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144-496: The Declaration was issued on 30 November 2010 by over 60 scientists from Switzerland , Germany , the United Kingdom , France and Sweden . The signatories commit to accepting greater responsibility in animal experiments and to intensive cooperation with the public in the form of a dialogue with prejudice. At the same time, they demand that essential animal experiments for obtaining research results remain permitted both now and in

288-613: A Swiss person which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries, and land . The English adjective Swiss is a loanword from French Suisse , also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer , in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory , one of the Waldstätte cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy . The Swiss began to adopt

432-656: A lower house (the National Council , with representatives elected from across the country). Referendums were made mandatory for any amendments. This new constitution ended the legal power of nobility in Switzerland . A single system of weights and measures was introduced, and in 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency , complemented by the WIR franc in 1934. Article 11 of

576-665: A national personification of the Swiss confederacy in the 17th century in a 1672 play by Johann Caspar Weissenbach. The state of Switzerland took its present form with the adoption of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848. Switzerland's precursors established a defensive alliance in 1291, forming a loose confederation that persisted for centuries. The oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date to about 150,000 years ago. The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland, which were found at Gächlingen , date to around 5300 BC. The earliest known tribes formed

720-544: A red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them. Silkworm, the larvae stage of Bombyx mori , is an economically important insect in sericulture . Scientists are developing strategies to enhance silk quality and quantity. There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins. Proteins expressed by silkworms include; human serum albumin , human collagen α-chain , mouse monoclonal antibody and N-glycanase . Silkworms have been created that produce spider silk ,

864-513: A change of policy following threats from Germany. Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned. Between 1940 and 1945, Switzerland was bombed by the Allies , causing fatalities and property damage. Among the cities and towns bombed were Basel , Brusio , Chiasso , Cornol , Geneva, Koblenz , Niederweningen , Rafz , Renens , Samedan , Schaffhausen , Stein am Rhein , Tägerwilen , Thayngen , Vals , and Zurich. Allied forces maintained that

1008-666: A facility and this can get quite costly. Producing transgenic axolotls has many challenges due to their large genome size. Current methods of generating transgenic axolotls are limited to random integration of the transgene cassette into the genome, which can lead to uneven expression or silencing. Gene duplicates also complicate efforts to generate efficient gene knockouts . Despite the costs, axolotls have unique regenerative abilities and ultimately provide useful information in understanding tissue regeneration because they can regenerate their limbs, spinal cord, skin, heart, lungs, and other organs. Naturally occurring mutant axolotls like

1152-454: A line of pigs with better body temperature regulation, resulting in about 24% less body fat than typical livestock. Researchers have developed GM dairy cattle to grow without horns (sometimes referred to as " polled ") which can cause injuries to farmers and other animals. DNA was taken from the genome of Red Angus cattle, which is known to suppress horn growth, and inserted into cells taken from an elite Holstein bull called "Randy". Each of

1296-465: A long tail, creating what has been dubbed a 'chickenosaurus'. Parallel projects have produced chicken embryos expressing dinosaur-like skull, leg, and foot anatomy. Gene editing is one possible tool in the laying hen breeding industry to provide an alternative to Chick culling . With this technology, breeding hens are given a genetic marker that is only passed down to male offspring. These males can then be identified during incubation and removed from

1440-473: A major part in helping to promote the 3R principles of replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments. Disease models in genetically modified animals are mainly in rodents , such as mice and rats. However, they cannot adequately depict human physiology in all cases. Research in animal models using mammals , such as even-toed ungulates (especially for animal health) and in very rare cases also monkeys , remains necessary according to participants at

1584-403: A market for creating genetically modified pets. Mammals are the best models for human disease, making genetic engineered ones vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases. Knocking out genes responsible for human genetic disorders allows researchers to study the mechanism of the disease and to test possible cures. Genetically modified mice have been

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1728-730: A pet when it was introduced for sale in 2003. GM fish are widely used in basic research in genetics and development. Two species of fish- zebrafish and medaka , are most commonly modified, because they have optically clear chorions (membranes in the egg), rapidly develop, and the 1-cell embryo is easy to see and microinject with transgenic DNA. Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration , genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms, and toxicity testing. Their transparency allows researchers to observe developmental stages, intestinal functions, and tumour growth. The generation of transgenic protocols (whole organism, cell or tissue specific, tagged with reporter genes) has increased

