143-536: Béarn ( US : / b eɪ ˈ ɑːr n / ; French: [beaʁn] ; Occitan : Bearn [beˈaɾ] or Biarn ; Basque : Bearno or Biarno ; Latin : Benearnia or Bearnia ) is one of the traditional provinces of France , located in the Pyrenees mountains and in the plain at their feet, in Southwestern France. Along with the three Basque provinces of Soule , Lower Navarre and Labourd ,
286-698: A cot–caught merger , which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the THOUGHT vowel is particularly marked , as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee ( talk and coffee ), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal : [oə] . A split of TRAP into two separate phonemes , using different
429-674: A Germanic people by modern scholars. The earliest mention of the Vandals is from Pliny the Elder , who used the term Vandili in a broad way to define one of the major groupings of all Germanic peoples . Tribes within this category who he mentions are the Burgundiones , Varini , Carini (otherwise unknown), and the Gutones . Tacitus mentioned the Vandilii , but only in a passage explaining legends about
572-457: A Proto-Germanic form reconstructed as * Wanđilaz . The etymology of the name remains unclear. According to linguist Vladimir Orel , it may stem from the Proto-Germanic adjective * wanđaz ('turned, twisted'), itself derived from the verb * wenđanan (or *winđanan ), meaning 'to wind'. Alternatively, it has been derived from a root * wanđ- , meaning 'water', based on the idea that the tribe
715-520: A pronunciations for example in gap [æ] versus gas [eə] , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents. Most Americans preserve all historical /r/ sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent . The only traditional r -dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England , New York City , and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across
858-616: A complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling , while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another. Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England ,
1001-447: A consonant, such as in pearl , car and fort . Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce ⟨r⟩ except before a vowel, such as some accents of Eastern New England , New York City , and African-Americans , and a specific few (often older ones) spoken by Southerners , are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived as sounding especially ethnic, regional, or antiquated. Rhoticity
1144-581: A de facto sovereign principality. The viscounts gave up this title to present themselves as lords of the sovereign country of Bearn. When Fébus died without an heir, the principality reverted to the House of Grailly. In 1434, Gaston IV married the Infanta Eleanor of Navarre and became crown prince of the kingdom of Navarre, transferring his court from Orthez to Pau in 1464. Béarn is served by two autoroutes. The A64 ( l'autoroute pyrénéenne , European designation E80)
1287-586: A joint Roman-Suebi coalition. Gunderic fled to Baetica , where he was also proclaimed king of the Silingi Vandals. In 422, Gunderic decisively defeated a Roman-Suebi-Gothic coalition led by the Roman patrician Castinus at the Battle of Tarraco . It is likely that many Roman and Gothic troops deserted to Gunderic following the battle. For the next five years, according to Hydatius , Gunderic created widespread havoc in
1430-629: A large part of the Vandal army and navy was led by Tzazo , Gelimer's brother, to Sardinia to deal with a rebellion. As a result, the armies of the Byzantine Empire commanded by Belisarius were able to land unopposed 10 miles (16 km) from Carthage. Gelimer quickly assembled an army, and met Belisarius at the Battle of Ad Decimum ; the Vandals were winning the battle until Gelimer's brother Ammatas and nephew Gibamund fell in battle. Gelimer then lost heart and fled. Belisarius quickly took Carthage while
1573-586: A merger with the THOUGHT ( caught ) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the cot vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the THOUGHT vowel in the following environments: before many instances of /f/ , /θ/ , and particularly /s/ (as in Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often, etc.), a few instances before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long, wrong ), and variably by region or speaker in gone , on , and certain other words. Unlike American accents,
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#17330848024521716-636: A nice day , for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey , boost, bulldoze and jazz , originated as American slang. American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs . Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation , major, and many others. Compounds coined in
1859-452: A part of the Total S.A. petroleum company. In the eastern part of the province are two small exclaves belonging to Bigorre . They are the result of how early Béarn grew to its traditional boundaries: some old lesser viscounties were added by marriage, and absorbed into Béarn: Oloron to the south/southwest ca. 1050, Montanérès in the east in 1085, and Dax in the west in 1194. When Montanérès
2002-475: A process of extensive dialect mixture and leveling in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to
2145-657: A series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the " Inland North ". The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents ) a backer tongue positioning of the GOOSE /u/ vowel (to [u] ) and the MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel (to [ɑʊ~äʊ] ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker
2288-516: A sovereign and neutral country. Fébus' project was the culmination of the long periods of autonomy experienced by Béarn in previous eras. Now in the midst of the Hundred Years' War, Fébus took advantage of the French rout of Crécy in 1346 to distance himself from the kingdom of France. On 25 September 1347, he declared to an envoy of Philip VI that Bearn was a land that he "had from God and from no man in
2431-640: A surprise attack by Western Emperor Majorian at the mouth of the Garigliano river. As a result of the Vandal sack of Rome and piracy in the Mediterranean , it became important to the Roman Empire to destroy the Vandal kingdom. In 460, Majorian launched an expedition against the Vandals, but was defeated at the Battle of Cartagena . In 468 the Western and Eastern Roman empires launched an enormous expedition against
2574-514: A survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms. The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink , you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in
2717-453: A variation of American English in these islands. In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people. The United States has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. 32 of the 50 states, in some cases as part of what has been called
