A BatDiv or BATDIV was a standard U.S. Navy abbreviation or acronym for " battleship division ." The Commander of a Battleship Division was known, in official Navy communications, as COMBATDIV (followed by a number), such as COMBATDIV ONE.
116-587: United States Battleship Division Nine was a division of four, later five, dreadnought battleships of the United States Navy 's Atlantic Fleet that constituted the American contribution to the British Grand Fleet during World War I . Although the U.S. entered the war on 6 April 1917, hesitation among senior officers of the U.S. Navy as to the wisdom of dividing the American battle fleet prevented
232-482: A 37-year veteran who had been commended for valor at the Battle of Manila Bay , and was known both as an expert seaman and an extremely affable man. Both of these characteristics would serve him in good stead in his new role as joint admiral and diplomat. After nearly five months of hesitation, the departure of the division was finally set for the last week of November. The four ships of Battleship Division Nine—accompanied by
348-706: A Pacific power, and therefore it should take possession of Hawaii to protect the West Coast . Nevertheless, his support for American imperialism was more ambivalent than is often stated, and he remained lukewarm about American annexation of the Philippines . Mahan was a major influence on the Roosevelt family . In addition to Theodore, he corresponded with Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt until his death in 1914. During World War II, Roosevelt would ignore
464-543: A battle-distance unimagined prior to World War I. The rest of the Division's time was spent in escorting minecraft on the Northern Barrage. Though a monumental endeavor, the barrage proved largely ineffective. After an investment of 70,263 mines and more than $ 40 million (the equivalent of $ 572 million in 2009), only six submarines were confirmed as sunk by the barrage. Throughout Battleship Division Nine's time with
580-613: A conversion experience about 1871, when he realized that he could experience God's favor, not through his own merits, but only through "trust in the completed work of Christ on the cross." Geissler called one of his religious addresses almost "evangelical, albeit of the dignified stiff-upper-lip variety." And Mahan never mentioned a conversion experience in his autobiography. In later life, Mahan often spoke to Episcopal parishes. In 1899, at Holy Trinity Church in Brooklyn , Mahan emphasized his own religious experience and declared that one needed
696-549: A good deal of shooting at submarines which were not submarines. With experience, they saw fewer." Less than a week after their return, Battleship Division Nine was once again called upon to protect the Scandinavian Convoy as part of a general Grand Fleet response to intelligence reports suggesting German battlecruisers were loose in the North Sea. The mission took place in a strong gale that caused damage to ships throughout
812-576: A household word in the Imperial German Navy after Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered his officers to read Mahan, and Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849–1930) used Mahan's reputation to finance a powerful High Seas Fleet . Tirpitz, an intense navalist who believed ardently in Mahan's dictum that whatever power rules the sea also ruled the world, had The Influence of Sea Power Upon History translated into German in 1898 and had 8,000 copies distributed for free as
928-474: A more inviting place. Central to these efforts were sporting events. The Fleet held numerous inter-ship competitions, including soccer, rugby , rowing , track, and boxing , which were followed with intense interest by the men of the respective ships. Battleship division BatDivs existed from at least 1913, when there were four Battleship Divisions in the US Atlantic Fleet. By April 1917, with
1044-468: A national hero in Britain and used his biography as a platform for expressing his views on naval strategy and tactics. Mahan was criticized for so strongly condemning Nelson's love affair with Lady Emma Hamilton , but it remained the standard biography until the appearance of Carola Oman 's Nelson , 50 years later. Mahan struck up a friendship with pioneering British naval historian Sir John Knox Laughton ,
1160-643: A net advantage for world peace. In 1902, Mahan was elected president of the American Historical Association , and his address, "Subordination in Historical Treatment", is his most explicit explanation of his philosophy of history. In 1906, Mahan became rear admiral by an Act of Congress that promoted all retired captains who had served in the American Civil War . At the outbreak of World War I , he published statements favorable to
1276-1245: A personal relationship with God given through the work of the Holy Spirit . In 1909, Mahan published The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of the Christian , which was "part personal testimony, part biblical analysis, part expository sermon." Mahan died in Washington, D.C. , of heart failure on December 1, 1914, a few months after the outbreak of World War I. Alfred Thayer Mahan married Ellen Lyle Evans (born November 27th, 1851) in June 1872. Together, they had two daughters and one son; Helen Evans Mahan, born August 6th, 1873; Ellen Kuhn Mahan, born July 10th, 1877; and Lyle Evans Mahan, born 12 February 1881. Lyle Mahan alleged that his mother and father inherited several modest fortunes, though he admits that between maintaining multiple households (the Mahans owned at least two homes for most of their lives) and funding his sisters' and his own educations, they were not immensely wealthy. Lyle would go on to be
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#17329136988981392-578: A result, Secretary Daniels decided to send Battleship Division Nine, made up of the coal-burners New York , Wyoming , Florida , and Delaware . Though they were not the newest American ships, they were still formidable; each was capable of a 21 kn (24 mph; 39 km/h) maximum speed and armed with ten or twelve 14 in (360 mm) or 12 in (300 mm) guns. Furthermore, they were commanded by an experienced and highly capable officer in Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman ,
1508-667: A secret contingency plan for war between the British Empire and the United States. Mahan believed that if the Royal Navy blockaded the East Coast of the United States , the US Navy should be concentrated in one of its ports, preferably New York Harbor with its two widely separated exits, and employ torpedo boats to defend the other harbors. This concentration of the U.S. fleet would force
