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102-578: On the night of December 29, 1170, Archbishop Thomas Becket was assassinated in Canterbury Cathedral by four knights acting on the orders of King Henry II . This event sparked widespread indignation across Europe, leading to a surge of pilgrims visiting Canterbury to pay their respects at the scene of the murder. In 1173, Becket was canonized , and his shrine became one of the most renowned in Christianity . However, during Henry VIII 's reign in 1538,

204-523: A Benedictine monastic community known as Christ Church, Canterbury , as well as being the seat of the archbishop. Christianity in Britain is referred to by Tertullian as early as 208 AD and Origen mentions it in 238 AD. In 314 three Bishops from Britain attended the Council of Arles . Following the end of Roman life in Britain, during the first three decades of the fifth century, and the subsequent arrival of

306-567: A biomaterial , which is a material made to become a part of, or to come into intimate contact with, one or more living organisms. Molten soda-lime-silica glass can be "poured into water to obtain a frit", which is then ground to a powder. These powders can be used as "scaffolds for bone substitutions". Also, certain frits can be added to high-tech ceramics: such frits are made by milling zinc oxide (ZnO) and boric acid (H 3 BO 3 ) with zirconium (Zr) beads, then heating this mixture to 1100 °C, quenching it, and grinding it. This frit

408-442: A liquid or glass phase". However, alkali content—and the coarseness of the cuprorivaite crystals—contribute to the shade of blue in the frit. High alkali content will yield "a large proportion of glass". thereby diluting the cuprorivaite crystals and producing lighter shades of blue. Regrinding and re sintering the frit will create finer cuprorivaite crystals, also producing lighter shades. The earliest appearance of blue frit

510-403: A "glassy phase rich in copper, sodium, and potassium chlorides". In certain circumstances (the use of a two-step heating process, the presence of hematite ), scientists were able to make a cuprorivaite-based blue frit that later became a copper-wollastonite-based green frit at a temperature of 1050 °C. On some ancient Egyptian wall paintings, pigments that were originally blue are now green:

612-413: A confrater shortly before his death), Nigel de Longchamps and Ernulf. The monks often put forward candidates for Archbishop of Canterbury, either from among their number or outside, since the archbishop was nominally their abbot, but this could lead to clashes with the king or pope should they put forward a different man – examples are the elections of Baldwin of Forde and Thomas Cobham . Early in

714-486: A cross flanked by two bloodstained swords which, together with the shadows they cast, represent the four knights who killed Becket. A stone plaque also commemorates Pope John Paul II's visit to the United Kingdom in 1982. Antony Gormley 's sculpture Transport was unveiled in the crypt in 2011. It is made from iron nails from the roof of the south-east transept. In 2015, Sarah Mullally and Rachel Treweek became

816-433: A former Roman church. The oldest remains found during excavations beneath the present nave in 1993 were, however, parts of the foundations of an Anglo-Saxon building, which had been constructed across a Roman road. They indicate that the original church consisted of a nave, possibly with a narthex , and side-chapels to the north and south. A smaller subsidiary building was found to the south-west of these foundations. During

918-545: A frit-like substance was an intermediate material in the production of raw glass. This intermediate step would have followed the grinding and mixing of the raw materials used to make glass. An excerpt of Oppenheim 's translation of Tablet A, Section 1 of the Nineveh text reads: You keep a good and smokeless fire burning until the 'metal' [molten glass] becomes fritted. You take it out and allow it to cool off. The steps that follow involve reheating, regrinding and finally gathering

1020-436: A glass", then grind the glass and form a slurry in water, and finally apply the glaze "by dipping or painting." However, their use of "frit" as virtually synonymous with "melt" represents yet another unique take on what a "frit" would constitute. Finally, Tite et al. report that frits, unusually colored blue by cobalt, found in "fritting pans" at Amarna have compositions and microstructures similar to that of vitreous faience,

1122-476: A glaze. The reason for their addition would have been to release alkali into the matrix on firing, which would "accelerate vitrification at a relatively low firing temperature, and thus increase the hardness and density of the [ceramic] body". Whether these "relict glass fragments" are actually "frit" in the more ancient sense remains to be seen. Iznik pottery was produced in Ottoman Turkey as early as

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1224-523: A graduation venue for the University of Kent and Canterbury Christ Church University . Frit A frit is a ceramic composition that has been fused, quenched , and granulated. Frits form an important part of the batches used in compounding enamels and ceramic glazes ; the purpose of this pre-fusion is to render any soluble and/or toxic components insoluble by causing them to combine with silica and other added oxides. However, not all glass that