2860-642: Is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South. American accents that have not undergone the cot–caught merger (the lexical sets LOT and THOUGHT ) have instead retained a LOT – CLOTH split : a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the CLOTH lexical set ) separated away from the LOT set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent CLOTH set into
3003-637: Is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin , and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English , beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands ; Thomasites first established
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#17330848024523146-490: Is also now closed. Pau Pyrénées Airport , situated near Uzein , has direct flights to Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport (9 flights in total to Paris daily), Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport (3 flights daily) and Marseille Provence Airport . During summer, it also has flights to Bastia – Poretta Airport , Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport , Naples International Airport and Bari Karol Wojtyła Airport . 634,000 passengers used Pau Pyrénées Airport in 2015, making it
3289-419: Is also reflected by a change of capital, Orthez (closer to Gascony) replaces Morlaàs in 1242. Gaston VII will not, in spite of everything, cease to revolt against this intrusion in the affairs of a country which previously had a very broad autonomy. He had to admit defeat after being taken prisoner at Winchester by Edward I of England in 1276. Gaston VII chose to marry his second daughter, Marguerite de Béarn, to
3432-526: Is common in most American accents despite being now rare in England because, during the 17th-century British colonization, nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented Scotch-Irish immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during
3575-420: Is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent, and is defined by the /aɪ/ vowel losing its gliding quality : [aː] , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a " Southern drawl " that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels . The fronting of the vowels of GOOSE , GOAT , MOUTH , and STRUT tends to also define Southern accents as well as
3718-583: Is the common language at home, in public, and in government. Vandals The Vandals were a Germanic people who were first reported in the written records as inhabitants of what is now Poland , during the period of the Roman empire . Much later, in the fifth century, a group of Vandals led by kings established Vandal kingdoms first within the Iberian Peninsula , and then in the western Mediterranean islands , and North Africa . Archaeologists associate
3861-657: Is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States ; an official language in 32 of the 50 U.S. states ; and the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce throughout the nation. Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide. Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around
4004-463: Is the variable fronting of /ɑ/ before /r/ , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard . Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston , Pittsburgh , Upper Midwestern , and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the LOT vowel with the THOUGHT vowel ( /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ , respectively):
4147-461: The Arian Vandals and their Trinitarian subjects (including both Catholics and Donatists ) were a constant source of tension in their African state. Catholic bishops were exiled or killed by Genseric and laymen were excluded from office and frequently suffered confiscation of their property. He protected his Catholic subjects when his relations with Rome and Constantinople were friendly, as during
4290-587: The Divine Twins , possibly involving an origin myth that the Vandalic kings were descended from Aurvandil (comparable to the case of many other Germanic tribal names ). Some medieval authors equated two classical ethnonyms, "Vandals" and Veneti , and applied both to West Slavs , leading to the term Wends , which has been used for various Slavic-speaking groups and is still used for Lusatians . However, modern scholars derive "Wend" from "Veneti", and do not equate
4433-476: The English-only movement , have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) Puerto Rico is the largest example of a United States territory in which another language – Spanish –
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4576-674: The Hasdingi (or Astingi), led by the kings Raus and Rapt (or Rhaus and Raptus) moved south, entering Dacia as allies of Rome. However they eventually caused problems in Dacia and moved further south, towards the lower Danube area. Together with the Hasdingi were the Lacringi, who were possibly also Vandals. In about 271 AD the Roman Emperor Aurelian was obliged to protect the middle course of
4719-608: The Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent ), and the South . As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area , Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the LOT /ɑ/ vowel in the mouth toward [a] and tensing of the TRAP /æ/ vowel wholesale to [eə] . These sound changes have triggered
4862-544: The Native American languages . Examples of such names are opossum , raccoon , squash , moose (from Algonquian ), wigwam , and moccasin . American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse , from French ; cookie , from Dutch ; kindergarten from German , and rodeo from Spanish . Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and
5005-504: The Pau-Canfranc railway line all the way to Canfranc Station. The two governments hope to have the line fully reopened by 2020. A fourth railway line once linked Puyoô rail station to that of Mauléon-Licharre . This line opened in two stages between 1884 and 1887; it was closed to passengers in 1968 and to freight in 1989. The line was officially abandoned in 1991. A branch of this line ran from Autevielle to Saint-Palais . This branch
5148-502: The Principality of Bidache , as well as small parts of Gascony , it forms the current Pyrénées-Atlantiques department . The capitals of Béarn were successively Beneharnum (until 841), Morlaàs (from c. 1100), Orthez (from the second half of the 13th century) and then Pau (beginning in the mid-15th century). Béarn is bordered by the Basque provinces of Soule and Lower Navarre to
5291-860: The Pyrenees into the Iberian peninsula . There, the Hasdingi received land from the Romans, as foederati , in Asturia (Northwest) and the Silingi in Hispania Baetica (South), while the Alans got lands in Lusitania (West) and the region around Carthago Nova . The Suebi also controlled part of Gallaecia . The Visigoths , who invaded Iberia on the orders of the Romans before receiving lands in Septimania (Southern France), crushed