1624-518: A severe gale off the Grand Banks that began on 29 November. Captain Henry Wiley of Wyoming would later recall of that storm, "At the height of the gale, it blew as hard as I have ever seen it, and the seas were the worst I could recollect." Severe storm damage allowed over 250 long tons (250 t) of seawater to flood the forward compartments of New York , lowering her bow to the point where she
1740-463: A ship was being repaired. Recognizing the practicality of this solution, Admiral Rodman requested that the Navy Department send another battleship to operate with his division. Specifically, Rodman requested the ship be New York ' s sister ship Texas , to better match Grand Fleet policy, which encouraged the use of matched pairs to aid in rangefinding. Although there was some grumbling at
1856-485: A stock of examples to exemplify his theories, arguing that the education of naval officers should be based on a rigorous study of history. Mahan's framework derived from Jomini, and emphasized strategic locations (such as choke points , canals, and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet. Mahan also believed that in peacetime, states should increase production and shipping capacities and acquire overseas possessions, though he stressed that
1972-414: A successful attorney and financier, and named his only son Alfred Thayer Mahan II (born 1905, died 1985). In 1901 , an alternate history by Robert Conroy , the main character is a young United States Army officer named Patrick Mahan, a fictitious nephew of Admiral Mahan, who himself appears briefly in the story as well. In Harry Turtledove 's Southern Victory , another alternate history, Mahan
2088-445: A synthesis of old and new ideas arose from the lessons of the war, especially by Admiral Raoul Castex (1878–1968), who synthesized in his five-volume Théories Stratégiques the classical and materialist schools of naval theory. He reversed Mahan's theory that command of the sea precedes maritime communications and foresaw the enlarged roles of aircraft and submarines in naval warfare. The Influence of Seapower Upon History, 1660–1783
2204-457: A transnational consortium acting in defense of a multinational system of free trade . His theories, expounded before the submarine became a serious factor in warfare, delayed the introduction of convoys as a defense against the Imperial German Navy 's U-boat campaign during World War I. By the 1930s, the U.S. Navy had built long-range submarines to raid Japanese shipping; but in World War II,
2320-519: A visit to Europe, where he was feted. He returned to lecture at the War College and then, in 1896, he retired from active service, returning briefly to duty in 1898 to consult on naval strategy during the Spanish–American War . Mahan continued to write, and he received honorary degrees from Oxford , Cambridge , Harvard , Yale , Columbia , Dartmouth , and McGill . In 1902, Mahan popularized
2436-533: A way of pressuring the Reichstag to vote for the First Navy Bill . Tirpitz used Mahan not only as a way of winning over German public opinion but also as a guide to strategic thinking. Before 1914, Tirpitz completely rejected commerce raiding as a strategy and instead embraced Mahan's ideal of a decisive battle of annihilation between two fleets as the way to win command of the seas. Tirpitz always planned for
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#17329136988982552-676: Is frequently mentioned but never appears. He is spoken of as having been President of the United States from 1889 to 1897, and the Mahan Bedroom is a famous room in the Powel House in Philadelphia , analogous to the actual Lincoln Bedroom in the White House . As President, Mahan prevented the construction of a Confederate shipping canal in Nicaragua and opined that the main problem with republics
2668-508: The American Civil War . Commissioned as a lieutenant in 1861, Mahan served as an officer on USS Worcester and James Adger and as an instructor at the Naval Academy. In 1865, he was promoted to lieutenant commander , and then to commander (1872), and captain (1885). As commander of the USS ; Wachusett he was stationed at Callao , Peru , protecting U.S. interests during
2784-569: The American entry into World War I , there were at least nine Battleship Divisions, as BatDiv 9 was dispatched to operate with the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet . Before the Second World War, the U.S. Navy battleship force was organized into five Battleship Divisions of three battleships each. Only two of these BATDIVs were composed of three battleships of the same class, but mixing battleships of separate two-ship classes to form three-ship BATDIVs
2900-592: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . British naval superiority eventually defeated France, consistently preventing invasion and an effective blockade. Mahan emphasized that naval operations were chiefly to be won by decisive battles and blockades . In the 19th century, the United States sought greater control over its seaborne commerce in order to protect its economic interests which relied heavily on exports bound mainly for Europe. According to Peter Paret 's Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to
3016-604: The Imperial Japanese Armed Forces , still tied to Mahan, designed its submarines as ancillaries to the fleet and failed to attack American supply lines in the Pacific. Mahan's analysis of the Spanish-American War suggested to him that the great distances in the Pacific required the American battle fleet to be designed with long-range striking power. Mahan believed first, that good political and naval leadership
3132-635: The Naval War College . Before entering on his duties, College President Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce pointed Mahan in the direction of writing his future studies on the influence of sea power. During his first year on the faculty, he remained at his home in New York City researching and writing his lectures. Though he was prepared to become a professor in 1886, Luce was given command of the North Atlantic Squadron , and Mahan became President of
3248-535: The New Imperialism in Africa and Asia. Given the rapid technological changes underway in propulsion (from coal to oil and from reciprocating engines to turbines), ordnance (with better fire directors, and new high explosives), and armor and the emergence of new craft such as destroyers and submarines , Mahan's emphasis on the capital ship and the command of the sea came at an opportune moment. Mahan's name became
