivalent of just under 200 feet (61 m) per side) and named it Fort Pontchartrain . Cadillac's wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of
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#17328916320571560-577: A significant amount of population due to global competition and the dramatic unavailability of manufacturing jobs. Meanwhile, Michigan had increased use of technology, specifically when the IBM Personal Computer started selling in the state, in which became mostly used at work. Michigan became the leading auto-producing state in the U.S., with the industry primarily located throughout the Midwestern United States ; Ontario, Canada; and
1690-818: A successful medical practice in Cleveland . In 1855, he joined an exploring expedition under Lieutenant Williamson , sent out by the War Department to examine the country between San Francisco and the Columbia River . In 1857–58 he acted as geologist to an expedition headed by Lieutenant Joseph Christmas Ives , sent out to explore the Colorado River . He served as naturalist on an expedition in 1859 under Captain John N. Macomb , which explored southwestern Colorado and adjacent parts of Utah , Arizona , and New Mexico , finding
1820-427: A warmer climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfa ) with hot summers and cold winters. The northern part of the Lower Peninsula and the entire Upper Peninsula has a more severe climate (Köppen Dfb ), with warm, but shorter summers and longer, cold to very cold winters. Some parts of the state average high temperatures below freezing from December through February, and into early March in the far northern parts. During
1950-807: Is a state in the Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest region of the United States . It borders Wisconsin to the southwest in the Upper Peninsula , and Indiana and Ohio to the south in the Lower Peninsula ; it is also connected by Lakes Superior , Michigan , Huron , and Erie to Minnesota and Illinois , and the Canadian province of Ontario . With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of 96,716 sq mi (250,490 km ), Michigan
2080-462: Is a red, predominantly soft clay shale that grades to grayish-black near its base. Siltstone beds, showing ripples and some as much as 3 inches (7.6 cm) thick, are interbedded near the bottom. This red Bedford Shale consists mostly of sandstone and siltstone, and is much more argillaceous from mid-state Franklin County north-northeast to Lorain County on Lake Erie. Proceeding east from Lorain County,
2210-622: Is bounded on the south by the states of Ohio and Indiana , sharing land and water boundaries with both. Michigan's western boundaries are almost entirely water boundaries, from south to north, with Illinois and Wisconsin in Lake Michigan; then a land boundary with Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula, that is principally demarcated by the Menominee and Montreal Rivers ; then water boundaries again, in Lake Superior, with Wisconsin and Minnesota to
2340-587: Is covered in thin soil and heavily weathered sandstone blocks. Outcrops of the rock may be seen along the Pine Mountain ridge in Harlan County . In Kentucky, a transition zone ranging from a few inches to 4.2 feet (1.3 m) in thickness occasionally appears as the basal member of the Bedford Shale. Bedford Shale is found in Crawford County, Pennsylvania , where it is also known as "Hayfield limestone". It
2470-560: Is difficult to impossible to visually determine the boundary with the Chagrin Shale due to its lithologic similarity with the Bedford. In eastern Ashtabula and Trumbull counties, the Bedford overlays the Cussewago Sandstone. The Bedford Shale is generally overlaid by the Berea Sandstone throughout Ohio. The contact between the two is generally clear but extremely irregular. Pre-Berea and Berean erosion eroded significant portions of
2600-582: Is extremely lenticular and highly localized, and gray to bluish-gray in color. It is frequently interbedded with ripple marked siltstone, and contains a few thin siliceous limestone layers. It overlays the Cussewago Sandstone and is overlain by the Berea Sandstone. The Bedford is 44 feet (13 m) feet at Littles Corners in Hayfield Township , and decreases to 22 feet (6.7 m) thick 8 miles (13 km) northwest of Meadville . It thins rapidly and loses its identity around Meadville, where it grades into
2730-482: Is home to the country's three major automobile companies (whose headquarters are all in Metro Detroit). Once exploited for logging and mining, today the sparsely populated Upper Peninsula is important for tourism because of its abundance of natural resources. The Lower Peninsula is a center of manufacturing , forestry , agriculture , services , and high-tech industry. When the first European explorers arrived,
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#17328916320572860-586: Is in the lower third of the Bedford Shale. The Euclid, which has a maximum thickness of 30 feet (9.1 m), extends from Independence, Ohio northeast to Willoughby, Ohio , and is part of the most basal member of the Bedford Shale. An extremely large sandstone lens is the Second Berea. Located in Athens, Gallia , Meigs, Morgan , and Muskingum counties, this sandstone body is 80 miles (130 km) long and 6 to 10 miles (9.7 to 16.1 km) wide. Originally known as
2990-620: Is present throughout much of Ohio. Outcrops extend along Lake Erie from the Ohio-Pennsylvania border west to Lorain County . It runs in a generally southern direction to Lawrence County in the south. The southern border of Ohio along the Ohio River defines its southernmost boundary in the state. In eastern Meigs County , the boundary turns north and runs to north-central Athens County before turning northeast to run through western Washington County into Monroe County . It runs north through
3120-519: Is rugged. The state's highest point, in the Huron Mountains northwest of Marquette, is Mount Arvon at 1,979 feet (603 m). The peninsula is as large as Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island combined but has fewer than 330,000 inhabitants. The people are sometimes called "Yoopers" (from "U.P.'ers"), and their speech (the " Yooper dialect ") has been heavily influenced by the numerous Scandinavian and Canadian immigrants who settled
3250-642: Is silty and sandy, making the boundary between it and the Berea sandstone nearly impossible to identify visually. The boundary may be determined by gamma ray logging , however. In eastern Michigan, the Bedford Shale overlays the Antrim Shale. Toward the center of the Michigan Basin, the Bedford overlays the Ellsworth Shale. The boundary between the two becomes increasingly difficult to identify as one proceeds west, as
