Misplaced Pages

#799200

129-779: Baxter International Inc. is an American multinational healthcare company with headquarters in Deerfield, Illinois . The company primarily focuses on products to treat kidney disease , and other chronic and acute medical conditions. The company had 2017 sales of $ 10.6 billion, across two businesses: BioScience and Medical Products. Baxter's BioScience business produces recombinant and blood plasma proteins to treat hemophilia and other bleeding disorders; plasma-based therapies to treat immune deficiencies and other chronic and acute blood-related conditions; products for regenerative medicine , and vaccines . Baxter's Medical Products business produces intravenous products and other products used in

258-536: A 100% chance of being a haemophiliac. In contrast, for a female to inherit the disease, she must receive two deficient X-chromosomes, one from her mother and the other from her father (who must therefore be a haemophiliac himself). Hence, haemophilia is expressed far more commonly among males than females, while females, who must have two deficient X-chromosomes in order to have haemophilia, are far more likely to be silent carriers, survive childhood and to submit each of her genetic children to an at least 50% risk of receiving

387-514: A Baxter International facility in Marion . This facility produces approximately 60% of the intravenous (IV) fluids used in the United States. The disruption led to nationwide IV fluid shortages, prompting hospitals to ration supplies and implement strategies to conserve fluids. This also prompted questions from medical professionals about why such a large portion of the country's IV manufacturing capacity

516-560: A China-based branch of Scientific Protein Laboratories , based in Waunakee, Wisconsin . Changzhou SPL's facilities were never subjected to inspection by US FDA officials. In addition, Changzhou SPL's products were also never certified as safe for use in pharmaceutical products by Chinese FDA officials, due to Changzhou SPL's registration as a chemical company rather than a pharmaceutical manufacturer. Upon investigation of these adverse events by

645-766: A basis in a national ethos , being ultimate without a specific nationhood, and that this lack of an ethos appears in their ways of operating as they enter into contracts with countries that have low human rights or environmental standards . In the world economy facilitated by multinational corporations, capital will increasingly be able to play workers, communities, and nations off against one another as they demand tax, regulation and wage concessions while threatening to move. In other words, increased mobility of multinational corporations benefits capital while workers and communities lose. Some negative outcomes generated by multinational corporations include increased inequality , unemployment , and wage stagnation . Raymond Vernon presents

774-474: A carrier, his daughters will be carriers of haemophilia. His sons, however, will not be affected with the disease. The disease is X-linked and the father cannot pass haemophilia through the Y-chromosome. Males with the disorder are then no more likely to pass on the gene to their children than carrier females, though all daughters they sire will be carriers and all sons they father will not have haemophilia (unless

903-494: A concern about haemophilia. The tenth century Arab surgeon Al-Zahrawi noted cases of excessive bleeding among men in a village. Several similar references to the disease later known as haemophilia appear throughout historical writings, though no term for inherited abnormal bleeding tendencies existed until the nineteenth century. In 1803, John Conrad Otto , a Philadelphian physician, wrote an account about "a hemorrhagic disposition existing in certain families" in which he called

1032-498: A corporation invests in a country in which it is not domiciled, it is called foreign direct investment (FDI). Countries may place restrictions on direct investment; for example, China has historically required partnerships with local firms or special approval for certain types of investments by foreigners, although some of these restrictions were eased in 2019. Similarly, the United States Committee on Foreign Investment in

1161-436: A daughter Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg , who later became Queen of Spain. Two of her sons were haemophiliacs and both died from minor car accidents. Her eldest son, Prince Alfonso of Spain, Prince of Asturias , died at the age of 31 from internal bleeding after his car hit a telephone booth. Her youngest son, Infante Gonzalo , died at age 19 from abdominal bleeding following a minor car accident in which he and his sister hit

1290-446: A doctor. Like most aspects of the disorder, life expectancy varies with severity and adequate treatment. People with severe haemophilia who do not receive adequate, modern treatment have greatly shortened lifespans and often do not reach maturity. Prior to the 1960s when effective treatment became available, average life expectancy was only 11 years. By the 1980s the life span of the average haemophiliac receiving appropriate treatment

1419-467: A female carrying the defect on one of her X-chromosomes may not be affected by it, as the equivalent dominant allele on her other chromosome should express itself to produce the necessary clotting factors, due to X inactivation. Therefore, heterozygous females are just carriers of this genetic disposition. However, the Y-chromosome in the male has no gene for factors VIII or IX. If the genes responsible for production of factor VIII or factor IX present on

SECTION 10

#1732901318800

1548-429: A free market system where there is little government interference. As a result, international wealth is maximized with free exchange of goods and services. To many economic liberals, multinational corporations are the vanguard of the liberal order. They are the embodiment par excellence of the liberal ideal of an interdependent world economy. They have taken the integration of national economies beyond trade and money to

1677-458: A high likelihood of trauma, such as motorcycling and skateboarding . Popular sports with very high rates of physical contact and injuries such as American football , hockey , boxing , wrestling , and rugby should be avoided by people with haemophilia. Other active sports like soccer , baseball , and basketball also have a high rate of injuries, but have overall less contact and should be undertaken cautiously and only in consultation with

1806-531: A lab test. This test was done by transferring the blood of one haemophiliac to another haemophiliac. The fact that this corrected the clotting problem showed that there was more than one form of haemophilia. Haemophilia has featured prominently in European royalty and thus is sometimes known as 'the royal disease'. Queen Victoria passed the mutation for haemophilia B to her son Leopold and, through two of her daughters, Alice and Beatrice, to various royals across

1935-436: A male's X-chromosome are deficient there is no equivalent on the Y-chromosome to cancel it out, so the deficient gene is not masked and the disorder will develop. Since a male receives his single X-chromosome from his mother, the son of a healthy female silently carrying the deficient gene will have a 50% chance of inheriting that gene from her and with it the disease; and if his mother is affected with haemophilia, he will have

2064-487: A million troops to help, and by February 1991, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. Due to the oil boycott from Kuwait and Iran, oil prices rose and quickly recovered. Saudi Arabia once again led OPEC, and thanks to assistance in defending Kuwait, new relations emerged between the USA and OPEC. Operation "Desert Storm" brought mutual dependence among the main oil producers. OPEC continued to influence global oil prices but recognized