3364-708: The North Sea with no apparent difficulty. Less successful at first were the efforts of the American battleships to match their British counterparts in excellence of gunnery. Having provided numerous veteran gun-crews to serve aboard armed merchantmen in the previous months, the gunnery complements of Division Nine were badly depleted and filled with inexperienced officers and recent recruits. The inevitable effect of this loss of talent became apparent when, on 17 December 1917, Battleship Division Nine conducted its first full-caliber target practice in nearby Pentland Firth . The results were relatively poor. Where British battleships by
3480-660: The North Sea . Following the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918, Battleship Division Nine was present for the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet on 21 November 1918. On 1 December 1918, the Division departed from the Grand Fleet to return to the U.S. Although Battleship Division Nine's service was limited mainly to convoy duty and the maintenance of the blockade of the German coast, its presence greatly augmented
3596-534: The Sixth Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet. From the beginning, the battleships of Division Nine faced a hard task in adapting to the new methods and practices they encountered in the Grand Fleet. Any difficulties, however, that might have arisen from this transition based on national pride or rivalry were dissipated in large part by the professional example set by Admiral Rodman himself. As he would later note of his squadron's assimilation: I realized that
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3712-567: The public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships . Alfred Thayer Mahan Alfred Thayer Mahan ( / m ə ˈ h æ n / ; September 27, 1840 – December 1, 1914) was a United States naval officer and historian , whom John Keegan called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century." His 1890 book The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 won immediate recognition, especially in Europe, and with
3828-559: The Admiralty did not see any immediate solution to the problem. Jellicoe announced that at present loss rates, Britain would be effectively starved into submission by November 1917. After a meeting at Scapa Flow later in July between Sims, Jellicoe, and Admiral David Beatty (commander of the Grand Fleet), the Admiralty requested that the U.S. Navy send four dreadnoughts and six destroyers to join
3944-459: The American coast. This contingency plan was a clear example of Mahan's application of his principles of naval war, with a clear reliance on Jomini's principle of controlling strategic points. Timeliness contributed no small part to the widespread acceptance of Mahan's theories. Although his history was relatively thin, based as it was on secondary sources , his vigorous style, and clear theory won widespread acceptance of navalists and supporters of
4060-563: The Atlantic Fleet for Neutrality Patrol duty. BatDiv 5 was a training division consisting of three older battleships. An additional BATDIV (BatDiv 6) was attached to the Atlantic Fleet during 1941; this consisted of the new battleships North Carolina and Washington , both of which were in the process of undergoing post-commissioning work up . After the Pearl Harbor attack , the BATDIV
4176-713: The British merchant marine to an extent completely unknown to the American government, or indeed to anyone but a select few at the British Admiralty . At the first meeting between representatives of the two navies in April 1917, the British First Sea Lord — Admiral Sir John Jellicoe —had astonished the new American naval envoy— Rear Admiral William S. Sims —by informing him that Allied shipping losses had recently surpassed 600,000 long tons (610,000 t) per month, and that
4292-511: The British battleships attempted to ram it and destroyers rushed to drop depth charges , the U-boat managed to escape. Though the maneuvers were otherwise unremarkable, they proved a valuable learning tool for the Americans, who got a chance not only to experience British methods, but the violent conditions of the North Sea, as well. As Admiral Rodman noted upon returning from the exercise, "I have seen
4408-452: The British fleet had had three years of actual warfare and knew the game from the ground floor up; that while we might know it theoretically, there would be a great deal to learn practically. There could not be two independent commands in one force if our work was to be harmonious, and the only logical course was to amalgamate our ships and serve under the command of the British commander-in-chief. This cooperative attitude trickled down through
4524-559: The British had taken to escorting the convoys with dreadnought squadrons. Still, the possibility existed that the Germans would send out their entire fleet to cut off and annihilate the overmatched battleship squadron, with severe strategic effect. With this possibility in mind, the American battleships set out, accompanied by the ships of the British Third Light Cruiser Squadron and two flotillas of destroyers, all under
4640-612: The British to tie down such a large proportion of their navy to watch the New York exits that other American ports would be relatively safe. Detached American cruisers should wage "constant offensive action" against the enemy's exposed positions; and if the British were to weaken their blockade force off New York to attack another American port, the concentrated U.S. fleet could capture British coaling ports in Nova Scotia , thereby seriously weakening British ability to engage in naval operations off
4756-454: The Fleet. Delaware suffered damage to her ventilators that caused the generators to stop working, cutting electrical power throughout the ship and forcing a reduction in speed to 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h) for nearly an hour. On New York , the strong seas carried a man overboard who could not be rescued, one of the 12 or more men lost throughout the Fleet that day. To make matters worse,
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4872-618: The French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812 (2 vols., 1892); Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812 (2 vols., 1905), and The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain (2 vols., 1897). Mahan stressed the importance of the individual in shaping history and extolled the traditional values of loyalty, courage, and service to the state. Mahan sought to resurrect Horatio Nelson as
4988-576: The German High Seas Fleet to win the Entscheidungsschlacht (decisive battle) against the British Grand Fleet somewhere in "the waters between Helgoland and the Thames ", a strategy he based on his reading of The Influence of Sea Power Upon History . However, the naval warfare of World War I proved completely different than German planners, influenced by Mahan, had anticipated because