3380-554: Is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and the largest by area east of the Mississippi River . Its capital is Lansing , and its largest city is Detroit . Metro Detroit is among the nation's most populous and largest metropolitan economies. The name derives from a gallicized variant of the original Ojibwe word ᒥᓯᑲᒥ ( mishigami ), meaning "large water" or "large lake". Michigan consists of two peninsulas . The Lower Peninsula resembles
3510-508: Is the state's largest metropolitan area (roughly 50% of the population resides there) and the eleventh largest in the United States. The Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan is the state's fastest-growing metro area, with more than 1.3 million residents as of 2006 . Michigan consists of two peninsulas separated by the Straits of Mackinac . The 45th parallel north runs through
3640-634: Is thickest in north (in Lewis County ), thinning out to extinction in Bath , Estill , and Pike counties as it proceeds south and west. It is about 100 feet (30 m) thick in Letcher and Pike counties, which were closest to the Famennian deltas being deposited from the east and southeast. The Bedford Shale essentially forms a great wedge underground, with the narrow edge in the southwest. The Bedford Shale in Kentucky
3770-547: The American Revolution . When Quebec split into Lower and Upper Canada in 1791, Michigan was part of Kent County , Upper Canada. It held its first democratic elections in August 1792 to send delegates to the new provincial parliament at Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake ). Under terms negotiated in the 1794 Jay Treaty , Britain withdrew from Detroit and Michilimackinac in 1796. It retained control of territory east and south of
3900-682: The Battle of the Thames . But the more northern areas of Michigan were held by the British until the peace treaty restored the old boundaries. A number of forts, including Fort Wayne , were built by the United States in Michigan during the 19th century out of fears of renewed fighting with Britain. Michigan Territory governor and judges established the University of Michigan in 1817, as the Catholepistemiad, or
4030-597: The Canadian Shield and the Acadian Mountains began to erode. Material from these areas created river deltas that pushed south and west into the sea, creating the Bedford Shale and Berea Sandstone . The Ohio Bay of the Rheic Ocean covered most of Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, and western Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. At the start of the period during which the Bedford Shale began to be laid, muddy waters of
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4160-590: The Famennian stage of the Devonian period . This makes the rock about 365 to 358.9 million years old. The age of the Bedford Shale has seen significantly different interpretations over time. Some geologists have placed it exclusively in the upper Devonian while others have concluded it is exclusively lower Carboniferous. Still others have placed the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary in the basal few inches or feet of
4290-573: The Findlay Arch . As younger rock atop the arch eroded, a 50-mile (80 km) gap was created between the Bedford Shale of Ohio and the Bedford Shale of Michigan. As in other states, the Bedford Shale in Kentucky was formed by deltas. The shale exhibits cross-bedding and erosional channels filled with Berea Sandstone, both of which indicate that the Rheic Sea was shallow. Three ancient rivers—the Gay-Fink,
4420-594: The Geological Society of America at Cleveland in 1888, and served on the commission to organize an international geological congress, of which he was president in 1891. The Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him in 1888. Newberry died at New Haven on December 7, 1892. Newberry Crater , Oregon (now in the Newberry National Volcanic Monument ) was named in his honor in 1903. Newberry Butte , located within
4550-511: The Grand River , the clay shale is largely replaced by silty gray shale, hard silty gray mudstone, and thin platy gray siltstone. The red shale fades in intensity and thickness toward the south. South of Columbus, the color fades to reddish-brown and exists only as a bed a few feet thick between bluish or bluish-gray Bedford Shale. The Bedford in southern Ohio is almost completely a bluish-gray shale. Proceeding south from Ross and Pike counties,
4680-536: The Guardian Building , each of which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark (NHL). In 1927 a school bombing took place in Clinton County . The Bath School disaster resulted in the deaths of 38 schoolchildren and constitutes the deadliest mass murder in a school in U.S. history. Michigan converted much of its manufacturing to satisfy defense needs during World War II ; it manufactured 10.9% of
4810-573: The International Union of Geological Sciences engaged in an extensive study of brachiopod , conodont , and spore fossils in the Bedford Shale and Berea Sandstone, and found no evidence of lower Mississippian conodonts in either rock formation. The American definition of the Devonian period was realigned to match the definition already in use in Europe, which led to the placement of both formations in
4940-565: The Maxville Limestone . Generally, the Bedford Shale in Ohio is underlain by the Cleveland Shale throughout most of Ohio, although it is underlain by the Chagrin Shale in the east. The boundary with the Cleveland Shale is usually clear. However, a transition zone, ranging from a few inches to 4.2 feet (1.3 m) in thickness, occasionally appears. The transition zone is missing along most of
5070-567: The Netherlands were especially numerous. Migration from Appalachia and of Black Southerners as part of the Great Migration increased in the 1930s, with many settling in Metro Detroit. Although Michigan has developed a diverse economy, in the early 20th century it became widely known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry , which developed as a major national economic force. It
5200-540: The North Country National Scenic Trail passes through Michigan. With 78 state parks , 19 state recreation areas, and six state forests , Michigan has the largest state park and state forest system of any state. Michigan has a continental climate with two distinct regions. The southern and central parts of the Lower Peninsula (south of Saginaw Bay and from the Grand Rapids area southward) have