2193-505: A need for products closer to the Midwest, the company opened a manufacturing plant in Glenview, Illinois , in 1933. Baxter's interest was bought out in 1935 by Ralph Falk, who established a research and development function. In 1939 the company developed a vacuum-type collection container, extending the shelf life of blood from hours to weeks. In 1954, the company expanded operations outside of

2322-549: A nonfunctional gene . Most commonly found in men, haemophilia can affect women too, though very rarely. A woman would need to inherit two affected X chromosomes to be affected, whereas a man would only need one X chromosome affected. It is possible for a new mutation to occur during early development, or haemophilia may develop later in life due to antibodies forming against a clotting factor. Other types include haemophilia C , which occurs due to low levels of factor XI , Von Willebrand disease , which occurs due to low levels of

2451-779: A nonfunctional gene on one of the X chromosomes may be mildly symptomatic. Haemophilia C occurs equally in both sexes and is mostly found in Ashkenazi Jews . In the 1800s haemophilia B was common within the royal families of Europe . The difference between haemophilia A and B was determined in 1952. Characteristic symptoms vary with severity. In general symptoms are internal or external bleeding episodes, which are called "bleeds". People with more severe haemophilia experience more severe and more frequent bleeds, while people with mild haemophilia usually experience more minor symptoms except after surgery or serious trauma. In cases of moderate haemophilia symptoms are variable which manifest along

2580-968: A person becomes refractory to replacement coagulation factor as a result of high levels of circulating inhibitors, this may be partially overcome with recombinant human factor VIII . In early 2008, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an anti-haemophilic drug completely free of albumin, which made it the first anti-haemophilic drug in the US to use an entirely synthetic purification process. Since 1993 recombinant factor products (which are typically cultured in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) tissue culture cells and involve little, if any human plasma products) have been available and have been widely used in wealthier western countries. While recombinant clotting factor products offer higher purity and safety, they are, like concentrate, extremely expensive, and not generally available in

2709-737: A process needed to stop bleeding. This results in people bleeding for a longer time after an injury, easy bruising , and an increased risk of bleeding inside joints or the brain . Those with a mild case of the disease may have symptoms only after an accident or during surgery. Bleeding into a joint can result in permanent damage while bleeding in the brain can result in long term headaches , seizures , or an altered level of consciousness . There are two main types of haemophilia: haemophilia A , which occurs due to low amounts of clotting factor VIII , and haemophilia B , which occurs due to low levels of clotting factor IX . They are typically inherited from one's parents through an X chromosome carrying

SECTION 20

#1732901318800

2838-448: A report produced by the company indicated that changes made to reduce environmental impacts generated savings that exceeded their cost, producing a net profit. Reporting was company-wide, with a variety of aggregation and reporting, including on the company's internet and intranet sites. The company was an early joiner in the "green and greedy" movement, which aims to lessen the environmental impacts of manufacturing its products while saving

2967-429: A spectrum between severe and mild forms. In both haemophilia A and B, there is spontaneous bleeding but a normal bleeding time, normal prothrombin time , normal thrombin time , but prolonged partial thromboplastin time . Internal bleeding is common in people with severe haemophilia and some individuals with moderate haemophilia. The most characteristic type of internal bleed is a joint bleed where blood enters into

3096-400: A spontaneous gene mutation. If a female gives birth to a haemophiliac son, either the female is a carrier for the blood disorder or the haemophilia was the result of a spontaneous mutation. Until modern direct DNA testing , however, it was impossible to determine if a female with only healthy children was a carrier or not. If a male has the disease and has children with a female who is not

3225-481: A subsidiary of Baxter International, worth $ 2 million. The company had been inflating the cost of the intravenous drugs sold to Kentucky Medicaid, at times as much as 1300%. In 2010, a jury in Las Vegas, Nevada , ordered Baxter and Teva Pharmaceuticals to pay $ 144 million to patients who had been infected with hepatitis C after doctors wrongly reused dirty medical supplies to administer propofol to patients, although

3354-408: A substance called von Willebrand factor, and parahaemophilia , which occurs due to low levels of factor V . Haemophilia A, B, and C prevent the intrinsic pathway from functioning properly; this clotting pathway is necessary when there is damage to the endothelium of a blood vessel. Acquired haemophilia is associated with cancers , autoimmune disorders , and pregnancy . Diagnosis is by testing

3483-534: A trial comparing on-demand treatment of boys (< 30 months) with haemophilia A with prophylactic treatment (infusions of 25 IU/kg body weight of Factor VIII every other day) in respect to its effect on the prevention of joint-diseases. When the boys reached 6 years of age, 93% of those in the prophylaxis group and 55% of those in the episodic-therapy group had a normal index joint-structure on MRI . Preventative treatment, however, resulted in average costs of $ 300,000 per year. The author of an editorial published in

3612-404: A vicious cycle of hemarthrosis-synovitis-hemarthrosis. In addition, iron deposition in the synovium may induce an inflammatory response activating the immune system and stimulating angiogenesis, resulting in cartilage and bone destruction. Typically, females possess two X-chromosomes , and males have one X and one Y-chromosome . Since the mutations causing the disease are X-linked recessive ,

3741-399: A wall while avoiding a cyclist. Neither appeared injured or sought immediate medical care and Gonzalo died two days later from internal bleeding. The method for the production of an antihaemophilic factor was discovered by Judith Graham Pool from Stanford University in 1964, and approved for commercial use in 1971 in the United States under the name Cryoprecipitated AHF . Together with

3870-507: A week and may continue for life. Rapid treatment of bleeding episodes decreases damage to the body. Factor VIII is used in haemophilia A and factor IX in haemophilia B. Factor replacement can be either isolated from human plasma , recombinant , or a combination of the two. Some people develop antibodies (inhibitors) against the replacement factors given to them, so the amount of the factor has to be increased or non-human replacement products must be given, such as porcine factor VIII. If

3999-489: A wider variety of products and services (including vaccines and a greater variety of blood products) through acquisitions of various companies. Sales and production facilities also expanded throughout the world. In 1982, Baxter acquired Medcom, Inc., a New York -based firm founded by Richard Fuisz and his brother, that had large markets in the United States and Saudi Arabia. Baxter chief executive Vernon Loucks fired Fuisz who then brought anti-boycott charges against Baxter to