5104-570: The German High Seas Fleet, and the "Red Fleet" including the Sixth Battle Squadron, playing the role of the Royal Navy. At a prearranged point in the middle of the North Sea, the two sides converged for "battle". During one of these exercises, the American sailors were treated to their first encounter with an enemy warship when a German U-boat's conning tower was sighted by the two British battleships directly ahead of New York . Although one of
5220-547: The German U-boat captain misjudged the ship's speed. With no further damage, however, the battleship was able to safely arrive at drydock in Rosyth. As the water dropped in the drydock, a large dent commensurate with a submarine bow was found in her hull. As the war began to draw to a close, the ships of Battleship Division Nine remained busy. With frequent gunnery drill, the ships showed marked improvement in performance compared to
5336-692: The German army neared defeat in the Hundred Days Offensive , the German Navy's high command, without informing the government, tried to mobilize the fleet for a decisive engagement with the Royal Navy. The sailors rebelled in the Kiel mutiny , instigating the German Revolution of 1918–1919 which toppled the Hohenzollern monarchy . Mahan and British First Sea Lord John Fisher (1841–1920) both addressed
5452-431: The German battlecruiser SMS Moltke forced it to break radio silence to ask for assistance that the British became aware of the presence of the Germans in the North Sea. A recent change in the sailing schedule of the Scandinavian Convoy, however, meant there was no exposed squadron of battleships in danger of being overwhelmed that day. Alerted by the enemy wireless transmissions, the entire Grand Fleet sortied to find
5568-443: The Grand Fleet failed to find the German battlecruisers, and was forced to return to Scapa Flow empty-handed. In March–April 1918, Battleship Division Nine escorted the Scandinavian Convoy two more times. Both missions were hampered by storms that made the going particularly slow, but were otherwise uneventful. Still, confidence in the wisdom of using battleships as an escort was fading at the Admiralty, and Admiral Beatty in particular
5684-410: The Grand Fleet, combating boredom was a constant difficulty. Located at the northeastern tip of Scotland, the islands surrounding Scapa Flow were little more than barren, cold, windswept specks of land devoid of the trappings of civilization. Due to the efforts of the officers to keep their men entertained, however, morale remained high throughout the war. The British worked hard to turn the anchorage into
5800-496: The Grand Fleet. The Admiralty intended that the arrival of the American dreadnoughts would allow it to decommission five ships of the pre-dreadnought King Edward VII class , freeing up four thousand officers and ratings to serve on new light cruisers , destroyers, and submarines then under construction. Despite the endorsement of Admiral Sims, the Navy Department initially rejected the British request. Like other navies of
5916-417: The High Seas Fleet, offering the prospect of the decisive battle of the war. However, with Moltke crippled, Admiral Scheer decided to return to base. Though scouting units of the Grand Fleet made brief contact with the Germans on the morning of 25 April, no action followed, and the High Seas Fleet made it home without incident. At one point in the chase, however, a reversal of course by the Germans meant that
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#17329136988986032-428: The Naval War College by default (June 22, 1886 – January 12, 1889, July 22, 1892 – May 10, 1893). There, in 1888, he met and befriended future president Theodore Roosevelt , then a visiting lecturer. Mahan's lectures, based on secondary sources and the military theories of Antoine-Henri Jomini , became his sea-power studies: The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 (1890); The Influence of Sea Power upon
6148-405: The Naval War College. A principal developer of wargaming in the United States Navy, Mahan credited Little for assisting him with preparing maps and charts for his lectures and first book. Mahan's views were shaped by 17th-century conflicts between the Dutch Republic , the Kingdom of England , the Kingdom of France , and Habsburg Spain , and by the naval conflicts between France and Spain during
6264-460: The Navy Department that a five ship division was counter to U.S. Navy policy, they eventually agreed, and on 11 February 1918, Texas arrived at Scapa Flow. This arrangement, however, left Wyoming —the third-most powerful ship of the division—as the spare ship because she lacked a matched pair. As a result, Rodman requested that Delaware —the oldest ship in the division—be replaced with Wyoming ' s sister ship Arkansas , leaving Florida as
6380-454: The Nuclear Age , Mahan's emphasis on sea power as the most important cause of Britain's rise to world power neglected diplomacy and land arms. Furthermore, theories of sea power do not explain the rise of land empires, such as Otto von Bismarck 's German Empire or the Russian Empire . Mahan believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea, with its commercial use in peace and its control in war; and he used history as
6496-423: The Royal Navy avoided open battle and focused on blockading Germany . As a result, after the Battles of Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank , Admiral Hugo von Pohl kept most of Germany's surface fleet at its North Sea bases. In 1916, his successor, Reinhard Scheer , tried to lure the Grand Fleet into a Mahanian decisive battle at the Battle of Jutland , but the engagement ended in a strategic defeat. Finally as
6612-429: The U.S. Navy would be left to face the German High Seas Fleet completely on its own. Having already released precious destroyers for convoy duty, they were unwilling to further weaken the ability of the U.S. to defend itself through the scattering of the all-important battle fleet. Furthermore, Admiral Benson was uneasy about the prospect, ever-present in the early 20th century, of a second war breaking out with Japan. For
6728-452: The absence of our ships." On the advice of his trusted aide, Secretary Daniels agreed to dispatch the ships. The question now came down to which battleships to send. The Admiralty requested that the Americans send coal-burning dreadnoughts, as, due to the submarine blockade, the British were extremely short of the oil needed to fuel the latest classes of American dreadnoughts, the oil-burning Nevada -class and Pennsylvania -class ships. As