5330-573: The Ontonagon , and Tahquamenon , which flow into Lake Superior; and the St. Joseph , Kalamazoo , Grand , Muskegon , Manistee , and Escanaba , which flow into Lake Michigan. The state has 11,037 inland lakes—totaling 1,305 square miles (3,380 km ) of inland water—in addition to 38,575 square miles (99,910 km ) of Great Lakes waters. No point in Michigan is more than six miles (9.7 km) from an inland lake or more than 85 miles (137 km) from one of
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5460-578: The Shellhammer Hollow Formation . Fucoids in the shale can be seen on Stratton Creek. The Bedford Shale has also been traced into West Virginia. It may be found in the subsurface along the Ohio River in Mason , Cabell , Wayne , and Mingo counties. Its edge cannot be readily determined, as the Bedford's gray shale and interbedded siltstones overlay extremely similar Early Famennian rocks. However,
5590-480: The automotive industry . Ford's development of the moving assembly line in Highland Park marked a new era in transportation. Like the steamship and railroad, mass production of automobiles was a far-reaching development. More than the forms of public transportation, the affordable automobile transformed private life. Automobile production became the major industry of Detroit and Michigan, and permanently altered
5720-595: The "stray gas sand", it was originally a large sandbar east of what became the Red Bedford Delta. It is equivalent in age to the Euclid siltstone. About 30 feet (9.1 m) of gray Bedford Shale overlays the Second Berea. As in other states, the Bedford Shale in Michigan was deposited by deltas. Relatively coarse clastic material eroded from the Canadian Shield was carried by the ancient Ontario River System south into
5850-437: The 1830s, Michigan had 30,000 residents, more than enough to apply and qualify for statehood. On November 1, 1935, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative 3-cent stamp celebrating the 100th anniversary of Michigan statehood. Michigan's statehood, however, wasn't officially established until January 26, 1837, but since the campaign for statehood actually began in 1835, Michigan chose to hold its centennial celebration in 1935,
5980-404: The Advancement of Science ; president of the New York Academy of Sciences ; and president of the Torrey Botanical Club . During the World's fair in Philadelphia in 1876 he was one of the judges. In 1887, he was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1867, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society . He assisted in the organization of
6110-472: The Bedford Shale appears to pinch out in southern Mingo County. The Bedford Shale may exist in northern West Virginia, but had not been identified there as of 1979. Bedford Shale has also been identified in the Dickenson - Buchanan county area in southwestern Virginia. The Bedford Shale is the basal member of the Waverly Group , which (in ascending order) includes the Bedford Shale, Berea Sandstone, Sunbury Shale , Cuyahoga Formation , Logan Formation , and
6240-428: The Bedford Shale had been deposited. The sea rose and fell repeatedly while the remainder of the Bedford was deposited. The ancient Ontario River probably entered the Ohio Bay about Lorain County, depositing red sediment which originated in the eastern part of the Canadian Shield. This created the Red Bedford Delta which deposited the sediment that became the red Bedford Shale of north-central and northeast Ohio. In time,
6370-445: The Bedford Shale. Depending on the source, the rock began to be laid down either 360 million years ago or 365 million years ago. and finished being laid down at the end of the Famennian 358.9 million years ago. In their 1991 review of the literature, geologists Raymond C. Gutschick and Charles A. Sandberg point out that the Bedford Shale is correctly assigned to the upper Devonian. The 1975 Devonian-Carboniferous Boundary Working Group of
6500-401: The Bedford has almost no siltstone layer. There are only a few thin siltstone beds present, and the Bedford grades almost imperceptibly into the Berea—both of which are composed of bluish-gray to gray clay shales and some gray silty shale. In southern Lewis County, there is no Bedford siltstone; the upper portion of the Bedford is a noticeably soft bluish-gray shale. Near Olympia in Bath County,
6630-434: The Bedford is referred to as the "Berea sand". The Bedford Shale is a shale geologic formation in the states of Ohio , Michigan , Pennsylvania , West Virginia , Ohio , and Virginia in the United States. The Bedford Shale in Ohio has been extensively studied since 1943, and the 1954 study by Pepper, de Witt, and Demarest was still considered the classic study of the formation as late as 1991. The Bedford Shale
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#17328916320576760-458: The Bedford merges laterally into the upper 97 feet (30 m) of the Ellsworth Shale. In the vicinity of Irvine (Michigan), the black shale of the Sunbury comes in contact with the black shale of the Ohio shale as a result of the feathering out of the Berea and Bedford strata. Generally, the Bedford Shale in Kentucky is underlain by the Ohio Shale and overlaid by the Berea Sandstone. The Bedford Shale's upper and lower contacts are usually sharp in
6890-541: The Bedford shale may be found throughout Cuyahoga, Lake , and Geauga counties in cliffs beneath the Berea sandstone. Outcrops are much fewer in Lorain County (west of Cuyahoga County). The Bedford appears only in deep valleys (such as those of rivers and large streams). The red shale weathers so swiftly into a sticky red mud that even these outcrops are usually covered by soil. South of the counties bordering Lake Erie, outcrops are usually covered by glacial drift. Occasional outcrops can be seen along streams that flow south into
7020-464: The Bedford turns from a soft clay shale to a gray silty shale interbedded with thin beds of gray siltstone in its upper parts. In Ross, Pike, and Scioto counties, siltstone in the Bedford increases so much that it becomes mostly siltstone interbedded with silty shale. Generally, the red Bedford thins and grades into the gray Bedford all along its margin. Along the rough line from Huron to Lawrence counties, beds of mudrock may be found. Throughout Ohio,
7150-477: The Berea Sandstone is not found and the Sunbury Shale overlies the Bedford, while near Irvine in Estill County to the south both the Berea and Bedford are missing and the Sunbury lies atop the Ohio Shale. Except for its lowest strata, the Bedford Shale is largely fossil -free. In central and north-central Ohio, the Bedford Shale contains extensive fossils in the first few feet of its bottommost part. These include brachiopods like Lingula , Orbiculoidea , and