Baxter International - Misplaced Pages Continue

4128-479: A woman who settled near Plymouth, New Hampshire, in 1720. The idea that affected males could pass the trait onto their unaffected daughters was not described until 1813 when John F. Hay, published an account in The New England Journal of Medicine . In 1924, a Finnish doctor discovered a hereditary bleeding disorder similar to haemophilia localised in Åland , southwest of Finland. This bleeding disorder

4257-461: A year from the kickbacks, according to government documents." In 1996, the company entered into a four-way, $ 640 million settlement with haemophiliacs 1999 in relation to blood clotting concentrates that were infected with HIV. Under pressure from shareholders due to poor performance and an unsuccessful merger, Loucks was forced to resign. Baxter acquired medical device firm Baxa on November 10, 2011. In 2011, Hikma Pharmaceuticals PLC completed

4386-432: Is a family history of the condition. Several options are available to parents. If there is no family history of haemophilia, it is usually only diagnosed when a child begins to walk or crawl. Affected children may experience joint bleeds or easy bruising. Mild haemophilia may only be discovered later, usually after an injury or a dental or surgical procedure. Genetic testing and counselling are available to help determine

4515-516: Is a mild and rare form and is due to a deficiency in factor V . This type can be inherited or acquired . A non-genetic form of haemophilia is caused by autoantibodies against factor VIII and so is known as acquired haemophilia A . It is a rare but potentially life-threatening bleeding disorder caused by the development of autoantibodies (inhibitors) directed against plasma coagulation factors. Acquired haemophilia can be associated with cancers, autoimmune disorders and following childbirth. There

4644-473: Is a recessive X-linked genetic disorder resulting in a deficiency of functional clotting Factor VIII. Haemophilia B is also a recessive X-linked genetic disorder involving a lack of functional clotting Factor IX. Haemophilia C is an autosomal genetic disorder involving a lack of functional clotting Factor XI . Haemophilia C is not completely recessive, as heterozygous individuals also show increased bleeding. The type of haemophilia known as parahaemophilia

4773-399: Is available to pregnant women who may be carriers of the condition. As with all genetic disorders, it is also possible for a human to acquire it spontaneously through mutation , rather than inheriting it, because of a new mutation in one of their parents' gametes. Spontaneous mutations account for about 33% of all cases of haemophilia A. About 30% of cases of haemophilia B are the result of

4902-534: Is called "Von Willebrand Disease" . The term "haemophilia" is derived from the term "haemorrhaphilia" which was used in a description of the condition written by Friedrich Hopff in 1828, while he was a student at the University of Zurich . In 1937, Patek and Taylor, two doctors from Harvard University , discovered anti-haemophilic globulin. In 1947, Alfredo Pavlovsky , a doctor from Buenos Aires, found haemophilia A and haemophilia B to be separate diseases by doing

5031-450: Is criss-cross type. This type of pattern is also seen in colour blindness . A mother who is a carrier has a 50% chance of passing the faulty X-chromosome to her daughter, while an affected father will always pass on the affected gene to his daughters. A son cannot inherit the defective gene from his father. Genetic testing and genetic counselling is recommended for families with haemophilia. Prenatal testing , such as amniocentesis ,

5160-436: Is intracranial haemorrhage which today accounts for one third of all deaths of people with haemophilia. Two other major causes of death include hepatitis infections causing cirrhosis and obstruction of air or blood flow due to soft tissue haemorrhage. Haemophilia frequency is about 1 instance in every 10,000 births (or 1 in 5,000 male births) for haemophilia A and 1 in 50,000 births for haemophilia B. About 18,000 people in

5289-411: Is no long-term cure. Treatment and prevention of bleeding episodes is done primarily by replacing the missing blood clotting factors. Clotting factors are usually not needed in mild haemophilia. In moderate haemophilia clotting factors are typically only needed when bleeding occurs or to prevent bleeding with certain events. In severe haemophilia preventive use is often recommended two or three times

Baxter International - Misplaced Pages Continue

5418-410: Is often handled through international arbitration . The actions of multinational corporations are strongly supported by economic liberalism and free market system in a globalized international society. According to the economic realist view, individuals act in rational ways to maximize their self-interest and therefore, when individuals act rationally, markets are created and they function best in

5547-701: Is tied to a single facility. As of November 7, 2024, the facility resumed producing some IV fluids. However, with the onset of flu season, hospitals continued to prioritize conservation efforts. During the tenure of Vernon Loucks, who was Baxter's CEO from 1980 to 1998 and chairman from 1987 to 1999, company sales "more than quadrupled to $ 5.7 billion while its workforce rose from 30,000 to 42,000." During that time, Loucks hired and groomed staff who went on to become CEOs elsewhere. Baxter alumni groomed by Loucks included Terry Mulligan of MedAssets, Lance Piccolo at Caremark, Mike Mussallem of Edwards Lifesciences Corp and CEOs of Boston Scientific Corp. and Cardinal Health. In 1997,

5676-865: Is usually a large corporation incorporated in one country that produces or sells goods or services in various countries. Two common characteristics shared by MNCs are their large size and centrally controlled worldwide activities. MNCs may gain from their global presence in a variety of ways. First of all, MNCs can benefit from the economy of scale by spreading R&D expenditures and advertising costs over their global sales, pooling global purchasing power over suppliers, and utilizing their technological and managerial experience globally with minimal additional costs. Furthermore, MNCs can use their global presence to take advantage of underpriced labor services available in certain developing countries and gain access to special R&D capabilities residing in advanced foreign countries. The problem of moral and legal constraints upon

5805-620: The Swedish Africa Company founded in 1649 and the Hudson's Bay Company founded in 1670. These early corporations engaged in international trade and exploration and set up trading posts. The Dutch government took over the VOC in 1799, and during the 19th century, other governments increasingly took over private companies, most notably in British India. During the process of decolonization ,

5934-599: The U.S. Commerce Department Office of Anti-Boycott Compliance (OAC). Fuisz alleged that Baxter had sold their profitable Ashdod facility to Teva Pharmaceutical Industries in 1988 while simultaneously negotiating the construction of a similar plant in Syria in partnership with the Syrian military in order to be removed from the Arab League blacklist in 1989. In 1993 Baxter pleaded guilty to a felony in relation to an anti- boycott law in