5434-708: The Roman province of Africa as well as Sicily , Corsica , Sardinia , Malta and the Balearic Islands . They fended off several Roman attempts to recapture the African province, and sacked the city of Rome in 455. Their kingdom collapsed in the Vandalic War of 533–534, in which Emperor Justinian I 's forces reconquered the province for the Eastern Roman Empire . As the Vandals plundered Rome for fourteen days, Renaissance and early-modern writers characterized
5577-714: The francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program , manoeuvre for maneuver , cheque for check , etc.). AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize . BrE prefers -ise , but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling ). There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences , called " comma splices " in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors
5720-759: The 18th century; apartment , shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium , townhouse , mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof ( driveway , breezeway, backyard ) . Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology ) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads ( dirt roads , freeways ) to infrastructure ( parking lot , overpass , rest area ), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally. Already existing English words—such as store , shop , lumber —underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in
5863-534: The 20th century. The use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas . The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing
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6006-622: The British form is a back-formation , such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar ). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems. While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions. The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in
6149-594: The Bronze Age. Fortified villages were also constructed in Neolithic Béarn, and remains of these have been found near Asson , Bougarber and Lacq . During the Iron Age , Béarn was a part of ancient Aquitania , where the proto- Basque people lived. The Benearni, from whom the name Bearn derives, were one of these people. The region became part of the Roman Empire in the first century BC. Diocletian included Bearn in
6292-747: The Carpathian region, were associated with Gepids . According to Jordanes ' Getica , the Hasdingi came into conflict with the Goths around the time of Constantine the Great . At the time, these Vandals were living in lands later inhabited by the Gepids , where they were surrounded "on the east [by] the Goths, on the west [by] the Marcomanni , on the north [by] the Hermanduri and on
6435-536: The Catholics and ceased persecution once more. Externally, the Vandal power had been declining since Genseric's death, and Gunthamund lost early in his reign all but a small wedge of western Sicily to the Ostrogoths which was lost in 491 and had to withstand increasing pressure from the autochthonous Moors . According to the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia : "While Thrasamund (496–523), owing to his religious fanaticism,
6578-506: The Count of Foix, Roger-Bernard III. This marriage provoked the indissoluble union between the houses of Foix and Béarn. The new Foix-Béarn were in a delicate situation, with Béarn on the one hand a vassal of the kings of England, and Foix a vassal of the kings of France. The beginnings of the future Hundred Years' War between the two kingdoms were already coming, complicating the balance within this new dynasty even more. Until Gaston II of Foix-Béarn,
6721-639: The Danube against Vandals. They made peace and stayed on the eastern bank of the Danube. In 278, Zosimus reported that emperor Probus had defeated the Vandals and Burgundians near a river (sometimes proposed to be the Lech , and sent many of them to Britain. During this same period, the 11th panegyric to Maximian delivered in 291, reported two different conflicts outside the empire wherein Burgundians were associated with Alamanni , and other Vandals, probably Hasdingi in
6864-648: The Dukes of Gascony, the Kings of Aragon, the Kings of England and the Kings of France. Béarn remained under the control of the dukes of Gascony after its division in the 9th century, and this link was already very weak in the second half of the 11th century. Vassalage was only theoretical under Gaston IV the Crusader, who took part in the first crusade and the Reconquista. He played a decisive role alongside Alfonso I of Aragon. Bearn became
7007-413: The East Coast (perhaps in imitation of 19th-century London speech), even the East Coast has gradually begun to restore rhoticity, due to it becoming nationally prestigious in the 20th century. The pronunciation of ⟨r⟩ is a postalveolar approximant [ ɹ̠ ] or retroflex approximant [ ɻ ] , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant r sound
7150-494: The Frigeridus fragment cited by Gregory of Tours , around 20,000 Vandals, including Godigisel himself, died in this Vandal-Frankish war , but then with the help of the Alans they managed to defeat the Franks, and on December 31, 405 the Vandals crossed the Rhine , probably while it was frozen, to invade Gaul, which they devastated terribly. Under Godigisel's son Gunderic , the Vandals plundered their way westward and southward through Aquitaine . On October 13, 409 they crossed
7293-494: The Great . Around 400, raids by the Huns from the east forced many Germanic tribes to migrate west into the territory of the Roman Empire and, fearing that they might be targeted next, the Vandals were also pushed westwards, crossing the Rhine into Gaul along with other tribes in 406. In 409, the Vandals crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula , where the Hasdingi and the Silingi settled in Gallaecia (northwest Iberia) and Baetica (south-central Iberia). On
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#17330848024527436-399: The Hasdingian Vandals were already established in the Middle Danube for centuries, it is less clear where the Silingian Vandals had been living though it may have been in Silesia . In AD 278, Emperor Probus on defeating the Vandals and Burgundians, transferred many of them to Britain. It is unknown where they were settled, though Silchester seems to be a likely candidate. The city bears
7579-510: The Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity , the father–bother merger , Mary–marry–merry merger , pre-nasal "short a " tensing , and other particular vowel sounds . General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in
7722-433: The Pau to Canfranc line, serves the south of Béarn. It was put into service between 1883 and 1928. However, the railway line been partially closed since 1970. This is because in 1970, a bridge carrying this rail line over the Gave d'Aspe was destroyed by a train derailment; SNCF consequently closed the line south of the Gare d'Oloron-Sainte-Marie . An additional section of the line, between Oloron-Sainte-Marie and Bedous ,