7280-430: The British forces, ending the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the North American front of the Seven Years' War in Europe. Under the 1763 Treaty of Paris , Michigan and the rest of New France east of the Mississippi River were ceded by defeated France to Great Britain. After the Quebec Act was passed in 1774, Michigan became part of the British Province of Quebec . By 1778, Detroit's population reached 2,144 and it
7410-414: The Cabin Creek, and the Virginia-Carolina—probably deposited most of the sediment, which consisted of detrital rock and organic matter from the Acadian Mountains flowing westward and southward into the shallow sea covering the Appalachian Basin . Evidence for a westerly and southwesterly flow of water comes from channels eroded in the shale and filled with sandstone. These lobes extend southwest, indicating
7540-418: The Detroit River, which are now included in Ontario, Canada. Questions remained over the boundary for many years, and the United States did not have uncontested control of the Upper Peninsula and Drummond Island until 1818 and 1847, respectively. During the War of 1812 , the United States forces at Fort Detroit surrendered Michigan Territory (effectively consisting of Detroit and the surrounding area) after
7670-457: The Famennian stage of the upper Devonian. The Bedford Shale was laid down by several river deltas . One delta laid down this rock formation in Michigan's Thumb peninsula. Several small deltas deposited Bedford Shale in Kentucky. A particularly large delta, known as the Red Bedford Delta, laid down a red-colored wedge of the shale in central Ohio. The climate of the late Famennian was mild, and much plant life grew along streams and rivers. There
7800-466: The French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present-day city of Niles . In 1701, French explorer and army officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or "Fort Pontchartrain on-the-Strait" on the strait, known as the Detroit River , between lakes Saint Clair and Erie . Cadillac had convinced King Louis XIV's chief minister, Louis Phélypeaux, Comte de Pontchartrain , that
7930-633: The Grand Canyon, was named in his honor in 1906. A fish, Eucyclogobius newberryi , the Northern tidewater goby was named in his honor. Dr. Newberry's separate papers contributed to various periodicals included upward of 200 titles, chiefly in the fields of geology and paleontology, but also in zoology and botany. Newberry named more than 50 species of Paleozoic age fossil vertebrates and plants, some of which have been subsequently synonymized or renamed because of homonymy. In addition, he authored or contributed to: Michigan Michigan ( / ˈ m ɪ ʃ ɪ ɡ ən / MISH -ig-ən )
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#17328916320578060-559: The Great Lakes. The state is home to several areas maintained by the National Park Service including: Isle Royale National Park , in Lake Superior, about 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Thunder Bay, Ontario. Other national protected areas in the state include: Keweenaw National Historical Park , Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore , Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore , Huron National Forest , Manistee National Forest , Hiawatha National Forest , Ottawa National Forest and Father Marquette National Memorial . The largest section of
8190-439: The Lower Peninsula, Michigan is drained by the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence watershed and is the only state with the majority of its land thus drained. No point in the state is more than six miles (9.7 km) from a natural water source or more than 85 miles (137 km) from a Great Lakes shoreline. The Great Lakes that border Michigan from east to west are Lake Erie , Lake Huron , Lake Michigan and Lake Superior . The state
8320-455: The Michigan Basin of the Rheic Ocean. There, the sediment was deposited to the south and west by the Thumb Delta, a large delta which at that time covered The Thumb of Michigan. There is good evidence to suggest that Bedford Shale in Michigan was not laid down contemporaneously with the red Bedford Shale in Ohio, and most likely came shortly after. Although the Michigan Basin and the Appalachian Basin were connected, later tectonic uplift created
8450-399: The Ohio River, particularly at Big Walnut Creek . In Michigan, the Bedford Shale is found in the southeast along shores of Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair ; along the shore of Lake Huron north of Saginaw Bay ; along the south shore of the Straits of Mackinac ; north of 44 degrees latitude along the shore of Lake Michigan ; and in the far southwest corner of the state. The Bedford Shale
8580-410: The Red Bedford Delta extended about 210 miles (340 km) south into the Ohio Bay, nearly dividing it. The pre-erosion delta was roughly 75 miles (121 km) wide at its northern end, 60 miles (97 km) wide in the middle, and about 20 miles (32 km) wide at its southern end. Two lobes, each about 5 to 6 miles (8.0 to 9.7 km) wide, extended from the southern tip. Oscillation ripple marks in
8710-405: The Southern United States. With almost ten million residents in 2010, Michigan is a large and influential state, ranking tenth in population among the fifty states. Detroit is the centrally located metropolitan area of the Great Lakes megalopolis and the second-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. (after Chicago ) linking the Great Lakes system. The Metro Detroit area in Southeast Michigan
8840-639: The U.S.), an Anishinaabe tribe, were established in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and northern and central Michigan . Bands also inhabited Ontario and southern Manitoba , Canada; and northern Wisconsin , and northern and north-central Minnesota . The Ottawa Indians lived primarily south of the Straits of Mackinac in northern, western , and southern Michigan , but also in southern Ontario, northern Ohio, and eastern Wisconsin. The Potawatomi were in southern and western Michigan, in addition to northern and central Indiana, northern Illinois, southern Wisconsin, and southern Ontario. Other Algonquian tribes in Michigan, in
8970-513: The United States military armaments produced during the war, ranking second (behind New York ) among the 48 states. Detroit continued to expand through the 1950s, at one point doubling its population in a decade. After World War II, housing was developed in suburban areas outside city cores to meet demand for residences. The federal government subsidized the construction of interstate highways , which were intended to strengthen military access, but also allowed commuters and business traffic to travel