6844-444: The anchorage of the Grand Fleet later that day to the tremendous cheering of the men on the assembled British warships. Wasting no time, Admiral Rodman called upon the commander of the Grand Fleet—Admiral Sir David Beatty —to offer the services of himself, his men, and his ships to the Allied cause. With Beatty's acceptance, the American battleships, while retaining their American designation of Battleship Division Nine, officially became
6960-435: The cause of the Allies , but in an attempt to enforce American neutrality, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that all active and retired officers refrain from publicly commenting on the war. Mahan was reared as an Episcopalian and became a devout churchman with High Church sympathies. For instance, late in life he strongly opposed revision of the Book of Common Prayer . Nevertheless, Mahan also appears to have undergone
7076-466: The command of Admiral Rodman. This marked the first time in history that British warships had ever served under the command of a sea-going American admiral. Although the outbound trip to Norway was uneventful, things began to heat up for the escort force on 8 February, as they waited just outside Norwegian territorial waters for the return convoy to assemble. Shortly before 14:00, both Florida and Delaware reported sighting numerous torpedoes running in
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#17329136988987192-430: The course of World War I changed ideas about the place of the navy. The refusal of the German fleet to engage in a decisive battle, the Dardanelles expedition of 1915 , the development of submarine warfare , and the organization of convoys all showed the French Navy 's new role in combined operations with the French Army . The Navy's part in securing victory was not fully understood by French public opinion in 1918, but
7308-403: The damage would have been fatal to the German craft. Postwar examination of German records revealed that the submarine lost may have been UB-113 or UB-123 . This strange—and accidental—encounter marked the only time in all of Battleship Division Nine's service with the Grand Fleet that one of its ships sank a German vessel. New York ' s ordeal was not over, however. Badly damaged by
7424-420: The destroyer Manley —got underway from Lynnhaven Roads , Virginia on 25 November 1917, bound for the anchorage of the Grand Fleet at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands . What should have been an uneventful transit was complicated by weather that began badly and only got worse as the voyage progressed. After battling a vicious 'norwester' that brought sleet, hail, and snow, the division was further buffeted by
7540-465: The development of the submarine and the aircraft carrier , combined with advances in technology, largely rendered obsolete the doctrine of the decisive battle between fleets. Nevertheless, the IJN did not adhere strictly to Mahanian doctrine because its forces were often tactically divided, particularly during the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Midway . Mahan believed that if the United States were to build an Isthmian canal , it would become
7656-510: The division could not maintain the level of preparedness required by the constant need to be ready to sail at limited notice. The inevitable result was machinery breakdowns that reduced the squadron to three ships, a development considered unacceptable given the Division's important position at the tail end of the battle line. The British—faced with the same problem—responded by allocating a spare battleship to each of their squadrons. In this way, each squadron always remained at full strength even when
7772-415: The division, and elicited the admiration and appreciation of the British. The first task facing the Americans was the adoption of an entirely new set of signals , radio codes , and cipher methods . Although the Americans had studied the general British code while crossing the Atlantic, it was some time before they could use it with anything like the proficiency of other ships in the Grand Fleet. To help in
7888-475: The early days with the Fleet. The average spread for the whole division, including the newcomers Texas and Arkansas , was now less than 600 yd (550 m), which was much better than previously, if still not as good as the British average. Maneuvers and war games continued, as well. During exercises in late September 1918, the Grand Fleet, once again divided into Red and Blue Fleets, "engaged" each other at ranges as extreme as 23,000 yd (21,000 m),
8004-533: The end of 1917 generally managed a rate of fire per salvo of 40 seconds or less, and an average spread (that is, the distance measured between the closest and furthest shots in a salvo) of 300–500 yd (270–460 m), the four ships of the American squadron proved both slow and inaccurate. The rate of fire of Delaware (with an acceptable spread of 475 yd (434 m)) was 108 seconds, and Wyoming ' and Florida ' s average spreads were 956 and 1,131 yd (874 and 1,034 m), respectively. Only
8120-476: The enemy fleet. Such a strategy called for the concentration of naval forces composed of capital ships, not too large but numerous, well-manned with crews thoroughly trained, and operating under the principle that the best defense is an aggressive offense. Mahan contended that with a command of the sea , even if local and temporary, naval operations in support of land forces could be of decisive importance. He also believed that naval supremacy could be exercised by
8236-431: The entire Grand Fleet was forced to reorient itself in the opposite direction, placing Battleship Division Nine in the van. The result was that, if an encounter between the two fleets had occurred, American battleships would have led the British fleet into what could have been the largest naval battle of the war. Years later, Admiral Rodman wrote in his memoir that he "often thought what a glorious day it would have been for
8352-478: The final stages of the War of the Pacific . While in actual command of a ship, his skills were not exemplary; and a number of vessels under his command were involved in collisions with both moving and stationary objects. He preferred old square-rigged vessels rather than smoky, noisy steamships of his own day; and he tried to avoid active sea duty. In 1885, he was appointed as a lecturer in naval history and tactics at
8468-421: The flagship New York managed to match British practice in both categories. In Admiral Beatty's words, the results were "distinctly poor and disappointing", and led him to the initial conclusion that he could not consider the American division the equivalent of a British one. The Americans worked to catch up, however, and with every target practice registered improved results. By the end of June 1918, Admiral Rodman