6063-548: The World Health Organization and United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on the vaccine, and uses a cell -based rather than egg -based technology that allows a shorter production time. In 2008, Baxter launched Science@Work: Expanding Minds with Real-World Science, which supports teacher training and student development in healthcare and biotechnology in Chicago Public Schools. In 2013,

6192-745: The history of colonialism . The first multi-national corporations were founded to set up colonial "factories" or port cities. The two main examples were the British East India Company founded in 1600 and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded in 1602. In addition to carrying on trade between Great Britain and its colonies, the British East India Company became a quasi-government in its own right, with local government officials and its own army in India. Other examples include

6321-655: The joint spaces . This is most common with severe haemophiliacs and can occur spontaneously (without evident trauma). If not treated promptly, joint bleeds can lead to permanent joint damage and disfigurement. Bleeding into soft tissues such as muscles and subcutaneous tissues is less severe but can lead to damage and requires treatment. Children with mild to moderate haemophilia may not have any signs or symptoms at birth, especially if they do not undergo circumcision . Their first symptoms are often frequent and large bruises and haematomas from frequent bumps and falls as they learn to walk. Swelling and bruising from bleeding in

6450-532: The 400,000 shares he can exercise at year end and Baxter's stock price remains at its current level, he will make more than $ 4   million. Loucks was succeeded by Harry Kraemer , who was succeeded by Robert Parkinson, who took the CEO position in 2004. In July 2009, Baxter International announced completion of the first commercial vaccine for the H1N1 ("swine flu") influenza . The company has been one of several working with

6579-546: The English language. Senior officials, although mostly still Swedish, all learned English and all major internal documents were in English, the lingua franca of multinational corporations. After the war, the number of businesses having at least one foreign country operation rose drastically from a few thousand to 78,411 in 2007. Meanwhile, 74% of parent companies are located in economically advanced countries. Developing and former communist countries such as China, India, and Brazil are

SECTION 50

#1732901318800

6708-589: The European colonial charter companies were disbanded, with the final colonial corporation, the Mozambique Company , dissolving in 1972. Mining of gold, silver, copper, and oil was a major activity early on and remains so today. International mining companies became prominent in Britain in the 19th century, such as the Rio Tinto company founded in 1873, which started with the purchase of sulfur and copper mines from

6837-538: The FDA (11 months earlier) that they would no longer use US prison plasma, which posed a high risk of virus transmission. It was announced in quarter 1 of 1996 that Baxter had agreed to settle a lawsuit involving 200 Japanese haemophilia patients who had become infected with HIV as a result of using contaminated haemophilia products which were unheated. The Japanese courts ordered for each victim to receive $ 411,460 by March 29 that year. The Baxter Althane disaster in autumn 2001

6966-456: The FDA Baxter recalled the rest of their Heparin products. In early 2009, samples of viral material supplied by Baxter International to a series of European laboratories were found to be contaminated with live Avian flu virus ( Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 ). Samples of the less harmful seasonal flu virus (subtype H3N2) were found to be mixed with the deadly H5N1 strain after a vaccine made from

7095-416: The FDA, academic institutions, and the involved pharmaceutical companies, the contaminant was identified as an "over-sulfated" derivative of chondroitin sulfate , a closely related substance obtained from mammal or fish cartilage and often used as a treatment for arthritis . Since over-sulfated chondroitin is not a naturally occurring molecule, it costs a fraction of true heparin precursor chemical, and mimics

7224-557: The International Energy Agency (IEA), enabling states to coordinate policy, gather data, and monitor global oil reserves. In the 1970s, OPEC gradually nationalized the Seven Sisters. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as the only largest world oil producer, could leverage this. However, Saudi Arabia opted for the correct approach and maintained consistent oil prices throughout the 1970s. In 1979, the "second oil shock" came from

7353-505: The Netherlands has become a popular choice, as its company laws have fewer requirements for meetings, compensation, and audit committees, and Great Britain had advantages due to laws on withholding dividends and a double-taxation treaty with the United States. Corporations can legally engage in tax avoidance through their choice of jurisdiction but must be careful to avoid illegal tax evasion . Corporations that are broadly active across

7482-545: The OLI framework. The other theoretical dimension of the role of multinational corporations concerns the relationship between the globalization of economic engagement and the culture of national and local responses. This has a history of self-conscious cultural management going back at least to the 60s. For example: Ernest Dichter, architect, of Exxon's international campaign, writing in the Harvard Business Review in 1963,

7611-571: The Spanish government. Rio Tinto, now based in London and Melbourne , Australia, has made many acquisitions and expanded globally to mine aluminum , iron ore , copper , uranium , and diamonds . European mines in South Africa began opening in the late 19th century, producing gold and other minerals for the world market, jobs for locals, and business and profits for companies. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902)

7740-458: The Third World colonies. That changed dramatically after 1945 as investors turned to industrialized countries and invested in manufacturing (especially high-tech electronics, chemicals, drugs, and vehicles) as well as trade. Sweden's leading manufacturing concern was SKF , a leading maker of bearings for machinery. In order to expand its international business, it decided in 1966 it needed to use

7869-636: The U.S. applies its corporate taxation "extraterritorially", which has motivated tax inversions to change the home state. By 2019, most OECD nations, with the notable exception of the U.S., had moved to territorial tax in which only revenue inside the border was taxed; however, these nations typically scrutinize foreign income with controlled foreign corporation (CFC) rules to avoid base erosion and profit shifting . In practice, even under an extraterritorial system, taxes may be deferred until remittance, with possible repatriation tax holidays , and subject to foreign tax credits . Countries generally cannot tax

SECTION 60

#1732901318800

7998-527: The United States sanctions against Iran ; European companies faced with the possibility of losing access to the U.S. market by trading with Iran. International investment agreements also facilitate direct investment between two countries, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and most favored nation status. Raymond Vernon reported in 1977 that of the largest multinationals focused on manufacturing, 250 were headquartered in

8127-506: The United States scrutinizes foreign investments. In addition, corporations may be prohibited from various business transactions by international sanctions or domestic laws. For example, Chinese domestic corporations or citizens have limitations on their ability to make foreign investments outside China, in part to reduce capital outflow . Countries can impose extraterritorial sanctions on foreign corporations even for doing business with other foreign corporations, which occurred in 2019 with