7865-431: The Przeworsk culture mainly practiced cremation and occasionally inhumation. Very little is known about the Vandalic language itself, but it is believed to be of the extinct East Germanic linguistic branch, like Gothic. The Goths left behind the only text corpus of the East Germanic language type, especially a 4th-century translation of the Gospels. In the 2nd century, two or three distinct Vandal peoples came to
8008-418: The Revolution. Béarn was included in the original borders given to the Frankish kingdom by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, but the creation of a political entity of their own led to an evolution of this vassalage link. Thus, the gradual accession of Bearn to a de facto sovereignty status is the major theme of this medieval period. From the 11th to the 14th century, Béarn was tossed between the zones of influence of
8151-485: The Roman province of Novempopulania . Roman influence in the region waned in the fifth century AD, and Béarn experienced multiple barbarian invasions. Béarn was successively conquered by the Vandals , the Visigoths , the Merovingians and finally the Carolingians . The fifth century AD also saw the arrival of Christianity in Béarn. The rural character of Béarn meant that Christianity took longer to become established there than elsewhere in France. The Vascons settled on
8294-423: The Silingi Vandals in 417 and the Alans in 418, killing the western Alan king Attaces . The remainder of his people and the remnants of the Silingi, who were nearly wiped out, subsequently appealed to the Vandal king Gunderic to accept the Alan crown. Later Vandal kings in North Africa styled themselves Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum ("King of the Vandals and Alans"). In 419 AD the Hasdingi Vandals were defeated by
8437-449: The South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. American English and British English (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , known as Webster's Dictionary ,
8580-528: The U.S. Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize , etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae , skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in
8723-505: The U.S. are for instance foothill , landslide (in all senses), backdrop , teenager , brainstorm , bandwagon , hitchhike , smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English). Some are euphemistic ( human resources , affirmative action , correctional facility ). Many compound nouns have
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#17330848024528866-551: The U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky . A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots . Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in
9009-530: The U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms ( merger , downsize , bottom line ), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball . The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America ( elevator [except in
9152-427: The U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet , eyeglasses , and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." Gotten ( past participle of get ) is often considered to be largely an Americanism. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from
9295-541: The U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler ), baggage , hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket , originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English. Linguist Bert Vaux created
9438-474: The United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 21st-century British English has since lost. Full rhoticity (or "R-fulness") is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme /r/ (corresponding to the letter ⟨r⟩ ) in all environments, including in syllable-final position or before
9581-399: The Vandal rule of North Africa was a time of economic instability. When the Vandals raided Sicily in 440, the Western Roman Empire was too preoccupied with war with Gaul to react. Theodosius II, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, dispatched an expedition to deal with the Vandals in 441; however, it only progressed as far as Sicily. The Western Empire under Valentinian III secured peace with
9724-525: The Vandals as prototypical barbarians . This led to the use of the term " vandalism " to describe any pointless destruction, particularly the "barbarian" defacing of artwork. However, some modern historians have emphasised the role of Vandals as continuators of aspects of Roman culture , in the transitional period from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages . The ethnonym is attested as Wandali and Wendilenses by Saxo , as Vendill in Old Norse , and as Wend(e)las in Old English , all going back to
9867-418: The Vandals but not the Lugii. Walter Pohl and Walter Goffart have noted that Ptolemy seems to distinguish the Silingi from the Lugii, and in the 2nd century the Hasdings, when they appear in the Roman record, are also distinguished from the Lugii. Herwig Wolfram notes that "In all likelihood the Lugians and the Vandals were one cultic community that lived in the same region of the Oder in Silesia, where it
10010-427: The Vandals in 442. Under the treaty the Vandals gained Byzacena , Tripolitania , and the eastern half of Numidia, and were confirmed in control of Proconsular Africa as well as the Vandal Kingdom as the first barbarian kingdom was officially recognized as an independent kingdom in former Roman territory instead of foederati . The Empire retained western Numidia and the two Mauretanian provinces until 455. During
10153-515: The Vandals in this period lived between the Oder and Vistula rivers. Ptolemy furthermore mentioned the Silingi who were later counted as Vandals, as living south of the Semnones , who were Suebians living on the Elbe, and stretching to the Oder. The Hasdingi, who later led the invasion of Carthage, do not appear in written records until the 2nd century and the time of the Marcomannic wars. The Lacringi appear in 3rd century records. The Lugii, who were also mentioned in early classical sources in
10296-462: The Vandals into the fold of the Empire, Valentinian III offered his daughter's hand in marriage to Genseric's son. Before this treaty could be carried out, however, politics again played a crucial part in the blunders of Rome. Petronius Maximus killed Valentinian III and claimed the Western throne. Petronius then forced Valentinian III's widow, empress Licinia Eudoxia , to marry him. Diplomacy between
10439-405: The Vandals took 500 hostages at Zakynthos , hacked them to pieces and threw the pieces overboard on the way to Carthage. In 469 the Vandals gained control of Sicily but were forced by Odoacer to relinquish it in 477 except for the western port of Lilybaeum (lost in 491 after a failed attempt on their part to re-take the island). In the 470s, the Romans abandoned their policy of war against