1872-436: A range of other currently incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis , sickle cell anemia , Parkinson's disease , cancer , diabetes , heart disease , and muscular dystrophy . These treatments only affect somatic cells , which means that any changes would not be inheritable. Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR

2016-666: A remarkable size, while hundreds of agricultural estates ( Villae rusticae ) were established in the countryside. Around 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to shelter near Roman fortresses, like

2160-411: A salmon that can mature in half the time as wild salmon. The fish is an Atlantic salmon with a Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) gene inserted. This allows the fish to produce growth hormones all year round compared to the wild-type fish that produces the hormone for only part of the year. The fish also has a second gene inserted from the eel-like ocean pout that acts like an "on" switch for

2304-523: A sign of support. In September 2020, a referendum calling for a vote to end the pact that allowed a free movement of people from the European Union was introduced by the Swiss People's Party (SVP). However, voters rejected the attempt to retake control of immigration, defeating the motion by a roughly 63%–37% margin. On 9 February 2014, 50.3% of Swiss voters approved a ballot initiative launched by

2448-405: A significant impact on the psychology and society of Switzerland. The war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength. Swiss from all strata of society, whether Catholic or Protestant, from the liberal or conservative current, realised that the cantons would profit more from merging their economic and religious interests. Thus, while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings ,

2592-417: A similar body size, anatomical features, physiology , pathophysiological response, and diet. Nonhuman primates are the most similar model organisms to humans, but there is less public acceptance toward using them as research animals. In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species ( marmosets ) and produced a stable line of breeding transgenic primates for

2736-430: A stronger but extremely difficult to harvest silk, and even novel silks. Attempts to produce genetically modified birds began before 1980. Chickens have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes. This includes studying embryo development , preventing the transmission of bird flu and providing evolutionary insights using reverse engineering to recreate dinosaur-like phenotypes. A GM chicken that produces

2880-508: A transgenic cow incorporating two human genes, to produce milk with similar properties as human breast milk. In 2012, researchers from New Zealand also developed a genetically engineered cow that produced allergy-free milk. In 2016 Jayne Raper and a team announced the first trypanotolerant transgenic cow in the world. This team, spanning the International Livestock Research Institute , Scotland's Rural College ,

3024-426: A variety of purposes including producing drugs, enhancing yields, increasing resistance to disease, etc. The vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage while the number close to entering the market remains small. The process of genetically engineering mammals is a slow, tedious, and expensive process. As with other genetically modified organisms (GMOs), first genetic engineers must isolate

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3168-547: A whole rather than being modified one amendment at a time. This need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution that followed led to calls to modify the constitution accordingly. The population rejected an early draft in 1872, but modifications led to its acceptance in 1874. It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level. It also established federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters. In 1891,

3312-408: A wide variety of other animals. The gene responsible for albinism in sea cucumbers has been found, and used to engineer white sea cucumbers , a rare delicacy. The technology also opens the way to investigate the genes responsible for some of the cucumbers more unusual traits, including hibernating in summer, eviscerating their intestines, and dissolving their bodies upon death. Flatworms have

3456-413: Is a continuum that includes both basic studies on normal functions and their failure in diseases and also the development of treatments. This fundamental research is indispensable for biomedical progress. Any categorical restriction of research in non-human primates in basic research is shortsighted and not justified by any scientific evidence. 3. Researchers working with non-human primates are committed to

3600-665: Is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes. The most common use of transgenic nematodes has been studying gene expression and localisation by attaching reporter genes. Transgenes can also be combined with RNAi to rescue phenotypes, altered to study gene function, imaged in real time as the cells develop or used to control expression for different tissues or developmental stages. Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, and diseases and to detect environmental pollutants. Systems have been developed to create transgenic organisms in

3744-505: Is an RNA molecule that prevents the virus reproduction by mimicking the region of the flu virus genome that controls replication. It is referred to as a "decoy" because it diverts the flu virus enzyme, the polymerase , from functions that are required for virus replication. A team of geneticists led by University of Montana paleontologist Jack Horner is seeking to modify a chicken to express several features present in ancestral maniraptorans but absent in modern birds, such as teeth and