1326-723: A higher-temperature form of Egyptian faience that incorporated cobalt into its body. In their reconstruction of the manufacture of vitreous faience, Tite et al. propose that the initial firing of raw materials at 1100–1200 °C produces a cobalt-blue frit, which is then ground, molded, and glazed. In general, frits, glasses and faience are similar materials: they are all silica-based but have different concentrations of alkali, copper and lime. However, as Nicholson states, they are distinct materials because "it would not be possible to turn faience into frit or frit into glass simply by further, or higher temperature, heating". The use of frit as pigments and as entire objects does give credence to

1428-451: A monk of the priory) and William Chillenden, (elected 1264, previously monk and treasurer of the priory). The monastery was granted the right to elect their own prior if the seat was vacant by the pope, and – from Gregory IX onwards – the right to a free election (though with the archbishop overseeing their choice). Monks of the priory have included Æthelric I , Æthelric II , Walter d'Eynsham , Reginald fitz Jocelin (admitted as

1530-415: A new quire screen at the east end of the nave, into which Eastry's existing screen was incorporated. The Norman stone floor of the nave, however, survived until its replacement in 1786. From 1396 the cloisters were repaired and remodelled by Yevele's pupil Stephen Lote who added the lierne vaulting. It was during this period that the wagon-vaulting of the chapter house was created. A shortage of money and

1632-457: A personified version of the Cardinal Virtues , possibly due to other symbolic personifications of such, or simply as saints. The rear bottom and roof panels are heavily patterned with quatrefoils of large and small sizes, with the previously mentioned saint figures at each of the four corners. As with the door panel on the right hand gable, the vessel is also missing the floor panel. All of

1734-500: A spatial confirmation of these potential relationships, as the frit, glass and faience industries there were located "in close proximity" to one another. Fritware refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, where production is dated to the late first millennium AD through the second millennium AD. Frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that

1836-429: A stream of water running through it from end to end. A second smaller dormitory for the conventual officers ran from east to west. Close to the refectory, but outside the cloisters, were the domestic offices connected with it: to the north, the kitchen, 47 feet (14 m) square, with a pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to the west, the butteries, pantries, etc. The infirmary had a small kitchen of its own. Opposite

1938-455: A strong functionality, as their copper interiors were durable and thick. These pieces did not suffer the same unraveling as silver or gold at the time, as the copper would not easily be misshapen through everyday handling. Canterbury Cathedral Canterbury Cathedral is the cathedral of the archbishop of Canterbury , the spiritual leader of the Church of England and symbolic leader of

2040-401: A western apse was added as an oratory of Saint Mary , probably during the archbishopric of Lyfing (1013–1020) or Aethelnoth (1020–1038). The 1993 excavations revealed that the new western apse was polygonal, and flanked by hexagonal towers, forming a westwork . It housed the archbishop's throne, with the altar of St Mary just to the east. At about the same time that the westwork was built,

2142-714: Is as a pigment on a tomb painting at Saqqara dated to 2900 BC, though its use became more popular in Egypt around 2600 BC. Blue frit has also been uncovered in the royal tombs at Ur from the Early Dynastic III period. Its use in the Mediterranean dates to the Thera frescoes from the Late Middle Bronze Age . While the glass phase is present in blue frits from Egypt, scientists have not detected it in blue frits from

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2244-550: Is characterised by its thinness, slightly iridescent surface and that the body is formulated with a significant proportion of frit. A small manufacturing cluster of fritware exists around Jaipur , Rajasthan in India, where it is known as 'Blue Pottery' due its most popular glaze. The technique may have arrived in India with the Mughals, with production in Jaipur dating to at least as early as

2346-579: Is fused and quenched in water is frit, as this method of cooling down very hot glass is also widely used in glass manufacture. According to the OED , the origin of the word "frit" dates back to 1662 and is "a calcinated mixture of sand and fluxes ready to be melted in a crucible to make glass". Nowadays, the unheated raw materials of glass making are more commonly called "glass batch". In antiquity, frit could be crushed to make pigments or shaped to create objects. It may also have served as an intermediate material in

2448-602: Is known for its vibrant blues, intricate rosettes, and carefully engraved figures. The Limoges enamels are a body of intricate metalwork of the medieval times, most prominent throughout the Middle Ages in Europe. These pieces, much like the Becket Casket, served clerical purposes and were commissioned by wealthy and royal patrons. Not only did the pieces of Limoges created using champlevé enamel hold an aesthetic appeal, but they also had

2550-443: Is then added to a lithium titanate (Li 2 TiO 3 ) ceramic powder, which enables the ceramic to sinter at a lower temperature while still keeping its “microwave dielectric properties." In laboratory and industrial chemical process equipment, the term frit denotes a filter made by the sintering-together of glass particles to produce a piece of known porosity referred to as fritted glass . Automotive windshields incorporate