10582-576: The Vandals under the command of Basiliscus , which reportedly was composed of 100,000 soldiers and 1,000 ships. The Vandals defeated the invaders at the Battle of Cap Bon , capturing the Western fleet, and destroying the Eastern through the use of fire ships . Following up the attack, the Vandals tried to invade the Peloponnese , but were driven back by the Maniots at Kenipolis with heavy losses. In retaliation,
10725-400: The Vandals. The Western general Ricimer reached a treaty with them, and in 476 Genseric was able to conclude a "perpetual peace" with Constantinople. Relations between the two states assumed a veneer of normality. From 477 onwards, the Vandals produced their own coinage, restricted to bronze and silver low-denomination coins. The high-denomination imperial money was retained, demonstrating in
10868-612: The Veneti and Vandals. The name of the Vandals has been connected to that of Vendel , the name of a province in Uppland , Sweden, which is also eponymous of the Vendel Period of Swedish prehistory, corresponding to the late Germanic Iron Age leading up to the Viking Age . The connection is considered tenuous at best and more plausibly the result of chance, though Scandinavia is considered
11011-596: The West and Midwest, and New York Latino English , spoken in the New York metropolitan area . Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and " Yinglish " are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews , Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana , and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii , though primarily English-speaking,
11154-547: The accents spoken in the " Midland ": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum. Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds: In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since
11297-505: The aeronautical sense ], gasoline ) as did certain automotive terms ( truck , trunk ). New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish ( chutzpah , schmooze, bupkis, glitch ) and German ( hamburger , wiener ). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7 ), while others have not ( have
11440-507: The ally of Aragon, breaking the last links with Gascony. This alliance was initially balanced, but the union of Aragon with Catalonia in 1137 broke this balance in favour of Aragon. Béarn became a vassal county of the Aragonese crown, which tried to create a vast ensemble on both sides of the Pyrenees. In 1213, the Aragonese defeat at the battle of Muret led to the end of Aragonese interventions in
11583-636: The attention of Roman authors, the Silingi , the Hasdingi , and possibly the Lacringi , who appear together with the Hasdingi. Only the Silingi had been mentioned in early Roman works, and are associated with Silesia . These peoples appeared during the Marcomannic Wars , which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period. During the Marcomannic Wars (166–180)
11726-512: The capital city of the ancient Venarni people, which was destroyed by Vikings by 840. The modern town of Lescar is built on the site of Beneharnum. Agriculture and metallurgy were first practiced in the region around 4,000 years ago. Many dolmens , tumuli and megaliths have been found in Béarn dating to this era, suggesting that ancestor worship was an important religious activity in neolithic Béarn. Construction of cromlêhs in Béarn continued into
11869-591: The chief minister of the Emperor Honorius , was described as being of Vandal descent. Vandals raided the Roman province of Raetia in the winter of 401/402. From this, historian Peter Heather concludes that at this time the Vandals were located in the region around the Middle and Upper Danube. It is possible that such Middle Danubian Vandals were part of the Gothic king Radagaisus ' invasion of Italy in 405–406 AD. While
12012-406: The country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r -dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from
12155-614: The diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased. Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages. Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in
12298-799: The double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here'). Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, autumn is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas fall is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation. AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where
12441-653: The early Vandals with the Przeworsk culture , which has led to some authors equating them to the Lugii , who were another group of Germanic peoples associated with that same archaeological culture and region. Expanding into Dacia during the Marcomannic Wars and to Pannonia during the Crisis of the Third Century , the Vandals were confined to Pannonia by the Goths around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle from Constantine
12584-475: The first capital of the Vandal kingdom. The Romans and the Vandals concluded a treaty in 435 giving the Vandals control of the Mauretania and the western half of Numidia. Genseric chose to break the treaty in 439 when he invaded the province of Africa Proconsularis and seized Carthage on October 19. The city was captured without a fight; the Vandals entered the city while most of the inhabitants were attending
12727-510: The following two centuries) when this ethnic group eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North, and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic. While non-rhoticity spread on
12870-420: The great age of around 88 years. According to the law of succession which he had promulgated, the oldest male member of the royal house was to succeed. Thus he was succeeded by his son Huneric (477–484), who at first tolerated Catholics, owing to his fear of Constantinople, but after 482 began to persecute Manichaeans and Catholics." Gunthamund (484–496), his cousin and successor, sought internal peace with
13013-939: The hospital , BrE to hospital ; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor , BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor ). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other, and American English is not a standardized set of dialects. Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , license for licence , catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling . Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." Other differences are due to
13156-504: The increasing Romanisation of the region from the 1st century BC. The Duchy of Gascony became fragmented from the 9th century onwards, allowing the creation of the Viscounty of Bearn. The people of Béarn thus organised themselves for the first time in an entity of their own. The first reigning dynasty was the Centulle family. It was also at this time, around the 8th or 9th century, that Beneharnum