9100-400: The University of Michigania. The population grew slowly until the opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal through the Mohawk Valley in New York, connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and New York City. The new route attracted a large influx of settlers to the Michigan territory. They worked as farmers, lumbermen, shipbuilders, and merchants and shipped out grain, lumber, and iron ore. By
9230-463: The area during the lumbering and mining boom of the late 19th century. The Lower Peninsula is shaped like a mitten and many residents hold up a hand to depict where they are from. It is 277 miles (446 km) long from north to south and 195 miles (314 km) from east to west and occupies nearly two-thirds of the state's land area. The surface of the peninsula is generally level, broken by conical hills and glacial moraines usually not more than
9360-589: The area, settling largely along the waterways. After France's defeat in the French and Indian War in 1762, the region came under British rule. Britain ceded the territory to the newly independent United States after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War . The area was part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory . Michigan Territory
9490-724: The army. He made his first sanitary inspection of troops in the west at Cairo, Illinois , in connection with Rev. Henry W. Bellows and Dr. William H. Mussey. In September 1861, he resigned from the Army and became secretary of the Western Department of the Sanitary Commission, having supervision of all the work of the commission in the Mississippi Valley , with headquarters in Louisville, Kentucky . The first distributing depot in
9620-480: The bay began to clear. The land adjacent to the north and east rose, furnishing coarser detrital material. Stronger currents stirred up the mud, which mixed with the coarse sediment and became the basal part of the Bedford Shale. The stronger current oxygenated the water, and small mollusks and fish repopulated the bay. Greater amounts of sediment flowing into the bay made it inhospitable for life again. The shallow sea kept rising, reaching its maximum depth when about half
9750-665: The best representations of the mineral resources of the United States to be found anywhere, as well as many unique and remarkable fossils. Much of this collection was later incorporated in the collection of the American Museum of Natural History . His other positions were: chief geologist of the Geological Survey of Ohio ; a member of the Illinois Geological Survey ; president of the American Association for
9880-413: The center of Belmont and Jefferson counties, and in southern Columbiana County turns east to pass into Pennsylvania. On average, the Bedford Shale in Ohio is 85 feet (26 m) to 95 feet (29 m) thick, reaching its maximum thickness between Huron and Lawrence counties. The shale is about 150 feet (46 m) thick along its central ridge between Lorain and Licking counties. In northern Ohio,
10010-439: The coal deposits stimulated his interest in science and a visit in 1841 with James Hall , an eminent geologist and paleontologist, furthered his interests. He graduated from Western Reserve College in 1846 and from Cleveland Medical School in 1848. That same year he married Sarah Gaylord and sailed with her to Paris where he spent the next two years of studying medicine and natural history. Upon his return in 1851, he established
10140-472: The coast is much indented. Keweenaw Bay, Whitefish Bay , and the Big and Little Bays De Noc are the principal indentations on the Upper Peninsula. The Grand and Little Traverse , Thunder , and Saginaw bays indent the Lower Peninsula. Michigan has the second longest shoreline of any state—3,288 miles (5,292 km), including 1,056 miles (1,699 km) of island shoreline. The state has numerous large islands ,
10270-552: The coldest recorded temperature is −51 °F (−46 °C) at Vanderbilt on February 9, 1934. The state averages 30 days of thunderstorm activity per year. These can be severe, especially in the southern part of the state. The state averages 17 tornadoes per year, which are more common in the state's extreme southern section. Portions of the southern border have been almost as vulnerable historically as states further west and in Tornado Alley . For this reason, many communities in
10400-466: The direction of the flow of water. Ripple marks in the Bedford Shale in Kentucky form in a northwest–southeast line, indicating a steady wind coming from the northeast. Native Americans used heavily weathered Bedford Shale for its reddish pigment. Colonial French traders named Vermillion River after the Bedford's red shale. Weathered Bedford Shale was also used in the 1800s and early 1900s to make face brick (a brick used on exterior surfaces to present
10530-651: The distinct shape of a mitten is the Thumb , which projects into Lake Huron, forming Saginaw Bay . Other notable peninsulas of Michigan include the Keweenaw Peninsula , which projects northeasterly into Lake Superior from the Upper Peninsula and largely comprising Michigan's Copper Country region, and the Leelanau Peninsula , projecting from the Lower Peninsula into Lake Michigan, forming Michigan's "little finger". Numerous lakes and marshes mark both peninsulas, and
10660-679: The entire Lower Peninsula. The Upper Peninsula exhibits Lower Silurian sandstones, limestones, copper and iron bearing rocks, corresponding to the Huronian system of Canada . The central portion of the Lower Peninsula contains coal measures and rocks of the Pennsylvanian period. Devonian and sub-Carboniferous deposits are scattered over the entire state. Michigan rarely experiences earthquakes , and those that it does experience are generally smaller ones that do not cause significant damage. A 4.6-magnitude earthquake struck in August 1947. More recently,
10790-488: The first European women to settle in what was considered the wilderness of Michigan. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post. The Église de Saint-Anne (Catholic Church of Saint Anne) was founded the same year. While the original building does not survive, the congregation remains active. Cadillac later departed to serve as the French governor of Louisiana from 1710 to 1716. French attempts to consolidate
10920-529: The five Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair . It also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds . Michigan has the second-most water area of any state, behind only Alaska. The area was first occupied by a succession of Native American tribes over thousands of years. In the 17th century, French explorers claimed it as part of the New France colony, when it was largely inhabited by Indigenous peoples. French and Canadian traders and settlers, Métis , and others migrated to