2652-481: The Mediterranean . The definition of frit as a sintered , polycrystalline, unglazed material can be applied to these archaeological contexts. It is typically colored blue or green. Blue frit, also known as Egyptian blue , was made from quartz , lime , a copper compound, and an alkali flux , all heated to a temperature between 850 and 1000 °C. Quartz sand may have been used to contribute silica to

2754-540: The Near East , Europe, and the Aegean . Natural weathering , which is also responsible for the corrosion of glasses and glazes from these three regions, is the likely reason for this absence. At Amarna , archaeologists have found blue frit in the form of circular cakes, powder residues, and vessel fragments. Analysis of the microstructures and crystal sizes of these frits has allowed Hatton, Shortland, and Tite to deduce

2856-491: The Roman period . The manufacture of green and blue frit relies on the same raw materials, but in different proportions. To produce green frit, the lime concentration must outweigh the copper concentration. The firing temperature required for green frit may be slightly higher than that of blue frit, in the range of 950 to 1100 °C. The ultimate product is composed of copper- wollastonite ([Ca,Cu] 3 Si 3 O 9 ) crystals and

2958-481: The Romanesque style, with Byzantine and Roman influences throughout. The story of Becket's assassination is displayed across the different sides of the casket, though the significance of certain figures on the back are only presumed, and one end of the vessel is missing its door panel. The imagery across the vessel tells the story of Becket's murder and the subsequent ascension to heaven following his death. The act of

3060-785: The abbot of St Andrew's Benedictine Abbey in Rome, lead the Gregorian Mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity . According to the writings of the later monk Bede , these Augustinian missionaries gained permission from the Kentish king to restore several pre-existing churches. Augustine then founded Canterbury cathedral in 597 and dedicated it to Jesus Christ, the Holy Saviour . When other dioceses were founded in England Augustine

3162-401: The cloister and monastic buildings were to the north, rather than the south of the church. There was a separate chapter-house which still exists, said to be "the largest of its kind in all of England". Stained glass here depicts the history of Canterbury. The buildings formed separate groups around the church. Adjoining it, on the north side, stood the cloister and the buildings devoted to

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3264-569: The heathen Anglo-Saxons , Christian life in the east of the island was disrupted. Textual sources however suggest that the Christian communities established in the Roman province survived in Western Britain during the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries. This Western British Christianity proceeded to develop on its own terms. In 596, Pope Gregory I ordered that Augustine of Canterbury , previously

3366-420: The priors . Following the election of Prior Ernulf in 1096, Lanfranc's inadequate east end was demolished, and replaced with an eastern arm 198 feet long, doubling the length of the cathedral. It was raised above a large and elaborately decorated crypt . Ernulf was succeeded in 1107 by Conrad, who completed the work by 1126. The new quire took the form of a complete church in itself, with its own transepts;

3468-465: The soluble salts are made insoluble by breaking down the carbonates , etc. and forming a complex mass of sintered silicates". A frit preserved in a "fritting pan fragment" kept in the Petrie Museum "shows numerous white flecks of unreacted silica and a large number of vesicles where gases had formed". The process was known to ancient writers Pliny and Theophilus . But whether this "fritting"

3570-489: The "Angel Steeple", after a gilded angel that once stood on one of its pinnacles. The cathedral ceased to be an abbey during the dissolution of the monasteries when all religious houses were suppressed. Canterbury Cathedral, and the great monastery of Christ Church were surrendered to the Crown on 30 March 1539, after the occupants had made "an inventory of the good, chattels, plate, precious ornaments, lead, and money belonging to

3672-400: The "binding agent for faience" and suggests that this binder was composed predominantly of silica, alkali and copper with minor concentrations of alkali earths and tin . But analysis of a wide array of Egyptian frits contradicts the binder composition that Kühne offers. Vandiver and Kingery argue that one method of producing a faience glaze was to "frit or melt the glaze constituents to form

3774-525: The 14th century, Prior Eastry erected a stone quire screen and rebuilt the chapter house, and his successor, Prior Oxenden inserted a large five-light window into St Anselm's chapel. The cathedral was seriously damaged by the 1382 Dover Straits earthquake , losing its bells and campanile. From the late 14th century the nave and transepts were rebuilt, on the Norman foundations in the Perpendicular style under

3876-411: The 15th century AD. It consists of a body, slip , and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit". The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain lead oxide as well as soda "; the lead oxide would help reduce the thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic. Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect

3978-490: The 17th century. Frits are indispensable constituents of most industrial ceramic glazes which mature at temperatures below 1150 °C. Frits are typically intermediates in the production of raw glass, as opposed to pigments and shaped objects, but they can be used as laboratory equipment in a number of high-tech contexts. Frits made predominantly of silica, diboron trioxide (B 2 O 3 ) and soda are used as enamels on steel pipes . Another type of frit can be used as

4080-451: The 9th or 10th century this church was replaced by a larger structure (161 by 75 ft, 49 by 23 m) with a squared west end. It appears to have had a square central tower. The 11th-century chronicler Eadmer , who had known the Saxon cathedral as a boy, wrote that, in its arrangement, it resembled St Peter's in Rome, indicating that it was of basilican form, with an eastern apse. During

4182-610: The Becket assassination, as the Trinity Chapel in Canterbury displayed and familiarized the story and its imagery through its stained glass windows. Located near these windows and behind the throne of the Archbishop is a shrine holding Becket's relics, ornately enclosed in precious metals and stones. The shrine was created and placed in its location in 1220. The vessel itself is exemplary of

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4284-526: The Church of England defended the decision stating that Monteith lives chastely with his partner. In 2024, the cathedral began offering blessings for same-sex couples "already in civil partnerships or civil marriages" or in "covenanted friendship" during ordinary or regular church services in accordance with "Prayers of Love and Faith." The cathedral is Regimental Church of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment and

4386-519: The Gothic style following a fire in 1174, with significant eastward extensions to accommodate the flow of pilgrims visiting the shrine of Thomas Becket , the archbishop who was murdered in the cathedral in 1170. The Norman nave and transepts survived until the late 14th century, when they were demolished to make way for the present structures. Before the English Reformation , the cathedral was part of

4488-401: The adornments of the chest over the years, while others were placed on pedestals or beams nearby, or attached to hanging drapery. For much of the time, the chest (or " feretory ") was kept concealed by a wooden cover, which would be theatrically raised by ropes once a crowd of pilgrims had gathered. The Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus , who visited in 1512–1514, recorded that, once the cover

4590-435: The altar. In this depiction of the story, the scene is presented in more detail and with more figures present, whereas in a similar reliquary of British origin, the scene simply displays Becket alone with the knights. The dead body of Becket is displayed on the front facing rectangular roof panel. His body is supported by a priest on each end, while funerary rites are performed by a Bishop and three more priests standing around

4692-688: The arcade walls were strengthened and towers added to the eastern corners of the church. The cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1067, a year after the Norman Conquest. Rebuilding began in 1070 under the first Norman archbishop, Lanfranc (1070–1077). He cleared the ruins and reconstructed the cathedral to a design based closely on that of the Abbey of Saint-Étienne in Caen , where he had previously been abbot, using stone brought from France. The new church, its central axis about 5 m south of that of its predecessor,

4794-413: The assassination is depicted on the front panel of the casket. Archbishop Thomas Becket is seen upright, reaching for a chalice that is sitting atop an alter before him. To the right of him is the four knights who committed the act, wielding different weapons and poses. The first knight is pictured decapitating St. Thomas with a long sword, while two horrified priests witness the act from the opposite side of

4896-421: The blue frit can "devitrify" so that the "copper wollastonite predominates over the lesser component of cuprorivaite". As with blue frit, Hatton, Shortland, and Tite have analyzed evidence for green frit at Amarna in the form of cakes, powders, and one vessel fragment and inferred the sequential production of the three types of artifacts. An Akkadian text from Assurbanipal 's library at Nineveh suggests that

4998-518: The bombing raids of the Second World War its library was destroyed, but the cathedral did not sustain extensive bomb damage; the local Fire Wardens doused any flames on the wooden roof. In 1986, a new Martyrdom Altar was installed in the northwest transept, on the spot where Thomas Becket was slain, the first new altar in the cathedral for 448 years. Mounted on the wall above it, there is a metal sculpture by Truro sculptor Giles Blomfield depicting

5100-456: The cathedral and its associated buildings. This revenue included the profits from the sale of pilgrim badges depicting Becket, his martyrdom, or his shrine. The shrine was removed in 1538. King Henry VIII allegedly summoned the dead saint to court to face charges of treason. Having failed to appear, he was found guilty in his absence and the treasures of his shrine were confiscated, carried away in two coffers and 26 carts. A bird's-eye view of

5202-464: The cathedral and its monastic buildings, made in about 1165 and known as the "waterworks plan" is preserved in the Eadwine Psalter in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge . A detailed description of the plan can be found in the classic paper by Willis . It shows that Canterbury employed the same general principles of arrangement common to all Benedictine monasteries , although, unusually,