3888-463: Is considered the confederacy's founding document, even though similar alliances likely existed decades earlier. The document was agreed among the rural communes of Uri , Schwyz , and Unterwalden . By 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne , Zurich and Bern city-states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that obtained through

4032-419: Is fairly cohesive, being rooted in a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy , and Alpine symbolism. Swiss identity transcends language, ethnicity, and religion, leading to Switzerland being described as a Willensnation ("nation of volition") rather than a nation state . The English name Switzerland is a portmanteau of Switzer , an obsolete term for

4176-457: Is indispensable is just as necessary as a weighing the interests of animal welfare against the benefits according to the research objective. Genetically modified animals represent an important instrument of modern biomedical research. In many cases, species higher on the evolutionary scale in animal experiments can be replaced by the use of simpler organisms bred by means of gene technology, such as fruit flies, laboratory worms or fish. This plays

4320-480: Is made easier by recent sequencing of the genome and resources created for scientists, including data portals that contain axolotl genome and transcriptome reference assemblies to identify orthologs . The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is one of the major model organisms for researching molecular biology . RNA interference (RNAi) was discovered in C. elegans and could be induced by simply feeding them bacteria modified to express double stranded RNA . It

4464-417: Is not an end in itself, but serves as the basis for further consideration. Basic and applied research is all part of the same continuum in biomedical research and the assignment of a research project to one part or the other is often rather arbitrary. On the other hand, the categorization of an experiment as basic research does not yet justify the use of animals per se. The demonstration that an animal experiment

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4608-425: Is possible, but also on what is ethically reasonable. Principles such as animal integrity, naturalness, risk identification and animal welfare are examples of ethically important factors that must be taken into consideration, and they also influence public perception and regulatory decisions by authorities. The utility of extrapolating animal data to humans has been questioned. This has led ethical committees to adopt

4752-556: Is present in the embryonic stem cells . The embryo would develop and it would be hoped that some of the genetic material would be incorporated into the reproductive cells. Then researchers would have to wait until the animal reached breeding age and then offspring would be screened for presence of the gene in every cell, using PCR , Southern hybridization , and DNA sequencing . New technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise. Gene targeting techniques, which creates double-stranded breaks and takes advantage on

4896-636: Is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4,478 m or 14,692 ft) is the best known. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais , on the border with Italy. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m or 13,642 ft) Eiger and Mönch peaks, and its many picturesque valleys. In

5040-425: Is thought to be more difficult because of the composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). This technique allows spinal cord cells to be labeled and is very important in studying limb regeneration in many other cells; it has been used to study the role of the immune system in regeneration. Using gene knockout approaches, scientists can target specific regions of DNA using techniques like CRISPR/Cas9 to understand

5184-647: Is to use the sterile insect technique , whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers. Other insect pests that make attractive targets are moths . Diamondback moths cause US$ 4 to $ 5 billion of damage a year worldwide. The approach is similar to the mosquitoes, where males transformed with a gene that prevents females from reaching maturity will be released. They underwent field trials in 2017. Genetically modified moths have previously been released in field trials. A strain of pink bollworm that were sterilised with radiation were genetically engineered to express

5328-534: The Axis and Allied powers. Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to Nazi Germany varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland (together with Liechtenstein ) entirely isolated from

5472-608: The Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defence at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes). At the end of the fourth century, the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept. The Swiss Plateau was finally open to Germanic tribes . In the Early Middle Ages , from the end of the fourth century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland

5616-548: The Congress of Vienna fully re-established Swiss independence, and the European powers recognised permanent Swiss neutrality. Swiss troops served foreign governments until 1860 when they fought in the siege of Gaeta . The treaty allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the cantons of Valais , Neuchâtel and Geneva . Switzerland's borders saw only minor adjustments thereafter. The restoration of power to

5760-840: The European Union (EU), the European Economic Area , or the eurozone ; however, it participates in the European single market and the Schengen Area . Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons , with federal authorities based in Bern . Switzerland is one of the world's most developed countries having the highest nominal wealth per adult , and the eighth-highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita . Switzerland performs highly on several international metrics , including economic competitiveness and democratic governance . Cities such as Zurich, Geneva and Basel rank among