8584-475: The flagship when the storm blew itself out, Delaware sailed on alone to the scheduled rendezvous with the British light cruiser Caroline off Cape Wrath , Scotland, where the division would reassemble in the early hours of 7 December. Manley —short of fuel after her fight with the sea—could not rejoin the rest of the force and proceeded directly to her ultimate destination, the naval base at Queenstown , Ireland. Battered, Battleship Division Nine steamed into
8700-408: The full moonlight , and a submarine was spotted in the immediate vicinity by a patrol shortly after the attack. The battleship's wounded condition is possibly what saved her: although standard procedure was to steam at 16 kn (18 mph; 30 km/h), New York could make only 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h) on her one operable propeller. Due to this, historian Jerry Jones believes that
8816-476: The immediate dispatch of any capital ships for service in the war zone. Following a direct request from the British Admiralty and a series of high level staff meetings, American opinion changed, and Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet on 7 December 1917. Within that organization, the Division served as the Sixth Battle Squadron . While serving with the Grand Fleet, Battleship Division Nine
8932-490: The largest battleships apparently sucked under until only the superstructures on the upper deck were visible when they would slowly rise from their submergence and the water pour off their decks as it might from some huge turtle... [coming] to the surface." Hard as the Americans worked to incorporate themselves into the Grand Fleet, they had yet to shake a belief among the veteran British that they were amateurs merely playing at war. In writing to his American-born wife following
9048-581: The late Mahan's prior advice to him that the Commonwealth of the Philippines could not be defended against an Imperial Japanese invasion, leading to a futile defense of the islands against the Japanese Philippines campaign . Between 1889 and 1892, Mahan was engaged in special service for the Bureau of Navigation , and in 1893 he was appointed to command the powerful new protected cruiser Chicago on
9164-414: The late-19th and early-20th centuries, the U.S. Navy rigidly adhered to the doctrine of Alfred Thayer Mahan , whose first tenet was that under no circumstances should a battle fleet be divided. U.S. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William S. Benson and Admiral Henry T. Mayo —Commander of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet —were particularly worried that if Britain fell, as developments at sea suggested it might,
9280-415: The loss of a propeller, the ship sailed to Rosyth under heavy escort for repairs on 15 October. At 01:00 the next morning, a U-boat launched three torpedoes at the damaged vessel, all of which passed ahead of her. Unlike in previous cases, sufficient evidence existed to suppose that this torpedo attack was not a false alarm—a number of officers and men aboard New York clearly saw the wakes of the torpedoes in
9396-413: The maneuvers, Admiral Beatty noted that, "The American Squadron enjoyed themselves greatly while we were out, and did well, and will do better next time. I am sending old Rodman out on an operation of his own, which pleases him and gives them an idea that they are really taking part in the war. I trust they will come to no harm." Despite the qualified nature of this comment, the operation Beatty had in mind
9512-561: The moment, the U.S. Navy would send destroyers to Europe, but no battleships. A series of high level meetings in London, beginning with Admiral Mayo's visit in August 1917 and culminating in a naval mission led by Admiral Benson in November, proved decisive in changing the viewpoint of the Navy Department. Despite Admiral Sims's frequent warnings of the severity of British losses to the U-boat campaign, it
9628-408: The most part, these expeditions proved uneventful, but on two occasions, on 30 June and again on 8 August, lookouts on the battleships reported seeing U-boats or torpedoes in the water, forcing the Division to maneuver accordingly. Like the previous sightings made while escorting the Scandinavian Convoy, subsequent review of German war records revealed that both cases were false alarms. Just days after
9744-479: The number of coal fueling stations and strategic bases should be limited to avoid draining too many resources from the mother country. The primary mission of a navy was to secure the command of the sea, which would permit the maintenance of sea communications for one's own ships while denying their use to the enemy and, if necessary, closely supervise neutral trade. Control of the sea could be achieved not by destruction of commerce but only by destroying or neutralizing
9860-407: The pair maintaining the relationship through correspondence and visits when Mahan was in London. Mahan was later described as a "disciple" of Laughton, but the two were at pains to distinguish between each other's line of work. Laughton saw Mahan as a theorist while Mahan called Laughton "the historian". Mahan worked closely with William McCarty Little , another critical figure in the early history of
9976-432: The problem of how to dominate home waters and distant seas with naval forces unable to do both. Mahan argued for a universal principle of concentration of powerful ships in home waters with minimized strength in distant seas. Fisher instead decided to use submarines to defend home waters and mobile battlecruisers to protect British interests. Though in 1914, French naval doctrine was dominated by Mahan's theory of sea power,
10092-477: The publication of its 1892 successor, The Influence of Sea Power Upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812 , he affirmed his status as a globally-known and regarded military strategist, historian, and theorist. Mahan's works encouraged the development of large capital ships — eventually leading to dreadnought battleships — as he was an advocate of the 'decisive battle' and of naval blockades . Critics, however, charged him with failing to adequately explain
10208-592: The rise of largely land-based empires, such as the German or Ottoman Empires , though Mahan did accurately predict both empires' defeats in World War I . Mahan directly influenced the dominant interwar period and World War II -era Japanese naval doctrine of the "decisive battle doctrine" ( 艦隊決戦 , Kantai Kessen ) , and he became a " household name " in Germany. He also promoted American control over Hawaii though he