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5304-424: The cathedral into a place of pilgrimage, necessitating both expansion of the building and an increase in wealth, via revenues from pilgrims, in order to make expansion possible. In September 1174 the quire was severely damaged by fire, necessitating a major reconstruction, the progress of which was recorded in detail by a monk named Gervase . The crypt survived the fire intact, and it was found possible to retain

5406-428: The church, beyond the precinct of the monastery, was the eleemosynary department. The almonry for the relief of the poor, with a great hall annexed, formed the paupers' hospitium. The group of buildings devoted to monastic life included two cloisters. The great cloister was surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with the daily life of the monks: the church to the south, with the refectory placed as always on

5508-461: The connection among the three materials. The cakes were produced by heating the raw materials for frit, then they were ground to make powders, and finally, the powders were molded and refired to create vessels. In On Architecture , the first century BC writer Vitruvius reports the production of 'caeruleum' (a blue pigment) at Pozzuoli , made by a method used in Alexandria , Egypt. Vitruvius lists

5610-496: The deceased. On the immediate left of these figures, a separate scene depicts the ascension of St. Thomas's soul into heaven. His soul is escorted into heaven by two angels that carry the shroud on which he laid. This particular scene is depicted similarly to the metalwork reliquary from the MET, as Becket's body is carried by two priests at each end. An image of Christ in Majesty is shown on

5712-403: The direction of the noted master mason Henry Yevele . In contrast to the contemporary rebuilding of the nave at Winchester , where much of the existing fabric was retained and remodeled, the piers were entirely removed, and replaced with less bulky Gothic ones, and the old aisle walls were completely taken down except for a low "plinth" left on the south side. More Norman fabric was retained in

5814-476: The east end was semicircular in plan, with three chapels opening off an ambulatory . A free-standing campanile was built on a mound in the cathedral precinct in about 1160. As with many Gothic church buildings, the interior of the quire was richly embellished. William of Malmesbury wrote: "Nothing like it could be seen in England either for the light of its glass windows, the gleaming of its marble pavements, or

5916-626: The end of the 1860s. There are currently 53 statues representing various figures who have been influential in the life of the cathedral and the English church such as clergy, members of the royal family, saints, and theologians. Archbishops of Canterbury from Augustine of Canterbury and Lanfranc , to Thomas Cranmer and William Laud are represented. Kings and Queens from Æthelberht and Bertha of Kent , to Victoria and Elizabeth II are included. The original towers of Christ Church Gate were removed in 1803 and were replaced in 1937. The statue of Christ

6018-422: The erosion of the copper tubular drills used in the drilling process. However, the archaeological record has not yet confirmed such a relationship between these two technologies. Evidence of the use of green frit is so far confined to Egypt. Alongside malachite , green frit was usually employed as a green pigment. Its earliest occurrence is in tomb paintings of the 18th dynasty , but its use extends at least to

6120-445: The figures depicted throughout the vessel feature gilt-copper heads.   The Becket Casket is ornately decorated with champlevé enamel surrounding its wooden core and gilded copper interior. The decorative technique of champlevé enamel is a method in which high heat is utilized to fuse a powdered glass material into a recessed area of a metal surface. The basic process of enameling involves fusing powdered material, such as glass, to

6222-533: The first women to be ordained as bishops in the cathedral, as Bishop of Crediton and Bishop of Gloucester respectively. In 2022, it was announced that David Monteith , who is gay and in a civil partnership , would serve as dean of the cathedral. His appointment was criticised by the Global South Fellowship of Anglican Churches (GSFA) and the Global Fellowship of Confessing Anglicans (GAFCON);

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6324-421: The frit. The copper content must be greater than the lime content in order to create a blue frit. Ultimately the frit consists of cuprorivaite (CaCuSi 4 O 10 ) crystals and "partially reacted quartz particles bonded together" by interstitial glass. Despite an argument to the contrary, scientists have found that, regardless of alkali content, the cuprorivaite crystals develop by "nucleation or growth within

6426-552: The high altar. Anglo-Saxon King Æthelred the Unready and Norman-born Emma of Normandy were married at Canterbury Cathedral in the Spring of 1002, and Emma was consecrated "Queen Ælfgifu ". The cathedral was badly damaged during Danish raids on Canterbury in 1011. The archbishop, Ælfheah , was taken hostage by the raiders and eventually killed at Greenwich on 19 April 1012, the first of Canterbury's five martyred archbishops. After this

6528-457: The idea that frit-making was, to some extent, a "specialized" industry. Indeed, scientists have determined that frit objects, such as amulets , beads and vessels, have chemical compositions similar to those of powder frits designed for use as pigments. Nevertheless, determining the exact technical relationships among the frit, glass and faience industries is an area of current and, likely, future scholarly interest. The excavations at Amarna offer