5904-654: The Federal Palace in 1902 and after 1948 used in the official seal (e.g., the ISO banking code "CHF" for the Swiss franc , the Swiss postage stamps ('HELVETIA') and the country top-level domain ".ch", are both taken from the state's Latin name). Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii , a Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss Plateau before the Roman era . Helvetia appeared as

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6048-651: The First War of Villmergen , in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712. In 1798, the revolutionary French government invaded Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen left Switzerland and the Valtellina valley became part of the Cisalpine Republic . The new regime, known as

6192-562: The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel . La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC, possibly influenced by Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most prominent La Tène tribes were the Helvetii , who primarily occupied the Swiss Plateau , alongside the Rhaetians in

6336-597: The Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD. In the 10th century, as the rule of the Carolingians waned, Magyars destroyed Basel in 917 and St. Gallen in 926. In response, Henry the Fowler , the then ruler of East Francia, decreed the fortification of key settlements to defend against these invasions. Large villages and towns, including strategic locations like Zurich and St.Gallen, were fortified. This initiative led to

6480-580: The League of Nations , which was based in Geneva , after it was exempted from military requirements. During World War II , detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune, as larger events during the war intervened. General Henri Guisan , appointed

6624-637: The Old Swiss Confederacy established in the Late Middle Ages , following a series of military successes against Austria and Burgundy ; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the country's founding document. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognised in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality since the 16th century and has not fought an international war since 1815 . It joined

6768-734: The Roslin Institute 's Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health, and the City University of New York , announced that a Kenyan Boran bull had been born and had already successfully had two children. Tumaini - named for the Swahili word for "hope" - carries a trypanolytic factor from a baboon via CRISPR/Cas9 . Scientists have genetically engineered several organisms, including some mammals, to include green fluorescent protein (GFP), for research purposes. GFP and other similar reporting genes allow easy visualisation and localisation of

6912-559: The Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau, and the Jura mountains on the west. The Alps are a mountain range running across the central and south of the country, constituting about 60% of the country's area. The majority of the population live on the Swiss Plateau. The Swiss Alps host many glaciers, covering 1,063 square kilometres (410 sq mi). From these originate

7056-590: The Swiss economy . During the Cold War , Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss nuclear bomb . Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of Technology Zurich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic possibility. In 1988, the Paul Scherrer Institute was founded in his name to explore the therapeutic uses of neutron scattering technologies. Financial problems with

7200-511: The cells natural homologous recombination repair systems, have been developed to target insertion to exact locations . Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create breaks at specific points. There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases , zinc finger nucleases , transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR ). TALEN and CRISPR are

7344-500: The commander-in-chief for the duration of the war ordered a general mobilisation of the armed forces. The Swiss military strategy changed from static defence at the borders to organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps, known as the Reduit . Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides and often mediated communications between

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7488-548: The lambda virus . In 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo , making it the world's first transgenic animal. However it took another eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene to their offspring. Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes , predisposing them to developing cancer. Mice with genes knocked out ( knockout mouse ) were created in 1989. The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985 and

7632-592: The 1980s with Xenopus laevis . Later, germline transgenic axolotls in Ambystoma mexicanum were produced in 2006 using a technique called I-SceI-mediated transgenesis which utilizes the I-SceI endonuclease enzyme that can break DNA at specific sites and allow for foreign DNA to be inserted into the genome. Both Xenopus laevis and Ambystoma mexicanum are model organisms used to study regeneration . In addition, transgenic lines have been produced in other salamanders including

7776-467: The 21st century. Research in non-human primates has led to the development of crucial medical treatments, such as vaccines against poliomyelitis and hepatitis ( jaundice ), as well as to improved drug safety thanks to indispensable contributions to the basic principles of physiology , immunology , infectious diseases , genetics , pharmacology , reproduction biology and neuroscience . We predict an increased need for research using non-human primates in

7920-415: The 3R principle on the replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments. Research in animals must satisfy the highest ethical standards. Non-human primates are only used when there are no alternatives. We are working constantly and intensively on refining experimental methods and keeping the number of non-human primates used to a minimum. A strong commitment to the 3Rs guarantees the best science and