10324-550: The second incident, however, Battleship Division Nine was called to more serious action. Having received intelligence that German vessels were loose in the North Sea, the Division sortied from Scapa Flow on 12 October, in company with the British Second Battlecruiser Squadron and the Third Light Cruiser Squadron in the hope of engaging the enemy raiders. From the beginning, the autumn weather
10440-469: The ships of our country to have led the Grand Fleet into action." It was not to be, however, nor would another chance present itself: the German fleet did not sail as a unit again in World War I. Through the first months of 1918, the composition of Battleship Division Nine changed to reflect the lessons learned from operating in a war zone with the Grand Fleet. It soon became apparent that with only four ships,
10556-469: The skillful handling of both ships had saved them from harm. However, post-war examination of German war records revealed that no German submarines had made any attacks that day. It is likely the two ships had instead seen the wakes of porpoises frolicking in the waves. As Captain Wiley of Wyoming noted, such misidentifications were common for inexperienced ships: "new ships arriving in the war zone usually did
10672-601: The spare. Arkansas , however, did not join Battleship Division Nine until 29 July 1918. Delaware sailed from Scapa Flow for the United States the next day. In late June 1918, Battleship Division Nine began escorting American mine laying craft participating in the setting of the Northern Mine Barrage , a gargantuan project spearheaded by the U.S. Navy designed to close the North Sea passage between Scotland and Norway to U-boat traffic. A novel attempt to end
10788-472: The strategic potential of destroying a squadron of British battleships, had finally decided to make an attempt on the Scandinavian Convoy, using the overwhelming force of his entire fleet. Under strict radio silence, the High Seas Fleet sailed on the morning of 23 April to attempt an intercept, leaving the British completely unaware that they had left their base. It was not until an engine malfunction aboard
10904-616: The strength of the Grand Fleet, thus making major combat between the British and German fleets even more unlikely in 1918. By helping to keep the High Seas Fleet effectively blockaded in port, Battleship Division Nine played a role in ensuring Allied control of the oceans. When the U.S. entered World War I on the side of the Allies on 6 April 1917, the war at sea was hanging in the balance. Having resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917, Germany had quickly inflicted staggering losses on
11020-449: The submarine menace relying heavily on American industrial capacity, the Barrage called for more than 70,000 mines to be placed across a stretch of water 250 nmi (290 mi; 460 km) wide. Because the minelayers were operating within range of German surface raiders, the American battleships were detailed to provide an escort for them, along with other units of the Grand Fleet. For
11136-610: The ten capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy. At the time of the Pearl Harbor Attack , Pennsylvania was in dry dock and Colorado was being refitted at Bremerton Navy Yard , Washington . Arizona was mated with Nevada and Oklahoma at that time. The U.S. Atlantic Fleet contained BatDiv 3 and 5. BatDiv3 had been part of the Pacific Fleet until 20 May 1941 when its three ships were transferred to
11252-532: The term " Middle East ," which he used in the article "The Persian Gulf and International Relations," published in September in the National Review . As a delegate to the 1899 Hague Convention , Mahan argued against prohibiting the use of asphyxiating gases in warfare on the ground that such weapons would inflict such terrible casualties that belligerents would be forced to end wars more quickly, thus providing
11368-418: The transition, signalmen and radio operators from the Royal Navy were posted to the American battleships to aid their U.S. Navy counterparts. Though learning an entirely new system of signals was, as Admiral Rodman put it, "almost the same as if in reading we had substituted a new set of letters," within three days of their arrival, the ships of Battleship Division Nine were able to take part in fleet maneuvers in
11484-489: The two divisions of "fast battleships" that operated at either ends of the Grand Fleet when it was steaming in battle line formation. As stipulated by the Grand Fleet Battle Orders, the Sixth Battle Squadron was to take station at the rear of the line, where its duty was to engage the rear division of German battleships. However, should the fleet execute a sudden turnaround maneuver, the American ships would become
11600-438: The van squadron, meaning they would lead into battle. The position was an important one, and the Americans were particularly proud of it. Tasked with this assignment, the Americans got their first true practice in their new role at the end of January 1918, when the entire Grand Fleet went to sea for four days of war games . Under Admiral Beatty's direction, the fleet divided into two opposing forces, with "Blue Fleet" representing
11716-465: The water, and began maneuvering sharply to avoid being struck. Delaware also fired a 3 in (76 mm) shell at what appeared to be a conning tower about 2,000 yd (1,800 m) distant, and the escorting destroyers dropped depth charges, with no apparent success. After the convoy returned to Scapa Flow on 10 February, Rodman officially reported to Admiral Beatty that two torpedoes had been fired at Florida , and two at Delaware , and that only
11832-851: Was "lukewarm" in regards to American imperialism in general. Four U.S. Navy ships have borne his name , as well as various buildings and roads; and his works are still read, discussed, and debated in military, historical, and scholarly circles. Mahan was born on September 27, 1840, at West Point, New York , to Dennis Hart Mahan , a professor at the United States Military Academy and the foremost American expert on fortifications, and Mary Helena Okill Mahan (1815–1893), daughter of John Okill and Mary Jay, daughter of Sir James Jay . Mahan's middle name honors "the father of West Point", Sylvanus Thayer . Mahan attended Saint James School , an Episcopal college preparatory academy in western Maryland. He then studied at Columbia for two years, where he