6630-411: The left side gable. The figure is depicted atop a rainbow and surrounded by trefoils and stars. A turret and an ornate arch are seen on the opposite gable on the right hand side, where it is believed that a figure of St. Peter was probably displayed on the missing door panel. There are four figures on the rear roof and bottom panels, each donning a halo and long hair. These figures can be interpreted as

6732-481: The manufacture of raw glass . The definition of frit tends to be variable and has proved a thorny issue for scholars. In recent centuries, frits have taken on a number of roles, such as biomaterials and additives to microwave dielectric ceramics. Frit in the form of alumino-silicate can be used in glaze-free continuous casting refractories. Archaeologists have found evidence of frit in Egypt , Mesopotamia , Europe , and

6834-454: The many-coloured paintings which led the eyes to the paneled ceiling above." Though named after the 6th-century founding archbishop, the Chair of St Augustine , the ceremonial enthronement chair of the Archbishop of Canterbury, may date from the Norman period. Its first recorded use is in 1205. A pivotal moment in the history of the cathedral was the murder of the archbishop, Thomas Becket , in

6936-751: The metallic body of the object and further filled with the powdered glass or frit , allowing for a different finish. The recessing in the body of the object can also be cast or etched, and the following steps remain the same. The technique of champlevé enameling is prominently known as having flourished in the French city of Limoges. The Becket Casket showcases the skills of Limoges enamellers, who crafted lavish items using cost-effective yet long-lasting materials. Several of St. Thomas' relics were housed in caskets crafted with Limoges enamel, originating from southwest France, likely due to this region being renowned for producing items with champlevé enamel. This specific technique

7038-404: The monastic life. To the east and west of these were those devoted to the exercise of hospitality. Also to the east was the infirmary, with its own chapel. To the north, a large open court divided the monastic buildings from menial ones, such as the stables, granaries, barn, bakehouse, brewhouse, and laundries, inhabited by the lay servants of the establishment. At the greatest possible distance from

7140-523: The monks" and "all that could be moved" was "handed over to the master of the jewel-house" of the Tower of London, after which "the Prior and monks were then ejected. The Cathedral reverted to its previous status of 'a college of secular canons'. According to the cathedral's own website, it had been a Benedictine monastery since the 900s. The New Foundation came into being on 8 April 1541. The shrine to St Thomas Becket

7242-431: The nave and chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, overlooking the green court or herbarium, lay the "pisalis" or "calefactory", the common room of the monks. At its northeast corner access was given from the dormitory to the necessarium , a building in the form of a Norman hall, 145 feet (44 m) long by 25 feet (7.6 m) broad, containing 55 seats. It was constructed with careful regard to hygiene, with

7344-605: The north-west transept (also known as the Martyrdom) on Tuesday 29 December 1170, by knights of King Henry II . The king had frequent conflicts with the strong-willed Becket and is said to have exclaimed in frustration, " Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest? " Four knights took it literally and murdered Becket in his own cathedral. After the Anglo-Saxon Ælfheah in 1012, Becket was the second Archbishop of Canterbury to be murdered. The posthumous veneration of Becket transformed

7446-406: The outer surface of a metallic or similar object through the use of high temperature. It is an ancient artistic process, used throughout history and crossing borders to create beautifully decorated pieces of all kinds. The process of champlevé enameling holds almost all of the basic steps as that of regular enameling. However in this technique, recesses of all shapes and sizes are carefully carved into

7548-458: The outer walls of the quire, which were increased in height by 12 feet (3.7 m) in the course of the rebuilding, but with the round-headed form of their windows left unchanged. Everything else was replaced in the new Gothic style, with pointed arches, rib vaulting, and flying buttresses. The limestone used was imported from Caen in Normandy, and Purbeck marble was used for the shafting. The quire

7650-467: The powder in a pan. Following the Nineveh recipe, Brill was able to produce a "high quality" glass. He deduced that the frit intermediate is necessary so that gases will evolve during this stage and the end product will be virtually free of bubbles . Furthermore, grinding the frit actually expedites the "second part of the process, which is to ... reduce the system to a glass". Moorey has defined this intermediate step as "fritting", "a process in which

7752-427: The present Trinity Chapel was constructed, a broad extension with an ambulatory, designed to house the shrine of St Thomas Becket. A further chapel, circular in plan, was added beyond that, which housed further relics of Becket, widely believed to have included the top of his skull, struck off in the course of his assassination. This latter chapel became known as the "Corona" or "Becket's Crown". These new parts east of