8064-407: The 3R principle “Reduction, Refinement, Replacement”: The 3R principle (replace, reduce, refine) has its origins with William M. S. Russell & Rex L. Burch, who published their “Principles of Humane Experimental Technique” in 1959. These principles are regarded internationally as the guideline for avoiding or reducing animal experiments and the suffering of laboratory animals: The participants in

8208-648: The Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries . The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire . In 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen joined the Old Swiss Confederacy. The Confederacy acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of

8352-772: The Directive into national law within two years and apply these national regulations as from January 2013.) “Animal experiments will remain necessary in biomedical research for the foreseeable future, but we are constantly working to refine the methods with animal welfare in mind.”[2] The signatories to the Declaration commit, amongst other things, to the use of animal experiments only when the research concerns fundamentally important knowledge and no alternative methods are available. As part of this commitment, their two-day conference in November 2010 ended with an affirmation of their allegiance to

8496-696: The Dutch Agriculture Minister at the time, Jozias van Aartsen , granted him a reprieve provided he did not have more offspring after public and scientists rallied to his defence. Together with cloned cows named Holly and Belle, he lived out his retirement at Naturalis , the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden. On 2 April 2004, Herman was euthanised by veterinarians from the University of Utrecht because he suffered from osteoarthritis . At

8640-651: The EU was attained that eliminated quotas on EU citizens, but still allowed favourable treatment of Swiss-based job applicants. On 27 September 2020, 62% of Swiss voters rejected the anti-free movement referendum by SVP. Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west -central Europe, Switzerland encompasses diverse landscapes and climates across its 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi). Switzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N , and longitudes 5° and 11° E . It contains three basic topographical areas:

8784-641: The Enviropig program ended in April 2012, and as no new partners were found the pigs were killed. However, the genetic material will be stored at the Canadian Agricultural Genetics Repository Program. In 2006, a pig was engineered to produce omega-3 fatty acids through the expression of a roundworm gene. In 1990, the world's first transgenic bovine , Herman the Bull, was developed. Herman

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8928-573: The French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The Act of Mediation was the result, which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government. In 1815

9072-682: The Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. An invading foreign army had imposed and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state . The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation. When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside

9216-577: The Helvetii were forced by Caesar to return to their original lands, where they were subjected to stringent restrictions on their autonomy and movements. In 15 BC, Tiberius (later the second Roman emperor) and his brother Drusus conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire . The area occupied by the Helvetii first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province. The eastern portion of modern Switzerland

9360-571: The Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality . During the Early Modern period of Swiss history, the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653 . In the background to this struggle, the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at

9504-595: The Japanese newt Pyrrhogaster and Pleurodeles watl . Genetically modified frogs, in particular Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis , are used in development biology . GM frogs can also be used as pollution sensors, especially for endocrine disrupting chemicals . There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia . Many lines of transgenic X. laevis are used to study immunology to address how bacteria and viruses cause infectious disease at

9648-440: The Swiss Alps. 90% of Switzerland's 65,000-kilometre-long network of rivers and streams have been straightened, dammed, canalized or channeled underground, in an effort to prevent natural disasters such as flooding, landslides, and avalanches. 80% of all Swiss drinking water comes from groundwater sources. Forty-eight mountains are 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) or higher in height. At 4,634 m (15,203 ft), Monte Rosa

9792-407: The Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) to restrict immigration . This initiative was mostly backed by rural (57.6% approval) and suburban groups (51.2% approval), and isolated towns (51.3% approval) as well as by a strong majority (69.2% approval) in Ticino, while metropolitan centres (58.5% rejection) and the French-speaking part (58.5% rejection) rejected it. In December 2016, a political compromise with

9936-442: The Swiss drew up a constitution that provided for a federal layout , much of it inspired by the American example . This constitution provided central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States , two representatives per canton) and

10080-420: The United Nations only in 2002 but pursues an active foreign policy that includes frequent involvement in peace building . Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross and hosts the headquarters or offices of most major international institutions including the WTO , the WHO , the ILO , FIFA , the WEF , and the UN. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but not part of