13299-656: The influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish ) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers. Any phonologically unmarked North American accent falls under an umbrella known as General American. This section mostly refers to such General American features. Studies on historical usage of English in both
13442-687: The land between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, which the Franks had conquered from the Visigoths, and from the 6th century onwards controlled this territory; a duchy of Vasconia (then Gascony) was formed. In the 7th century, Odon had a large kingdom stretching from the Pyrenees to the Loire with Toulouse as its capital. The language commonly spoken by the Vascons was Aquitanian, although its area of influence continued to decline with
13585-438: The late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce . New York City and Southern accents are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored. Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas,
13728-427: The mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in
13871-468: The most able barbarian leader of the Migration Period. Michael Frassetto writes that he probably contributed more to the destruction of Rome than any of his contemporaries. Although the barbarians controlled Hispania, they still comprised a tiny minority among a much larger Hispano-Roman population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000. Shortly after seizing the throne, Genseric was attacked from
14014-617: The most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English , which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans , has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture . Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English , spoken in
14157-729: The name of the Silingi, is only one of six that existed in Roman Britain that did not survive the Sub-Roman era, and appears to have been ritually cursed – likely by the Anglo-Saxons – before being abandoned. In 405 AD the Vandals advanced from Pannonia travelling west along the Danube without much difficulty, but when they reached the Rhine, they met resistance from the Franks , who populated and controlled Romanized regions in northern Gaul . According to
14300-605: The next thirty-five years, with a large fleet, Genseric looted the coasts of the Eastern and Western Empires. Vandal activity in the Mediterranean was so substantial that the sea's name in Old English was Wendelsæ (i. e. Sea of the Vandals). After Attila the Hun 's death, however, the Romans could afford to turn their attention back to the Vandals, who were in control of some of the richest lands of their former empire. In an effort to bring
14443-475: The orders of the Romans, the Visigoths invaded Iberia in 418. They almost wiped out the Alans and Silingi Vandals who voluntarily subjected themselves to the rule of Hasdingian leader Gunderic . Gunderic was then pushed from Gallaecia to Baetica by a Roman- Suebi coalition in 419. In 429, under king Genseric (reigned 428–477), the Vandals entered North Africa . By 439 they established a kingdom which included
14586-523: The origins of the Germanic peoples. He names them as one of the groups sometimes thought to be one of the oldest divisions of these peoples, along with the Marsi , Gambrivii , Suebi but does not say where they live, or which peoples are within this category. On the other hand, Tacitus and Ptolemy give information about the position of Varini, Burgundians, and Gutones in this period, and these indications suggest that
14729-402: The past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned / learnt , burned / burnt , snuck/sneaked , dove/dived ) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school ); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to
14872-543: The pope's influence saved Rome is, however, questioned. The Vandals departed with countless valuables. Eudoxia and her daughter Eudocia were taken to North Africa. In 456 a Vandal fleet of 60 ships threatening both Gaul and Italy was ambushed and defeated at Agrigentum and Corsica by the Western Roman general Ricimer . In 457 a mixed Vandal-Berber army returning with loot from a raid in Campania were soundly defeated in
15015-459: The position of the sovereigns of Béarn oscillated between neutrality and following the French positions (without paying tribute). The people of Bearn were reluctant to follow a policy favourable to the kings of France, they felt that they belonged to the Gascon community and saw the kingdom of France as a foreign land. It was not until Gaston III , known as Fébus, that a new policy appeared: to make Bearn
15158-527: The primary religion in North Africa. Generally most Vandal kings, except Hilderic , persecuted Trinitarian Christians to a greater or lesser extent, banning conversion for Vandals, exiling bishops and generally making life difficult for Trinitarians. According to the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia : "Genseric, one of the most powerful personalities of the "era of the Migrations", died on 25 January 477, at
15301-583: The probable homeland of the tribe prior to the Migration Period . As the Vandals eventually came to live outside of Germania , they were not considered Germani by ancient Roman authors. Neither another East Germanic -speaking group, the Goths , nor Norsemen (early Scandinavians), were counted among the Germani by the Romans. Since the Vandals spoke a Germanic language (mainly: Vandalic ) and belonged to early Germanic culture , they are classified as
15444-524: The races at the hippodrome. Genseric made it his capital, and styled himself the King of the Vandals and Alans , to denote the inclusion of the Alans of northern Africa into his alliance. His forces also occupied Sardinia , Corsica and the Balearic Islands . His siege of Palermo in 440 was a failure as was the second attempt to invade Sicily near Agrigento in 442 (the Vandals occupied the island from 468 to 476 when it
15587-630: The rear by a large force of Suebi under the command of Heremigarius who had managed to take Lusitania . This Suebi army was defeated near Mérida and its leader Hermigarius drowned in the Guadiana River while trying to flee. It is possible that the name Al-Andalus (and its derivative Andalusia ) is derived from the Arabic adoption of the name of the Vandals. The Vandals under Genseric (also known as Geiseric) crossed to Africa in 429 . Although numbers are unknown and some historians debate
15730-417: The region. The ties of vassalage between Béarn and Aragon were gradually weakened and then broken, without any clashes, during the first half of the 13th century. This rupture was the occasion for the kings of England to demand the return of Bearn to the Gascon fold. In spite of his desire of independence, Gaston VII pays homage to the king of England in 1240. The return of Béarn to the Gascon sphere of influence