7854-478: The priority given to the rebuilding of the cloisters and chapterhouse meant that the rebuilding of the west towers was neglected. The south-west tower was not replaced until 1458, and the Norman north-west tower survived until 1834 when it was replaced by a replica of its Perpendicular companion. In about 1430 the south transept apse was removed to make way for a chapel, founded by Lady Margaret Holland and dedicated to St Michael and All Angels. The north transept apse

7956-515: The quartz particles. Tite argues that this glass was added as frit and that the interstitial glass formed on firing. Frit was also a significant component in some early European porcelains. Famous manufacturers of the 18th century included Sèvres in France, and at Chelsea, Derby, Bow, Worcester and Longton Hall in England. Frit porcelain is produced at Belleek , County Fermanagh , Northern Ireland . This factory, established in 1857, produces ware that

8058-470: The quire transepts were raised on a higher crypt than Ernulf's quire, necessitating flights of steps between the two levels. Work on the chapel was completed in 1184, but Becket's remains were not moved from his tomb in the crypt until 1220. Further significant interments in the Trinity Chapel included those of Edward Plantagenet (The " Black Prince ") and King Henry IV . The shrine in the Trinity Chapel

8160-414: The quire. Some of Davis's misericords have a distinctly medieval flavour and he may have copied some of the original designs. When Sir George Gilbert Scott carried out renovations in the 19th century, he replaced the front row of Davis' misericords, with new ones of his own design, which seem to include many copies of those at Gloucester Cathedral , Worcester Cathedral and New College, Oxford . Most of

8262-503: The ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names. A ninth-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric. The glass is alkali-lime-lead-silica and, when the paste was fired or cooled, wollastonite and diopside crystals formed within the glass fragments. The lack of "inclusions of crushed pottery " suggests these fragments did not come from

8364-421: The raw materials for caeruleum as sand, copper filings, and 'nitrum' (soda). In fact, analysis of some frits that date to the time of Thutmose III and later show the use of bronze filings instead of copper ore . Stocks suggests that waste powders from the drilling of limestone , combined with a minor concentration of alkali, may have been used to produce blue frits. The powders owe their copper content to

8466-407: The refectory door in the cloister were two buildings where the monks washed before and after eating. One of these is the circular two-storey lavatorium tower. To the south of the infirmary cloister, close to the east end of the cathedral, is the treasury, with a distinctive octapartite vault. The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three groups. The prior's group were "entered at

8568-409: The reforms of Dunstan , archbishop from 960 until his death in 988, a Benedictine abbey named Christ Church Priory was added to the cathedral. But the formal establishment as a monastery seems to date only to c.  997 and the community only became fully monastic from Lanfranc 's time onwards (with monastic constitutions addressed by him to Prior Henry). Dunstan was buried on the south side of

8670-538: The shrine was completely destroyed. It is thought that this particular casket was made to hold the relics of Thomas Becket that were taken to Peterborough Abbey (now Peterborough Cathedral ) by Abbot Benedict in 1177. Benedict had been Prior at Canterbury Cathedral and therefore saw Becket's assassination. Although many stories from British medieval history are not as familiar, the Becket assassination still remains well-known to this day. Many of Becket's relics were encased in similar elaborate caskets and dispersed all around

8772-433: The side opposite, the dormitory, raised on a vaulted undercroft , and the chapter-house adjacent, and the lodgings of the cellarer, responsible for providing both monks and guests with food, to the west. A passage under the dormitory led eastwards to the smaller or infirmary cloister, appropriated to sick and infirm monks. The hall and chapel of the infirmary extended east of this cloister, resembling in form and arrangement

8874-478: The south-east angle of the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or nobility who were assigned to him." The cellarer's buildings, where middle-class visitors were entertained, stood near the west end of the nave. The inferior pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the north hall or almonry, just within the gate. Priors of Christ Church Priory included John of Sittingbourne (elected 1222, previously

8976-501: The statues that currently adorn the west front of the cathedral were installed in the 1860s when the South Porch was being renovated. At that time, the niches were vacant and the Dean of the cathedral thought that the appearance of the cathedral would be improved if they were filled. The Victorian sculptor Theodore Pfyffers was commissioned to create the statues and most of them were installed by

9078-410: The transepts, especially in the east walls, and the old apsidal chapels were not replaced until the mid-15th century. The arches of the new nave arcade were exceptionally high in proportion to the clerestory . The new transepts, aisles, and nave were roofed with lierne vaults , enriched with bosses. Most of the work was done during the priorate of Thomas Chillenden (1391–1411): Chillenden also built