10224-859: The University of Rochester Medical Center's X. laevis Research Resource for Immunobiology (XLRRI). Amphibians can also be used to study and validate regenerative signaling pathways such as the Wnt pathway . The wound-healing abilities of amphibians have many practical applications and can potentially provide a foundation for scar-free repair in human plastic surgery, such as treating the skin of burn patients. Amphibians like X. laevis are suitable for experimental embryology because they have large embryos that can be easily manipulated and observed during development. In experiments with axolotls, mutants with white pigmented skin are often used because their semi-transparent skin provides an efficient visualization and tracking method for fluorescently tagged proteins like GFP . Amphibians are not always ideal when it comes to

10368-476: The ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell. Until 2017 there was no effective way to transform them, which hampered research. By using microinjection and radiation, scientists have now created the first genetically modified flatworms. The bristle worm , a marine annelid , has been modified. It is of interest due to its reproductive cycle being synchronized with lunar phases, regeneration capacity and slow evolution rate. Cnidaria such as Hydra and

10512-555: The area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. The Swiss German name of the country, Schwiiz , is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article ( d'Schwiiz for the Confederation, but simply Schwyz for

10656-519: The best welfare of the animals. 4. We are committed to informing the public and providing objective information on research in non-human primates. Switzerland in Europe  (green and dark grey) Switzerland , officially the Swiss Confederation , is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe . It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to

10800-488: The bombings, which violated the 96th Article of War , resulted from navigation errors, equipment failure, weather conditions, and pilot errors. The Swiss expressed fear and concern that the bombings were intended to put pressure on Switzerland to end economic cooperation and neutrality with Nazi Germany. Court-martial proceedings took place in England. The US paid SFR 62M for reparations. Switzerland's attitude towards refugees

10944-531: The canton and the town). The long [iː] of Swiss German is historically and still often today spelled ⟨y⟩ rather than ⟨ii⟩ , preserving the original identity of the two names even in writing. The Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was neologised and introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848, harking back to the Napoleonic Helvetic Republic . It appeared on coins from 1879, inscribed on

11088-492: The chance of rejection. Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans. There is even potential to create chimeric pigs that can carry human organs. Livestock are modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth-rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance and survival. Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases. Modifications have also improved

11232-543: The citizens, the membership application was withdrawn. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually changing to conform with that of the EU, and the government signed bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been surrounded by the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty , a result that EU commentators regarded as

11376-521: The confederation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano . This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli 's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 ( Wars of Kappel ). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia , European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from

11520-515: The constitution forbade sending troops to serve abroad, marking the end of foreign service. It came with the expectation of serving the Holy See , and the Swiss were still obliged to serve Francis II of the Two Sicilies with Swiss Guards present at the siege of Gaeta in 1860 . An important clause of the constitution was that it could be entirely rewritten, if necessary, thus enabling it to evolve as

11664-547: The constitution was revised with uncommonly strong elements of direct democracy , which remain unique today. Switzerland was not invaded during either of the world wars. During World War I , Switzerland was home to the revolutionary and founder of the Soviet Union Vladimir Illych Ulyanov ( Vladimir Lenin ) who remained there until 1917. Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the short-lived Grimm–Hoffmann affair in 1917. In 1920, Switzerland joined

11808-586: The defence budget and ethical considerations prevented the substantial funds from being allocated, and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative. Plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988. Switzerland joined the Council of Europe in 1963. Switzerland was the last Western republic (the Principality of Liechtenstein followed in 1984) to grant women

11952-446: The desired genes ) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification Various advancements in genetics allowed humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of

12096-527: The development of what were essentially early urban strongholds and city governments in Eastern Switzerland. By 1200, the Swiss Plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy , Zähringer , Habsburg , and Kyburg . Some regions ( Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , later known as Waldstätten ) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With

12240-469: The dialogue taking place in society – for example in the incorporation of the new EU Directive of 22 September 2010 on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes into the national laws.[1] (The revised EU Directive provides for the use of fewer laboratory animals for scientific purposes in the future and better reconciles the needs of research with the protection of animals without making research more difficult. The EU Member States must incorporate