15873-448: The royal family led a revolt, raising the banner of national Arianism, and his cousin Gelimer (530–534) became king. Hilderic, Hoamer and their relatives were thrown into prison. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I declared war, with the stated intention of restoring Hilderic to the Vandal throne. The deposed Hilderic was murdered in 533 on Gelimer's orders. While an expedition was en route,
16016-563: The same region, are likely to have been the same people as the Vandals. The Lugii are mentioned by Strabo , Tacitus and Ptolemy as a large group of tribes between the Vistula and the Oder. Strabo and Ptolemy do not mention the Vandals at all, only the Lugii, Tacitus mentions them in a passage about the ancestry of the Germanic peoples without saying where they lived, and Pliny the Elder in contrast mentions
16159-540: The second book, Twenty Years After . In the first book of the series, upon meeting the Cardinal, it is also noted that d'Artagnan comes from Béarn. That d'Artagnan is usually referred to as a Gascon is neither surprising nor incorrect, as Béarn forms part of Gascony. 43°18′00″N 0°22′00″W / 43.3000°N 0.3667°W / 43.3000; -0.3667 American English American English , sometimes called United States English or U.S. English ,
16302-402: The siege of Hippo Regius, which enabled Bonifacius to retreat from Hippo Regius to Carthage , where he was joined by Aspar's army. During the summer of 432, Genseric soundly defeated the joint forces of both Bonifacius and Aspar, which enabled him to seize Hippo Regius unopposed. Genseric and Aspar subsequently negotiated a peace treaty of some sorts. Upon seizing Hippo Regius, Genseric made it
16445-474: The south [by] the Hister ( Danube )." The Vandals were attacked by the Gothic king Geberic , and their king Visimar was killed. The Vandals then migrated to neighbouring Pannonia , where, after Constantine the Great (in about 330) granted them lands on the right bank of the Danube, they lived for the next sixty years. In the late 4th century and early 5th, the famous magister militum Stilicho (died 408),
16588-564: The third busiest airport in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine région of France, after Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport and Biarritz Pays Basque Airport . Béarn has a long association with aviation. The meteorological conditions of Béarn were convenient for early aviators, and the Wright brothers made several flights in Pont-Long, a flat marshy area north of Pau from 1908 onwards. Wilbur Wright helped set up
16731-570: The traditional standard accent of (southern) England, Received Pronunciation (RP), has evolved a trap–bath split . Moreover, American accents preserve /h/ at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping , particularly in informal contexts. However, General American is also innovative in a number of its own ways: The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from
16874-498: The two factions broke down, and in 455 with a letter from Licinia Eudoxia, begging Genseric's son to rescue her, the Vandals took Rome, along with the Empress and her daughters Eudocia and Placidia . The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine offers the only fifth-century report that, on 2 June 455, Pope Leo the Great received Genseric and implored him to abstain from murder and destruction by fire, and to be satisfied with pillage. Whether
17017-553: The validity of estimates, based on Procopius' assertion that the Vandals and Alans numbered 80,000 when they moved to North Africa, Peter Heather estimates that they could have fielded an army of around 15,000–20,000. According to Procopius, the Vandals came to Africa at the request of Bonifacius , the military ruler of the region. Seeking to establish himself as an independent ruler in Africa or even become Roman Emperor, Bonifacius had defeated several Roman attempts to subdue him, until he
17160-417: The verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout , holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover , and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin ( win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others). Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in
17303-433: The west, Gascony ( Landes and Armagnac ) to the north, Bigorre to the east, in addition to Spain ( Aragon ) to the south. Today, the mainstays of the Béarn area are the petroleum industry , the aerospace industry through the helicopter turboshaft engine manufacturer Turbomeca , tourism and agriculture (much of which involves maize (corn) grown for seed). Pau was the birthplace of Elf Aquitaine , which has now become
17446-430: The western Mediterranean . In 425, the Vandals pillaged the Balearic Islands , Hispania and Mauritania , sacking Cartagena and Seville in 425. The capture of the maritime city of Cartagena enabled the Vandals to engage in widespread naval activities. In 428 Gunderic captured Seville for a second time but died while laying siege to the city's church. He was succeeded by his half-brother Genseric , who although he
17589-741: The wheat fields outside the city lay dormant and unharvested. The death of Augustine shocked the Regent of the Western Roman Empire , Galla Placidia , who feared the consequences if her realm lost its most important source of grain. She raised a new army in Italy and convinced her nephew in Constantinople , the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II , to send an army to North Africa led by Aspar . Around July–August 431, Genseric raised
17732-772: The word corn , used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S. Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812 , with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style ). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms ( lot , waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin , adobe in
17875-506: The words of Merrills "reluctance to usurp the imperial prerogative". Although the Vandals had fended off attacks from the Romans and established hegemony over the islands of the western Mediterranean, they were less successful in their conflict with the Berbers . Situated south of the Vandal kingdom, the Berbers inflicted two major defeats on the Vandals in the period 496–530. Differences between
18018-454: The world", an act considered to be a declaration of independence. Subsequently, he avoided French reprisals with the disaster of the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. Fébus also managed to ward off English intentions for Bearn. To do this, he faced the Black Prince, who claimed Bearn as a prince of Aquitaine. After the French and English failures to obtain a tribute, the autonomous viscounty becomes
18161-477: The world's first aviation school, which opened outside Pau in 1908. Pau Pyrénées Airport is located on the site of this aviation school. The French military trains its paratroopers at the School of Airborne Troops , which has been located near Pau since 1946. In Alexandre Dumas 's The Three Musketeers series, the protagonist d'Artagnan came from Béarn; he mentions having attended his father's funeral there in