9180-617: The world, however, the chasse that is currently held by the Victoria and Albert Museum is believed to have the earliest date. It is also said to be the most ornate and the largest of all of the other caskets. Over 45 medieval chasses survive showing Becket's story and thought to have been made in Limoges. Another fine example is in the Burrell Collection in Glasgow . This is not the only depiction of

9282-530: The worldwide Anglican Communion . Located in Canterbury , Kent, it is one of the oldest Christian structures in England and forms part of a World Heritage Site . Its formal title is the Cathedral and Metropolitical Church of Christ, Canterbury . Founded in 597, the cathedral was completely rebuilt between 1070 and 1077. The east end was greatly enlarged at the beginning of the 12th century, and largely rebuilt in

9384-411: Was a cruciform building, with an aisled nave of nine bays, a pair of towers at the west end, aisleless transepts with apsidal chapels, a low crossing tower, and a short quire ending in three apses. It was dedicated in 1077. Under Lanfranc's successor Anselm , who was twice exiled from England, the responsibility for the rebuilding or improvement of the cathedral's fabric was largely left in the hands of

9486-460: Was back in use by 1180 and in that year the remains of Dunstan and Ælfheah were moved there from the crypt. The master-mason appointed to rebuild the quire was a Frenchman, William of Sens . Following his injury in a fall from the scaffolding in 1179 he was replaced by one of his former assistants, known as William the Englishman . In 1180–1184, in place of the old, square-ended, eastern chapel,

9588-618: Was destroyed on the orders of Henry VIII and the relics lost. In around 1576, the crypt of the cathedral was granted to the Huguenot congregation of Canterbury to be used as their Church of the Crypt . In 1642–1643, during the English Civil War , Puritan iconoclasts led by Edwin Sandys (Parliamentarian) caused significant damage during their "cleansing" of the cathedral. Included in that campaign

9690-497: Was done in antiquity as a deliberate step in the manufacture of raw glass remains questionable. The compositions of frits and glasses recovered from Amarna do not agree in a way that would imply frits were the immediate precursors of glasses: the frits have lower concentrations of soda and lime and higher concentrations of cobalt and alumina than the glasses have. Scholars have suggested several potential connections between frit and faience . Kühne proposes that frit may have acted as

9792-469: Was made archbishop. Augustine also founded the Abbey of St Peter and Paul outside the Canterbury city walls . This was later rededicated to St Augustine himself and was for many centuries the burial place of the successive archbishops. The abbey is part of the World Heritage Site of Canterbury, along with the cathedral and the ancient Church of St Martin . Bede recorded that Augustine reused

9894-443: Was placed directly above Becket's original tomb in the crypt. A marble plinth, raised on columns, supported what an early visitor, Walter of Coventry , described as "a coffin wonderfully wrought of gold and silver, and marvellously adorned with precious gems". Other accounts make clear that the gold was laid over a wooden chest, which in turn contained an iron-bound box holding Becket's remains. Further votive treasures were added to

9996-461: Was raised, "the Prior ... pointed out each jewel, telling its name in French, its value, and the name of its donor; for the principal of them were offerings sent by sovereign princes." The income from pilgrims (such as those portrayed in Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales ) who visited Becket's shrine, which was regarded as a place of healing, largely paid for the subsequent rebuilding of

10098-413: Was replaced by a Lady Chapel, built-in 1448–1455. The 235-foot (72 m) crossing tower was begun in 1433, although preparations had already been made during Chillenden's priorate when the piers had been reinforced. Further strengthening was found necessary around the beginning of the 16th century when buttressing arches were added under the southern and western tower arches. The tower is often known as

10200-459: Was replaced in 1990 with a bronze sculpture of Christ by Klaus Ringwald. The original Norman northwest tower, which had a lead spire until 1705, was demolished in 1834 owing to structural concerns. It was replaced with a Perpendicular-style twin of the southwest tower (designed by Thomas Mapilton), now known as the Arundel Tower, providing a more symmetrical appearance for the cathedral. This

10302-537: Was the destruction of the statue of Christ in the Christ Church Gate and the demolition of the wooden gates by a group led by Richard Culmer . The statue would not be replaced until 1990 but the gates were restored in 1660 and a great deal of other repair work started at that time; that would continue until 1704. In 1688, the joiner Roger Davis, citizen of London, removed the 13th-century misericords and replaced them with two rows of his own work on each side of

10404-475: Was the last major structural alteration to the cathedral to be made. In 1866, there were six residentiary canonries, of which one was annexed to the Archdeaconry of Canterbury and another to that of Maidstone . In September 1872, a large portion of the Trinity Chapel roof was completely destroyed by fire. There was no significant damage to the stonework or interior and the damage was quickly repaired. During

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