11050-517: The formation of the tributary societies. From 1 September 1861 until 1 July 1866, he expended more than $ 800,000 in money, and distributed hospital stores that were valued at more than $ 5,000,000. During this time the names of more than 850,000 soldiers were collected and recorded in the hospital directory in Louisville, and food and shelter were given in the various homes of the commission to more than 1,000,000 soldiers, for whom no other adequate provision
11180-550: The fur trade led to the Fox Wars , in which the Meskwaki (Fox) and their allies fought the French and their Native allies. At the same time, the French strengthened Fort Michilimackinac at the Straits of Mackinac to better control their lucrative fur-trading empire. By the mid-18th century, the French also occupied forts at present-day Niles and Sault Ste. Marie, though most of the rest of
11310-417: The large Syringothyris bedfordensis ; molluscs , particularly bivalves ; and Devonian fish. South of Ross County, most of the siltstones in the Bedford Shale show fucoids (casts of Fucales , a common littoral seaweed ). The basal 1 to 5 feet (0.30 to 1.52 m) of the Bedford Shale in Michigan contains extensive fossils of the Famennian stage. Small amounts of natural gas have been recovered from
11440-677: The late 19th to early 20th century, working in lumbering areas in counties on the Lake Huron side of the Lower Peninsula, such as the Saginaw Valley, Alpena, and Cheboygan counties, as well as throughout the Upper Peninsula, with large concentrations in Escanaba and the Keweenaw Peninsula . The first statewide meeting of the Republican Party took place on July 6, 1854, in Jackson, Michigan , where
11570-646: The most populous tribes were the Algonquian peoples , which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe , Odaawaa/Odawa (Ottawa) , and the Boodewaadamii/Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi) . The three nations coexisted peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires . The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been at least 35,000, were the largest. The Ojibwe Indians (also known as Chippewa in
11700-456: The nation. Many private colleges were founded as well, and the smaller cities established high schools late in the century. Michigan's economy underwent a transformation at the turn of the 20th century. Many individuals, including Ransom E. Olds , John and Horace Dodge , Henry Leland , David Dunbar Buick , Henry Joy , Charles King , and Henry Ford , provided the concentration of engineering know-how and technological enthusiasm to develop
11830-518: The next several million years, it accreted sediment to it—perhaps extending almost to the northern shore of the Ohio Bay. The ancient Gay-Fink River, Cabin Creek River, and Virginia-Carolinas River also formed large deltas in the eastern part of the Ohio Bay, contributing gray sedimentary material to the Bedford Shale from what is now Virginia, North Carolina , and South Carolina . As much as one-fifth of
11960-663: The party adopted its platform. The state was predominantly Republican until the 1930s, reflecting the political continuity of migrants from across the Northern Tier of New England and New York. Michigan made a significant contribution to the Union in the American Civil War and sent more than forty regiments of volunteers to the federal armies. Michigan modernized and expanded its system of education in this period. The Michigan State Normal School, now Eastern Michigan University ,
12090-441: The population boom. By the 1930s, so many immigrants had arrived that more than 30 languages were spoken in the public schools, and ethnic communities celebrated in annual heritage festivals. Over the years immigrants and migrants contributed greatly to Detroit's diverse urban culture, including popular music trends. The influential Motown Sound of the 1960s was led by a variety of individual singers and groups. Grand Rapids ,
12220-539: The principal ones being the North Manitou and South Manitou , Beaver , and Fox groups in Lake Michigan; Isle Royale and Grande Isle in Lake Superior; Marquette, Bois Blanc , and Mackinac islands in Lake Huron; and Neebish , Sugar , and Drummond islands in St. Mary's River . Michigan has about 150 lighthouses , the most of any U.S. state. The first lighthouses in Michigan were built between 1818 and 1822. They were built to project light at night and to serve as
12350-572: The red Bedford Shale in northern Ohio. For example, near Berea, Ohio , 85-foot (26 m) deep channels were scoured into the Bedford Shale. Sand filled these channels, and became Berea Sandstone. To the southwest, in Huron County, these channels cut down to the Cleveland Shale. Along Ohio's eastern border, in Columbiana, Mahoning, and Trumbull counties, erosion has almost completely removed the Bedford Shale. Erosional channeling becomes less marked toward
12480-571: The region more easily. Since 1960, modern advances in the auto industry have led to increased automation, high-tech industry, and increased suburban growth. Longstanding tensions in Detroit culminated in the Twelfth Street riot in July 1967. During the late 1970s and the early 1980s, increasing fuel costs and other factors made significantly more global competition and recession among families. Michigan lost
12610-510: The region remained unsettled by Europeans. France offered free land to attract families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765. It was the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans. French settlers also established small farms south of the Detroit River opposite the fort, near a Jesuit mission and Huron village. From 1660 until the end of French rule, Michigan was part of the Royal Province of New France . In 1760, Montreal fell to
12740-614: The remains of the dinosaur Dystrophaeus . He was the first geologist known to visit the Grand Canyon . He was called to a professorship at Columbian (now George Washington ) University in 1857. Newberry was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1860. On 14 June 1861, he was elected a member of the United States Sanitary Commission due to his medical knowledge and experience in
12870-539: The river sought to reach the sea. The Cincinnati Arch and its branches, the Findlay Arch and the Kankakee Arch , probably prevented the red sediment from reaching westward. This vast arc of rock, which extends from western Alabama and northern Mississippi northeast to north-central Ohio, was probably a low-lying island near Cincinnati, Ohio , when the Bedford Shale first began to be laid down. It not only rose over