8256-517: The United States according to the FDA. Upon inspection, one of the raw ingredients used by Baxter was found to be contaminated – between 5 and 20 percent – with a substance that was similar, but not identical, to the ingredient itself. The company initiated a voluntary recall, temporarily suspended the manufacture of heparin , and launched an investigation. The investigation into the contamination has focused on raw heparin produced by one of Baxter's subcontractors Changzhou Scientific Protein Laboratories,

8385-609: The United States as the largest consumer and guarantor of the existing oil security order. Since the Iraq War, OPEC has had only a minor influence on oil prices, but it has expanded to 11 members, accounting for about 40 percent of total global oil production, although this is a decline from nearly 50 percent in 1974. Oil has practically become a common commodity, leading to much more volatile prices. Most OPEC members are wealthy, and most remain dependent on oil revenues, which has serious consequences, such as when OPEC members were pressured by

8514-612: The United States by opening an office in Belgium. In 1956 Baxter International introduced the first functioning artificial kidney , and in 1971 became a member of the Fortune 500 . In 1971, Baxter built a major manufacturing plant in Ashdod , Israel. As a result, the company was placed on the Arab League boycott list in the early 1980s. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the company expanded to deliver

8643-461: The United States from 2010. The USA became the leading oil producer, creating tension with OPEC. In 2014, Saudi Arabia increased production to push new American producers out of the market, leading to lower prices. OPEC then reduced production in 2016 to raise prices, further worsening relations with the United States. By 2012, only 7% of the world's known oil reserves were in countries that allowed private international companies free rein; 65% were in

8772-405: The United States have haemophilia. Each year in the US, about 400 babies are born with the disorder. Haemophilia usually occurs in males and less often in females. It is estimated that about 2,500 Canadians have haemophilia A, and about 500 Canadians have haemophilia B. "About seventy or eighty years ago, a woman by name of Smith, settled in the vicinity of Plymouth, New Hampshire, and transmitted

8901-471: The United States on the global oil market. In 1959, companies lowered the price of oil due to a surplus in the market. This reduction dealt a significant blow to the finances of producers. Saudi oil minister Abdullah Tariki and Venezuela’s Juan Perez Alfonso entered into a secret agreement (the Mahdi Pact), promising that if the price of oil was lowered a second time, they would take collective action against

9030-669: The United States turned to foreign oil sources, which had a significant impact on the recovery of the West after World War II. Most of the world's oil was found in Latin America and the Middle East, particularly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. This increase in non-American production was enabled by multinational corporations known as the 'Seven Sisters'. The "Seven Sisters" was a common term for

9159-610: The United States, 115 in Western Europe, 70 in Japan, and 20 in the rest of the world. The multinationals in banking numbered 20 headquartered in the United States, 13 in Europe, nine in Japan and three in Canada. Today multinationals can select from a variety of jurisdictions for various subsidiaries, but the ultimate parent company can select a single legal domicile ; The Economist suggests that

9288-530: The United States, 30% in Europe, 16% in Asia Pacific, 12% in Latin America and Canada. In 2011, Baxter had approximately 61,500 employees. The breakdown of regional employees in 2013 was 36% in the United States; 34% in Europe; 16% in Asia Pacific; 14% in Latin America and Canada. In 2013, Baxter International spent more than $ 1.2 billion on research and development. As of December 31, 2016, the company had approximately 48,000 employees. In 1953 William Graham became

9417-411: The United States. On July 15, 1985, American Hospital Supply Corporation CEO Karl D. Bays and Baxter's then-CEO Vernon R. Loucks Jr. signed an agreement that merged two of the United States' "largest producers of medical supplies". This was a "one-Baxter approach" in which the company provided "70% to 80% of what a hospital needed." In 1991, Baxter's home infusion subsidiary, Caremark , "was accused by

9546-451: The West to the post-colonial South and invest either in foreign expenditures or ostentatious economic development projects. After 1974, most of the money from OPEC members ceased as payments for goods and services or investments in Western industry. In February 1974, the first Washington Energy Conference was convened. The most significant contribution of this conference was the establishment of

9675-429: The acquisition of Baxter Healthcare Corporation's US generic injectables business (Multi-Source Injectables or MSI). In July 2013, EU antitrust regulators approved Baxter's bid for Sweden's Gambro . In March 2014, Baxter announced plans to create two independent global healthcare companies—one focused on developing and marketing bio-pharmaceuticals and the other on medical products. The medical products company retained

9804-401: The affected males "bleeders". He recognised that the disorder was hereditary and that it affected mostly males and was passed down by healthy females. His paper was the second paper to describe important characteristics of an X-linked genetic disorder (the first paper being a description of colour blindness by John Dalton who studied his own family). Otto was able to trace the disease back to

9933-474: The auto-antibodies. Anticoagulants such as heparin and warfarin are contraindicated for people with haemophilia as these can aggravate clotting difficulties. Also contraindicated are those drugs which have "blood thinning" side effects . For instance, medicines which contain aspirin , ibuprofen , or naproxen sodium should not be taken because they are well known to have the side effect of prolonged bleeding. Also contraindicated are activities with

10062-462: The behavior of multinational corporations, given that they are effectively "stateless" actors, is one of several urgent global socioeconomic problems that has emerged during the late twentieth century. Potentially, the best concept for analyzing society's governance limitations over modern corporations is the concept of "stateless corporations". Coined at least as early as 1991 in Business Week ,

10191-589: The blood for its ability to clot and its levels of clotting factors. Prevention may occur by removing an egg , fertilising it, and testing the embryo before transferring it to the uterus . Human embryos in research can be regarded as the technical object/process. Missing blood clotting factors are replaced to treat haemophilia. This may be done on a regular basis or during bleeding episodes. Replacement may take place at home or in hospital. The clotting factors are made either from human blood or by recombinant methods . Up to 20% of people develop antibodies to

10320-424: The clotting factors which makes treatment more difficult. The medication desmopressin may be used in those with mild haemophilia A. Studies of gene therapy are in early human trials. Haemophilia A affects about 1 in 5,000–10,000, while haemophilia B affects about 1 in 40,000 males at birth. As haemophilia A and B are both X-linked recessive disorders , females are rarely severely affected. Some females with