11948-638: Was a member of the Philolexian Society debating club. Against the wishes of his father, Mahan then entered the U.S. Naval Academy , where he graduated second in his class in 1859. After graduation he was assigned to the frigate Congress from 9 June 1859 until 1861. He then joined the steam-corvette Pocahontas of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and participated in the Battle of Port Royal in South Carolina early in
12064-453: Was able to report that "the firing was exceptionally fine, most encouraging and much better than we have ever done previously". Within days of their arrival at Scapa Flow, Battleship Division Nine began participating in the frequent maneuvers and drills that typified the day to day existence of the Grand Fleet. It has been said that because of the good condition and high speed of the American battleships, Admiral Beatty assigned them to be one of
12180-421: Was both important and potentially dangerous. On 6 February 1918, Battleship Division Nine stood out of Scapa Flow to guard the high value Scandinavian Convoy to and from Norway. Twice in the previous year, this convoy —with its essential cargos of iron ore, nitrates , and other chemicals—had been raided by German cruisers and destroyers, with the loss of 15 allied freighters . To avoid a repeat of these attacks,
12296-551: Was facilitated by the " Standard type battleship " concept of the US Navy, a design concept developed before 1922 calling for uniform top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h) and a tight tactical radius of 700 yards (640 m) for all battleships of the Nevada , Pennsylvania , New Mexico , Tennessee and Colorado classes. Stationed at Pearl Harbor as part of the U.S. Pacific Fleet were three battleship divisions; BatDiv 1, 2 and 4. These nine battleships were intended to counterbalance
12412-459: Was forced to adapt quickly to unfamiliar British methods and standards. New signals and maneuvers were adopted relatively smoothly, while more stringent gunnery standards proved more difficult to achieve. On a personal level, relations between American and British officers and men were notably cordial. Throughout 1918, the Division participated in all major Grand Fleet exercises and deployments, as well as conducting several detached convoy missions in
12528-424: Was immediately clear to the men on board that she had struck an underwater object, but the depth of the channel meant it could not have been a shipwreck . Both Admirals Rodman and Beatty concluded that New York must have accidentally collided with a submerged German U-boat. They agreed that the submarine had rammed its bow into the ship's side, then been struck moments later by the ship's propeller. In their opinion,
12644-451: Was in danger of foundering in the heavy seas. Three days of continuous pumping were required to help keep her afloat. To make matters worse, the high winds—reportedly gusting to 100 mph (160 km/h)— carried away the topmasts on all four battleships, rendering radio communication impossible. The sheer force of the gale drove Delaware , Florida , and Manley off station in the night of 30 November. Though Florida eventually rejoined
12760-470: Was no less important than geography when it came to the development of sea power. Second, Mahan's unit of political analysis insofar as sea power was concerned was a transnational consortium, rather than a single nation state. Third, his economic ideal was free trade rather than autarky . Fourth, his recognition of the influence of geography on strategy was tempered by a strong appreciation of the power of contingency to affect outcomes. In 1890, Mahan prepared
12876-553: Was not until both men had seen things with their own eyes that they truly understood the direness of the situation. On 10 November 1917, Admiral Benson cabled Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels , recommending the dispatch of four dreadnoughts for service with the Grand Fleet, noting "If, in any encounter, it should be indicated that the outcome would have been more favorable or more decisive had more Allied forces been available, it would be difficult to satisfactorily explain
12992-405: Was opposed to it. When the American ships returned to the new Grand Fleet base at Rosyth at the end of the second mission on 20 April, it was the last time they were used to escort the Scandinavian Convoy. Just days later, however, on 24 April 1918, Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet in one last attempt to bring the High Seas Fleet to battle. German Admiral Reinhard Scheer , aware of
13108-1011: Was overall commander of the Surigao force ( Task Group 77.2 ). Battleship Division 1 was active in the Pacific at least until 1946, according to U.S. Navy records with the National Archives and Records Administration . On June 7, 1954, under the direction of Battleship Division 2, Norfolk , Virginia, the four battleships of the Iowa class operated together for the only time under the flag of RAdm George R. Cooper. On January 15, 1957, Wisconsin reported to Commander Fleet Training Group, Guantanano Bay, Cuba and Rear Admiral Henry Crommelin , Commander Battleship Division Two broke his flag in Wisconsin . On May 27, 1957 Rear Admiral Lewis S. Parks relieved Rear Admiral Crommelin as Commander Battleship Division Two. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from
13224-441: Was particularly rough, impeding progress and making any chance of sighting the German ships unlikely. On the evening of 14 October, as New York led the force back into Pentland Firth, she was rocked by a violent underwater collision on her starboard side, followed shortly after by another to the stern that broke off two of her propeller blades, reducing the ship to one engine and a speed of 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h). It
13340-623: Was replaced by the Task Group (TG) as the operational wartime unit. However, the BATDIV remained the administrative unit for purposes of personnel, training, maintenance and the like. Moreover, a Battleship Division could function in the operational chain of command, for example at the Battle of Surigao Strait , where BATDIV FOUR ( Maryland , Mississippi and West Virginia ) and BATDIV TWO ( Pennsylvania, Tennessee and California ) operated as units under BATFOR (Battleship Force) SEVENTH FLEET; Commander, Battle Force (COMBATFOR) Rear Admiral Oldendorf ,
13456-677: Was translated into Japanese and was used as a textbook in the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). That usage strongly affected the IJN's plan to end Russian naval expansion in the Far East, which culminated in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. It has been argued that the IJN's pursuit of the "decisive battle" ( Kantai Kessen ) contributed to Imperial Japan 's defeat in World War II , because
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