18304-609: The world. Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers is known in linguistics as General American ; it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent . The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in
18447-469: The years 454–457, when the Catholic community at Carthage, being without a head, elected Deogratias bishop. The same was also the case during the years 476–477 when Bishop Victor of Cartenna sent him, during a period of peace, a sharp refutation of Arianism and suffered no punishment. Huneric, Genseric's successor, issued edicts against Catholics in 483 and 484 in an effort to marginalise them and make Arianism
18590-471: Was illegitimate (his mother was a slave) had held a prominent position at the Vandal court, rising to the throne unchallenged. In 429, the Vandals departed Spain which remained almost totally in Roman hands until 439, when the Sueves, confined to Gallaecia moved south and captured Emerita Augusta (Mérida), the see city of Roman administration for the whole peninsula. Genseric is often regarded by historians as
18733-407: Was added, five communities or parishes ( Villenave-près-Béarn , Escaunets , Séron , Gardères , and Luquet ) did not form part of the dowry; they remained, or became, part of Bigorre . Their attachment to Bigorre continues to the present, as they followed it into Hautes-Pyrénées , rather than being incorporated into the surrounding Pyrénées-Atlantiques . The name Béarn derives from Beneharnum ,
18876-594: Was built in 1977 and links Pau , Toulouse and Bayonne. In Béarn, the A64 has junctions serving the towns of Salies-de-Béarn , Orthez , Artix , Pau and Soumoulou . The A65 ( l'autoroute de Gascogne , European designation E7) links Pau with Langon . It serves the Béarnese towns of Lescar , Thèze and Garlin . At Langon, the A65 joins on to the A62, which continues to Bordeaux . The A65
19019-494: Was ceded to Odovacer). Historian Cameron suggests that the new Vandal rule may not have been unwelcomed by the population of North Africa as the great landowners were generally unpopular. The impression given by ancient sources such as Victor of Vita , Quodvultdeus , and Fulgentius of Ruspe was that the Vandal take-over of Carthage and North Africa led to widespread destruction. However, recent archaeological investigations have challenged this assertion. Although Carthage's Odeon
19162-509: Was destroyed, the street pattern remained the same and some public buildings were renovated. The political centre of Carthage was the Byrsa Hill. New industrial centres emerged within towns during this period. Historian Andy Merrills uses the large amounts of African Red Slip ware discovered across the Mediterranean dating from the Vandal period of North Africa to challenge the assumption that
19305-552: Was devastated by the Normans. Morlaàs then became the new capital of a nascent principality. The Centulle allowed the primitive Béarn to extend to the south and east, and several marriages led to the integration of the viscounty of Oloron around 1050 and then that of Montaner in 1085. The county of Orthez was annexed in 1194 under the Moncade dynasty, and all these territories together formed the historic Béarn, which kept its borders intact until
19448-531: Was first under Celtic and then under Germanic domination." This may account for the differentiation between the Celtic Lugii and their more Germanic successors the Vandals. In archaeology, the Vandals are associated with the Przeworsk culture, but the culture probably extended over several central and eastern European peoples. Their origin, ethnicity and linguistic affiliation are heavily debated. The bearers of
19591-576: Was hostile to Catholics, he contented himself with bloodless persecutions". Hilderic (523–530) was the Vandal king most tolerant towards the Catholic Church . He granted it religious freedom; consequently, Catholic synods were once more held in North Africa. However, he had little interest in war, and left it to a family member, Hoamer . When Hoamer suffered a defeat against the Moors , the Arian faction within
19734-512: Was mastered by the newly appointed Gothic count of Africa, Sigisvult , who captured both Hippo Regius and Carthage . It is possible that Bonifacius had sought Genseric as an ally against Sigisvult, promising him a part of Africa in return. Advancing eastwards along the coast, the Vandals were confronted on the Numidian border in May–June 430 by Bonifacius. Negotiations broke down, and Bonifacius
19877-698: Was opened in 2010, and was at the time France's most expensive autoroute. Several more minor routes also serve Béarn. The Route Nationale 134 links the south of Pau with Somport in the Aspe Valley . Several mountain roads link Somport with Spain. Three railway lines serve Béarn. The first of these is the Toulouse to Bayonne railway, which was opened in stages between 1861 and 1867. Several rail stations are located on this line, including those of Coarraze-Nay , Assat , Pau , Artix , Orthez and Puyoô . The Puyoô to Dax railway line enables trains to run from Béarn to Bordeaux. Both these railway lines are served by TGV , Intercités and TER . The third railway line,
20020-444: Was originally located near the Limfjord (a sea inlet in Denmark). The stem can also be found in Old High German wentilsēo and Old English wendelsǣ , both literally meaning 'Vandal-sea' and designating the Mediterranean Sea . The Germanic mythological figure of Aurvandill has been interpreted by Rudolf Much to mean 'Shining Vandal'. Much forwarded the theory that the tribal name Vandal reflects worship of Aurvandil or
20163-414: Was reopened by SNCF in 2016. Canfranc Railway Station is located within Spain and is also served by the Spanish Jaca to Canfranc railway. International rail transport between Béarn and Aragon was thus previously possible using this route. In 2013, the regional governments of Aragon and Aquitaine agreed to take steps to further the economic links between their two regions, including possibly reopening
20306-442: Was soundly defeated. Bonifacius subsequently barricaded himself inside Hippo Regius with the Vandals besieging the city. Inside, Saint Augustine and his priests prayed for relief from the invaders, knowing full well that the fall of the city would spell conversion or death for many Roman Christians. On 28 August 430, three months into the siege, St. Augustine (who was 75 years old) died, perhaps from starvation or stress, as
20449-469: Was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings. Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick / he ran quickly ; different use of some auxiliary verbs ; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns ; different preferences for
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