10449-728: The collapse of the Shah's regime in Iran. Iran became a regional power due to oil money and American weapons. The Shah eventually abdicated and fled the country. This prompted a strike by thousands of Iranian oil workers, significantly reducing oil production in Iran. Saudi Arabia tried to cope with the crisis by increasing production, but oil prices still soared, leading to the "second oil shock." Saudi Arabia significantly reduced oil production, losing most of its revenues. In 1986, Riyadh changed course, and oil production in Saudi Arabia sharply increased, flooding

10578-650: The companies. This occurred in 1960. Prior to the 1973 oil crisis , the Seven Sisters controlled around 85 percent of the world's petroleum reserves . In the 1970s, most countries with large reserves nationalized their reserves that had been owned by major oil companies. Since then, industry dominance has shifted to the OPEC cartel and state-owned oil and gas companies, such as Saudi Aramco , Gazprom (Russia), China National Petroleum Corporation , National Iranian Oil Company , PDVSA (Venezuela), Petrobras (Brazil), and Petronas (Malaysia). A unilateral increase in oil prices

10707-409: The company money. In 2009 the company announced it had reached a variety of its environmentally friendly goals, and that it would continue to try to reduce waste, emissions, energy use and environmental incidents over the coming years. The company had 2014 sales of $ 16.7 billion, across two businesses: BioScience (2013 sales - $ 6.6 billion) and Medical Products ($ 8.7 billion). Sales in 2013 were 42% in

10836-602: The company was included in The Civic 50, a list of the most community-minded companies in America from The National Conference on Citizenship and Points of Light, published by Bloomberg. In 2014, roughly 6,300 Baxter employees volunteered in their communities through The Baxter International Foundation's Dollars for Doers program, addressing local concerns such as healthcare, the environment and education. In 2014, Baxter and The Baxter International Foundation gave over $ 50 million. Baxter

10965-469: The company's CEO . Vernon Loucks became president and CEO in 1980. Loucks was forced to resign by shareholders . When shareholders forced Loucks to resign, In January, as Baxter International Inc.'s Vernon Loucks relinquished his CEO duties after 18 years, directors handed him a special stock-option grant of 950,000 shares "for the specific purposes of motivating" him "to implement a smooth transition of his responsibilities." If Mr.   Loucks sells all

11094-510: The conception was theoretically clarified in 1993: that an empirical strategy for defining a stateless corporation is with analytical tools at the intersection between demographic analysis and transportation research. This intersection is known as logistics management , and it describes the importance of rapidly increasing global mobility of resources. In a long history of analysis of multinational corporations, we are some quarter-century into an era of stateless corporations—corporations that meet

11223-464: The continent, including the royal families of Spain , Germany , and Russia . In Russia, Tsarevich Alexei , the son and heir of Tsar Nicholas II , famously had haemophilia, which he had inherited from his mother, Empress Alexandra , one of Queen Victoria's granddaughters. The haemophilia of Alexei would result in the rise to prominence of the Russian mystic Grigori Rasputin , at the imperial court. It

11352-643: The creation of a "world customer". The idea of a global corporate village entailed the management and reconstitution of parochial attachments to one's nation. It involved not a denial of the naturalness of national attachments, but an internationalization of the way a nation defines itself. "Multinational enterprise" (MNE) is the term used by international economist and similarly defined with the multinational corporation (MNC) as an enterprise that controls and manages production establishments, known as plants located in at least two countries. The multinational enterprise (MNE) will engage in foreign direct investment (FDI) as

11481-517: The debate from a neo-liberal perspective in Storm over the Multinationals (1977). Haemophilia Haemophilia ( British English ), or hemophilia ( American English ) (from Ancient Greek αἷμα ( haîma )  'blood' and φιλία ( philía )  'love of'), is a mostly inherited genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to make blood clots ,

11610-502: The deficient gene. However, it is possible for female carriers to become mild haemophiliacs due to lyonisation (inactivation) of the X-chromosomes. Haemophiliac daughters are more common than they once were, as improved treatments for the disease have allowed more haemophiliac males to survive to adulthood and become parents. Adult females may experience menorrhagia (heavy periods) due to the bleeding tendency. The pattern of inheritance

11739-430: The delivery of fluids and drugs to patients; inhalational anaesthetics ; contract manufacturing services; and products to treat end-stage kidney disease , or irreversible kidney failure , including products for peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis . Baxter International was founded in 1931 by Donald Baxter, a Los Angeles-based medical doctor, as a manufacturer and distributor of intravenous therapy solutions. Seeing

11868-444: The developing world. In many cases, factor products of any sort are difficult to obtain in developing countries. Clotting factors are either given preventively or on-demand. Preventive use involves the infusion of clotting factor on a regular schedule in order to keep clotting levels sufficiently high to prevent spontaneous bleeding episodes. On-demand (or episodic) treatment involves treating bleeding episodes once they arise. In 2007,

11997-421: The disease itself or from its treatment: Haemophilic arthropathy is characterised by chronic proliferative synovitis and cartilage destruction. If an intra-articular bleed is not drained early, it may cause apoptosis of chondrocytes and affect the synthesis of proteoglycans. The hypertrophied and fragile synovial lining while attempting to eliminate excessive blood may be more likely to easily rebleed, leading to

12126-534: The doctor in charge of her care. If haemophilia is suspected after a child has been born, a blood test can usually confirm the diagnosis. Blood from the umbilical cord can be tested at birth if there's a family history of haemophilia. A blood test will also be able to identify whether a child has haemophilia A or B, and how severe it is. There are several types of haemophilia: haemophilia A , haemophilia B , haemophilia C , parahaemophilia , acquired haemophilia A , and acquired haemophilia B . Haemophilia A

12255-481: The firm makes direct investments in host country plants for equity ownership and managerial control to avoid some transaction costs . Sanjaya Lall in 1974 proposed a spectrum of scholarly analysis of multinational corporations, from the political right to the left. He put the business school how-to-do-it writers at the extreme right, followed by the liberal laissez-faire economists, and the neoliberals (they remain right of center but do allow for occasional mistakes of

12384-427: The following idiosyncrasy to her descendants. It is one, she observed, to which her family is unfortunately subject, and had been the source not only of great solicitude, but frequently the cause of death. If the least scratch is made on the skin of some of them, as mortal a hemorrhagy will eventually ensue as if the largest wound is inflicted. (...) So assured are the members of this family of the terrible consequences of