13000-623: The sea. After the Hangenberg event ended, the waters of the Rheic Ocean began to clear and oxygenate again. The end of the Hangenberg event coincided with the end of the Acadian orogeny , a highly active period of mountain-building that began in the middle Devonian and created the Acadian Mountains which covered the Mid-Atlantic region, New England , and the Canadian Maritimes . As sea levels fell,
13130-528: The second-largest city in Michigan also became an important center of manufacturing. Since 1838, the city has been noted for its furniture industry. In the 21st century, it is home to five of the world's leading office furniture companies. Grand Rapids is home to a number of major companies including Steelcase , Amway , and Meijer . Grand Rapids is also an important center for GE Aviation Systems . Michigan held its first United States presidential primary election in 1910. With its rapid growth in industry, it
13260-408: The shale as well. In Kentucky, a transition zone ranging from a few inches to 4.2 feet (1.3 m) in thickness occasionally appears as the basal member of the Bedford Shale in Kentucky. Invertebrate fossils are found at the top of this transition zone in northeast Kentucky. Although there have been conflicting reports in the past, the most recent evidence is that the rock was laid down very late in
13390-435: The shape of a mitten , and comprises a majority of the state's land area. The Upper Peninsula (often called "the U.P.") is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac , a five-mile (8 km) channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan. The Mackinac Bridge connects the peninsulas. Michigan has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the United States, being bordered by four of
13520-528: The silt content increases. The Bedford undergoes a marked lithologic change at the Cuyahoga River. It becomes equal parts red and gray shale, and the basal 12 feet (3.7 m) becomes a hard siltstone (the Euclid member, or Euclid siltstone). At Tinkers Creek in Bedford, Ohio, there is no red shale; instead there is about 85 feet (26 m) of gray and bluish-gray shale, nodules of light-gray mudstone, and brownish-gray to gray irregular beds of siltstone. East of
13650-470: The siltstone of the Bedford Shale's gray basal part shows that this sediment was deposited under water. These ripple marks are not present in the red Bedford Shale, indicating it was deposited subaerially . There is also a well-documented system of about 100 miles (160 km) of ancient braided and meandering water channels in Ashland , Holmes , and Knox counties, indicating where the distributary network of
13780-418: The socioeconomic life of the United States and much of the world. With the growth, the auto industry created jobs in Detroit that attracted immigrants from Europe and migrants from across the United States, including both blacks and whites from the rural South . By 1920, Detroit was the fourth-largest city in the U.S.. Residential housing was in short supply, and it took years for the market to catch up with
13910-857: The south and east, were the Mascouten , the Menominee , the Miami , the Sac (or Sauk), and the Meskwaki (Fox) . The Wyandot were an Iroquoian-speaking people in this area; they were historically known as the Huron by the French, and were the historical adversaries of the Iroquois Confederation . French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlé 's expedition in 1622. The first permanent European settlement
14040-447: The south-central Ohio. Near Columbus, the channels are only about 5 feet (1.5 m) deep, and they disappear south of Lithopolis (which is 7 miles (11 km) southeast of Columbus). In southern Ohio, the Bedford and Berea grade into one another so gradually that the boundary between them cannot be distinguished visually. The Bedford Shale in Michigan is generally overlaid by the Berea Sandstone. The upper part of Bedford in this state
14170-430: The state, but complicated by intense deformation . In much of eastern Kentucky, the Bedford Shale and Berea Sandstone intertongue (interlock). Near Vanceburg , the upper 40 feet (12 m) of the Bedford Shale is silty shale that comes between the Bedford and Berea siltstone. Only 4 miles (6.4 km) to the east near Garrison , Bedford is almost completely siltstone. Just 18 miles (29 km) south, near Petersville ,
14300-575: The state, marked by highway signs and the Polar-Equator Trail— along a line including Mission Point Light near Traverse City , the towns of Gaylord and Alpena in the Lower Peninsula and Menominee in the Upper Peninsula. With the exception of two tiny areas drained by the Mississippi River by way of the Wisconsin River in the Upper Peninsula and by way of the Kankakee - Illinois River in
14430-473: The thickness of the Bedford is irregular due to erosion prior to the deposit of the Berea Sandstone, and due to recent glacial and stream erosion. The Bedford thins toward the south; near Columbus in central Ohio it is 95 feet (29 m) thick, and 85 feet (26 m) near Chillicothe 45 miles (72 km) to the south. It thins to the east as well, reaching 85 feet (26 m) near Bedford and 45 feet (14 m) in southwestern Ashtabula County . Outcrops of
14560-731: The total area of the Bedford Shale was created from these deltas. A number of sandbars , collectively known as the Channel Sands, existed on either side of what later became the Red Bedford Delta. These irregularly shaped bodies continue to exist within the Bedford Shale. One such narrow, sinuous, branching body exists in a 40-mile (64 km) line from Richland County south to Hocking County . Smaller sand bodies exist in Ames Township in Athens County, Reading Township in Perry County , and
14690-400: The upper surfaces of these siltstones. Silty laminae become common toward the bottom of the Bedford Shale throughout the state, as do thin beds of gray silty mudstone (a fine-grained type of mudrock). "Flow rolls" are a structure which appears unique to the Bedford Shale. These structures appear in the basal part of the formation. In a flow roll, the rock is greatly deformed and rolled into
14820-583: The very southern portions of the state have tornado sirens to warn residents of approaching tornadoes. Farther north, in Central Michigan, Northern Michigan, and the Upper Peninsula, tornadoes are rare. The geological formation of the state is greatly varied, with the Michigan Basin being the most major formation. Primary boulders are found over the entire surface of the Upper Peninsula (being principally of primitive origin), while Secondary deposits cover