12513-437: The government of paying doctors to steer patients to its intravenous drug service" In 1992 Caremark spun off from Baxter International. Caremark was fined $ 160 million for the "four-year-long federal mail-fraud and kickback" scheme in which the "home-infusion business unit made weekly payments to scores of doctors that averaged about $ 75 per patient for referring those patients to its services. Some doctors earned as much as $ 80,000

12642-416: The hands of state-owned companies that operated in one country and sold oil to multinationals such as BP, Shell, ExxonMobil and Chevron. Down through the 1930s, about 80% of the international investments by multinational corporations were concentrated in the primary sector, especially mining (especially oil) and agriculture (rubber, tobacco, sugar, palm oil , coffee, cocoa, and tropical fruits). Most went to

12771-603: The in-vitro properties of heparin, the counterfeit was almost certainly intentional as opposed to an accidental lapse in manufacturing. The raw heparin batches were found to have been cut from 2–60% with the counterfeit substance, and motivation for the adulteration was attributed to a combination of cost effectiveness and a shortage of suitable pigs in Mainland China. In mid-January 2008 Baxter voluntarily recalled some lots of multi-dose vials of Heparin in February in consultation with

12900-415: The internationalization of production. For the first time in history, production, marketing, and investment are being organized on a global scale rather than in terms of isolated national economies. International business is also a specialist field of academic research. Economic theories of the multinational corporation include internalization theory and the eclectic paradigm . The latter is also known as

13029-548: The joints, soft tissue , and muscles may also occur. Children with mild haemophilia may not have noticeable symptoms for many years. Often, the first sign in very mild haemophiliacs is heavy bleeding from a dental procedure , an accident, or surgery . Females who are carriers usually have enough clotting factors from their one normal gene to prevent serious bleeding problems, though some may present as mild haemophiliacs. Severe complications are much more common in cases of severe and moderate haemophilia. Complications may arise from

13158-417: The label for propofol clearly states that it is for single-patient use only and that aseptic procedures should be used at all times. Per a 2009 indemnity agreement between Teva (the manufacturer) and Baxter (acting as a distributor on behalf of Teva), the litigation and related settlements were defended and paid by Teva. In 2010, Baxter was ordered by the FDA to recall all of their Colleague infusion pumps from

13287-460: The largest recipients. However, 70% of foreign direct investment went into developed countries in the form of stocks and cash flows. The rise in the number of multinational companies could be due to a stable political environment that encourages cooperation, advances in technology that enable management of faraway regions, and favorable organizational development that encourages business expansion into other countries. A multinational corporation (MNC)

13416-474: The laws and regulations of both their domicile and the additional jurisdictions where they are engaged in business. In some cases, the jurisdiction can help to avoid burdensome laws, but regulatory statutes often target the "enterprise" with statutory language around "control". As of 1992 , the United States and most OECD countries have the donot legal authority to tax a domiciled parent corporation on its worldwide revenue, including subsidiaries. As of 2019 ,

13545-497: The least wound, that they will not suffer themselves to be bled on any consideration, having lost a relation by not being able to stop the discharge occasioned by this operation." John C. Otto, 1803 The excessive bleeding was known to ancient people. The Talmud instructs that a boy must not be circumcised if he had two brothers who died due to complications arising from their circumcisions, and Maimonides says that this excluded paternal half-brothers. This may have been due to

13674-569: The market due to 87 recalls and deaths associated with the pump. In December 2011, the non-partisan organization Public Campaign criticized Baxter for spending $ 10.45 million on lobbying and not paying any taxes during 2008–2010, instead getting $ 66 million in tax rebates, despite making a profit of $ 926 million. Multinational corporation Most of the current largest and most influential companies are publicly traded multinational corporations, including Forbes Global 2000 companies. The history of multinational corporations began with

13803-434: The market with cheap oil. This caused a worldwide drop in oil prices, hence the "third oil shock" or "counter-shock." However, this shock represented something much bigger—the end of OPEC's dominance and its control over oil prices. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein decided to attack Kuwait. The invasion sparked a crisis in the Middle East, prompting Saudi Arabia to request assistance from the United States. The United States sent

13932-475: The marketplace such as externalities). Moving to the left side of the line are nationalists, who prioritize national interests over corporate profits, then the "dependencia" school in Latin America that focuses on the evils of imperialism, and on the far left the Marxists. The range is so broad that scholarly consensus is hard to discern. Anti-corporate advocates criticize multinational corporations for being without

14061-553: The material killed test animals in a lab in the Czech Republic . Though the serious consequences were avoided by the lab in the Czech Republic, Baxter then claimed the failed controls over the distribution of the virus were 'stringent' and there was 'little chance' of the lethal virus harming humans. On July 2, 2009, Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway announced a settlement between the state and Baxter Healthcare Corporation,

14190-547: The mother is a carrier) There are numerous different mutations which cause each type of haemophilia. Due to differences in changes to the genes involved, people with haemophilia often have some level of active clotting factor. Individuals with less than 1% active factor are classified as having severe haemophilia, those with 1–5% active factor have moderate haemophilia, and those with mild haemophilia have between 5% and 40% of normal levels of active clotting factor. Haemophilia can be diagnosed before, during or after birth if there

14319-473: The name Baxter International Inc. and the bio-pharmaceuticals company is named Baxalta and spun-off as a new public company that showed on trading boards as of July 1, 2015. In July 2014, Baxter announced that it was exiting the vaccines business—divesting its commercial vaccine portfolio to Pfizer (with the sale expected to close by the end of the year) and exploring options for its vaccines R&D program, including influenza. In October 2015, José E. Almeida

14448-458: The normal clotting factors. Often the most effective treatment is corticosteroids which remove the auto-antibodies in half of people. As a secondary route of treatment, cyclophosphamide and cyclosporine are used and are proven effective for those who did not respond to the steroid treatments. In rare cases a third route or treatment is used, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin or immunosorbent that works to help control bleeding instead of battling

14577-560: The price collapse in 1998–1999. The United States still maintains close relations with Saudi Arabia. In 2003, U.S. forces invaded Iraq with the aim of removing the dictatorship and gaining access to Iraqi oil reserves, giving the United States greater strategic importance from 2000 to 2008. During this period, there was a constant shortage of oil, but its consumption continued to rise, maintaining high prices and leading to concerns about "peak oil". From 2005 to 2012, there were advances in oil and gas extraction, leading to increased production in