14950-466: The west was opened in Wheeling, West Virginia , on 8 October and was the source from which the hospitals at Wheeling, Clarksburg, Parkersburg, and other military points were supplied with a large part of their equipment. Dr. Newberry organized the whole of the comprehensive machinery of the commission in the large section that was committed to his care, and by his practical suggestions and enthusiasm stimulated
15080-507: The west, capped around by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north and east. The heavily forested Upper Peninsula is relatively mountainous in the west. The Porcupine Mountains , which are part of one of the oldest mountain chains in the world, rise to an altitude of almost 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level and form the watershed between the streams flowing into Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The surface on either side of this range
15210-554: The west, pinching out to extinction near the center of the Michigan Basin and merging with the upper part of the Ellsworth Shale . In south-central Michigan, the Bedford Shale grades into and intertongues with the Antrim Shale . There are no known outcrops of the Bedford Shale in Michigan, as it and the rocks above it are covered by Pleistocene glacial drift . The Bedford Shale is present throughout much of eastern Kentucky. It
15340-473: The western department of the commission. After the war he became professor of geology and paleontology at Columbia University School of Mines and chief geologist of the Geological Survey of Ohio . John Strong Newberry was born in Windsor, Connecticut , to Henry and Elizabeth Strong. At the age of two he moved with his family to northeastern Ohio where his father opened a coal mining business. The fossils found in
15470-411: The western edge of the red Bedford Shale in northern Ohio, and only at a few places are thin stringers of black shale found in the basal part of the Bedford. Above the transition layer, there is usually about 15 feet (4.6 m) of gray shale. This represents the basal part of the Bedford Shale. This gray shale thickens significantly east of Cuyahoga River, and to the south as the red shale pinches out. It
15600-493: The western part of the Upper Peninsula as a concession and formally entered the Union as a free state on January 26, 1837. The Upper Peninsula proved to be a rich source of lumber, iron, and copper. Michigan led the nation in lumber production from the 1850s to the 1880s. Railroads became a major engine of growth from the 1850s onward, with Detroit the chief hub . A second wave of French-Canadian immigrants settled in Michigan during
15730-432: The winter through the middle of February, the state is frequently subjected to heavy lake-effect snow . The state averages from 30 to 40 inches (76 to 102 cm) of precipitation annually; however, some areas in the northern lower peninsula and the upper peninsula average almost 160 inches (4,100 mm) of snowfall per year. Michigan's highest recorded temperature is 112 °F (44 °C) at Mio on July 13, 1936, and
15860-456: The year the stamp was first issued. A constitutional convention of assent was held to lead the territory to statehood. In October 1835 the people approved the constitution of 1835, thereby forming a state government. Congressional recognition was delayed pending resolution of a boundary dispute with Ohio known as the Toledo War . Congress awarded the "Toledo Strip" to Ohio. Michigan received
15990-577: Was abundant precipitation, and monsoons swept the area from west to east. During the Famennian stage of the late Devonian period, the Rheic Ocean covered much of what is now Kentucky, Michigan, and Ohio in the United States. This sea became extremely cloudy and turned anoxic (oxygen-poor) during the Hangenberg event , a global extinction that marked the end of the Devonian period and which deposited large amounts of erosion sediment and organic material into
16120-533: Was an important center of industry-wide union organizing, such as the rise of the United Auto Workers . In 1920 WWJ (AM) in Detroit became the first radio station in the United States to regularly broadcast commercial programs. Throughout that decade, some of the country's largest and most ornate skyscrapers were built in the city. Particularly noteworthy are the Fisher Building , Cadillac Place , and
16250-537: Was first identified in Michigan in 1876 in the southeastern part of the state. Some sources say the shale is 50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 m) thick while others say it is generally about 60 feet (18 m) thick. It is almost 250 feet (76 m) thick in The Thumb of Michigan, and about 65 feet (20 m) thick in Southeast Michigan . The Bedford Shale becomes finer-grained and thins from Lake Erie/Lake St. Clair to
16380-463: Was formed in 1805, but some of the northern border with Canada was not agreed upon until after the War of 1812 . Michigan was admitted into the Union in 1837 as the 26th state, a free one . It soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region, attracting immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from many European countries . Immigrants from Finland , Macedonia , and
16510-438: Was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan , as a base for Catholic missions. Missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette . Jesuit missionaries were well received by the area's Indian populations, with few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph . In 1691,
16640-559: Was founded in 1849, for the training of teachers. It was the fourth oldest normal school in the United States and the first U.S. normal school outside New England . In 1899, the Michigan State Normal School became the first normal school in the nation to offer a four-year curriculum. Michigan Agricultural College (1855), now Michigan State University in East Lansing , was founded as the first agricultural college in
16770-461: Was made. In 1866 he was offered the chair of geology and paleontology in the School of Mines, Columbia College (now Columbia University), which he accepted and held for 24 years. During his connection with this institution, he created a museum of over 100,000 specimens, principally collected by himself, which served to illustrate his lectures in paleontology and economic geology. At that time, it contained
16900-497: Was the third-largest city in Quebec province. During the American Revolutionary War , Detroit was an important British supply center. Most of the inhabitants were French-Canadians or American Indians, many of whom had been allied with the French because of long trading ties. Because of imprecise cartography and unclear language defining the boundaries in the 1783 Treaty of Paris , the British retained control of Detroit and Michigan after
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