14706-595: The realities of the needs of source materials on a worldwide basis and to produce and customize products for individual countries. One of the first multinational business organizations, the East India Company , was established in 1601. After the East India Company came the Dutch East India Company , founded on March 20, 1603, which would become the largest company in the world for nearly 200 years. The main characteristics of multinational companies are: When

14835-424: The risk of passing the condition onto a child. This may involve testing a sample of tissue or blood to look for signs of the genetic mutation that causes haemophilia. A pregnant woman with a history of haemophilia in her family can test for the haemophilia gene. Such tests include: There is a small risk of these procedures causing problems such as miscarriage or premature labour, so the woman may discuss this with

14964-950: The same issue of the NEJM supports the idea that prophylactic treatment not only is more effective than on demand treatment but also suggests that starting after the first serious joint-related haemorrhage may be more cost effective than waiting until the fixed age to begin. Most haemophiliacs in third world countries have limited or no access to commercial blood clotting factor products. Desmopressin (DDAVP) may be used in those with mild haemophilia A. Tranexamic acid or epsilon aminocaproic acid may be given along with clotting factors to prevent breakdown of clots. Pain medicines , steroids , and physical therapy may be used to reduce pain and swelling in an affected joint. In those with severe haemophilia A already receiving FVIII, emicizumab may provide some benefit. Different treatments are used to help those with an acquired form of haemophilia in addition to

15093-457: The seven multinational companies that dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s. The nationalization of the Iranian oil industry in 1951 by Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh and the subsequent boycott of Iranian oil by all companies had dramatic consequences for Iran and the international oil market. Iran was unable to sell any of its oil. In August 1953,

15222-454: The then-prime minister was overthrown by a pro-American dictatorship led by the Shah, and in October 1954, the Iranian industry was denationalized. Worldwide oil consumption increased rapidly between 1949 and 1970, a period known as the 'golden age of oil'. This increase in consumption was caused not only by the growth of production by multinational oil companies but also by the strong influence of

15351-573: The world without a concentration in one area have been called stateless or "transnational" (although "transnational corporation" is also used synonymously with "multinational corporation" ), but as of 1992, a corporation must be legally domiciled in a particular country and engage in other countries through foreign direct investment and the creation of foreign subsidiaries. Geographic diversification can be measured across various domains, including ownership and control, workforce, sales, and regulation and taxation. Multinational corporations may be subject to

15480-503: The worldwide revenue of a foreign subsidiary, and taxation is complicated by transfer pricing arrangements with parent corporations. For small corporations, registering a foreign subsidiary can be expensive and complex, involving fees, signatures, and forms; a professional employer organization (PEO) is sometimes advertised as a cheaper and simpler alternative, but not all jurisdictions have laws accepting these types of arrangements. Disputes between corporations in different nations

15609-475: Was 50–60 years. Today with appropriate treatment, males with haemophilia typically have a near normal quality of life with an average lifespan approximately 10 years shorter than an unaffected male. Since the 1980s the primary leading cause of death of people with severe haemophilia has shifted from haemorrhage to HIV/AIDS acquired through treatment with contaminated blood products . The second leading cause of death related to severe haemophilia complications

15738-503: Was a series of 56 sudden deaths of kidney failure patients in Spain, Croatia, Italy, Germany, Taiwan, Colombia and the USA (mainly Nebraska and Texas). All had received hospital treatment with Althane hemodialysis equipment, a product range manufactured by Baxter International, USA. In 2008, the quality of blood thinning products produced by Baxter was brought into question when they were linked to 81 deaths and 785 severe allergic reactions in

15867-464: Was claimed that Rasputin was successful at treating Tsarevich Alexei's haemophilia. At the time, a common treatment administered by professional doctors was to use aspirin , which worsened rather than lessened the problem. It is believed that, by simply advising against the medical treatment, Rasputin could bring visible and significant improvement to the condition of Tsarevich Alexei. In Spain, Queen Victoria's youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice , had

15996-639: Was completed in December 2021 for $ 12.5 billion. In May 2023, Baxter announced it was selling its biopharma solutions business, which offers drugmakers support in the form of products like injectable delivery systems and services that include regulatory resources, help with drug formulation and development, and packaging capabilities, to private equity firms Warburg Pincus and Advent International for $ 4.25 billion in cash. In September 2024, Hurricane Helene caused significant flooding in North Carolina, affecting

16125-448: Was fully aware that the means to overcoming cultural resistance depended on an "understanding" of the countries in which a corporation operated. He observed that companies with "foresight to capitalize on international opportunities" must recognize that " cultural anthropology will be an important tool for competitive marketing". However, the projected outcome of this was not the assimilation of international firms into national cultures, but

16254-526: Was included for the 13th year in Corporate Responsibility magazine's 100 Best Corporate Citizens list in 2014 for its social responsibility performance. In August 1975, Baxter / Travenol withdrew a clotting factor product Hemofil after the product was associated with an outbreak of hepatitis B. Baxter, unknown to the FDA, continued to use prison plasma in factor concentrate production until October 1983, despite having entered into an agreement with

16383-546: Was labeled as "the largest nonviolent transfer of wealth in human history." The OPEC sought immediate discussions regarding participation in national oil industries. Companies were not inclined to object as the price hike benefited both them and OPEC members. In 1980, the Seven Sisters were entirely displaced and replaced by national oil companies (NOCs). The rise in oil prices burdened developing countries with balance of payments deficits, leading to an energy crisis. OPEC members had to abandon their plan of redistributing wealth from

16512-456: Was named chairman and chief executive officer. In January 2016 Shire PLC agreed to acquire Baxalta for $ 32 billion. In December 2016, Baxter announced it would acquire Claris Lifesciences injectables subsidiary, Claris Injectables, for $ 625 million. In December 2019, the company announced it would acquire Seprafilm from Sanofi for $ 350 million. In September 2021, Baxter announced it would acquire Hill-rom for $ 12.4 billion. The acquisition

16641-489: Was one of the few businessmen in the era who became Prime Minister (of South Africa 1890–1896). His mining enterprises included the British South Africa Company and De Beers . The latter company practically controlled the global diamond market from its base in southern Africa. In 1945, the United States was the world's largest oil producer. However, their reserves were declining due to high demand. Therefore,

#799200