12384-477: The drug Kanuma , an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed regulatory approval in 2015. One potential use of GM birds could be to reduce the spread of avian disease. Researchers at Roslin Institute have produced a strain of GM chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) that does not transmit avian flu to other birds; however, these birds are still susceptible to contracting it. The genetic modification

12528-423: The eastern regions. Facing pressures from Germanic tribes, in 58 BC, the Helvetii, influenced by Orgetorix , a wealthy aristocrat, decided to abandon the Swiss Plateau for better opportunities in western Gallia. After Orgetorix's mysterious death, the tribe continued their migration but was decisively defeated by Julius Caesar's armies at the Battle of Bibracte , in present-day eastern France. Following their defeat,

12672-873: The effects of genetic changes on development. Fruit flies are often preferred over other animals due to their short life cycle and low maintenance requirements. It also has a relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates , with typically only one copy of each gene, making phenotypic analysis easy. Drosophila have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging. Transposons (particularly P elements) are well developed in Drosophila and provided an early method to add transgenes to their genome, although this has been taken over by more modern gene-editing techniques. Due to their significance to human health, scientists are looking at ways to control mosquitoes through genetic engineering. Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in

12816-609: The egg supply, so that only females hatch. For example, the Israeli startup eggXYt uses CRISPR to give male eggs a biomarker that makes then glow under certain conditions. Importantly, the resulting laying hen and the eggs it producers are not themselves genetically edited. The European Union's Director General for Health and Food Safety has confirmed that made in this way eggs can be marketed, although none are commercially available as of June 2023. The first experiments that successfully developed transgenic amphibians into embryos began in

12960-565: The end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the confederation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains , and the University of Basel was founded (with a faculty of medicine) establishing a tradition of chemical and medical research. This increased after victories against the Habsburgs ( Battle of Sempach , Battle of Näfels ), over Charles

13104-410: The entire course of regeneration due to too harsh conditions that caused early cell death in labeled cells. Though the process of producing transgenic axolotls was a challenge, scientists were able to label cells for longer durations using a plasmid transfection technique, which involves injecting DNA into cells using an electrical pulse in a process called electroporation . Transfecting axolotl cells

13248-436: The enzyme phytase , which breaks down the indigestible phosphorus, in their saliva. As a result, they excrete 30 to 70% less phosphorus in manure depending upon the age and diet. The lower concentrations of phosphorus in surface runoff reduces algal growth, because phosphorus is the limiting nutrient for algae. Because algae consume large amounts of oxygen, excessive growth can result in dead zones for fish. Funding for

13392-633: The extinction of its male line in 1263, the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264. The Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them, extending their territory to the eastern Swiss Plateau. The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps. The Confederacy was governed by nobles and patricians of various cantons who facilitated management of common interests and ensured peace on mountain trade routes. The Federal Charter of 1291

13536-538: The first animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice, engineered to produce human tissue plasminogen activator in 1987. The first genetically modified animal to be commercialised was the GloFish , a Zebra fish with a fluorescent gene added that allows it to glow in the dark under ultraviolet light . It was released to the US market in 2003. The first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use

13680-578: The first human biological drug produced from such an animal, a goat , was approved. The drug, ATryn , is an anticoagulant which reduces the probability of blood clots during surgery or childbirth was extracted from the goat's milk. Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that is used in treating humans with this deficiency. Another area is in creating pigs with greater capacity for human organ transplants ( xenotransplantation ). Pigs have been genetically modified so that their organs can no longer carry retroviruses or have modifications to reduce

13824-515: The first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized. AquaBounty says that to prevent the genetically modified fish from inadvertently breeding with wild salmon, all of the fish will be female and reproductively sterile, although a small percentage of the females may remain fertile. Some opponents of the GM salmon have dubbed it the "Frankenfish". In biological research, transgenic fruit flies ( Drosophila melanogaster ) are model organisms used to study

13968-422: The first time. Their first research target for these marmosets was Parkinson's disease , but they were also considering amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease . Human proteins expressed in mammals are more likely to be similar to their natural counterparts than those expressed in plants or microorganisms. Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats, and other animals. In 2009,

14112-483: The function of certain genes based on the absence of the gene of interest. For example, gene knockouts of the Sox2 gene confirm this region's role in neural stem cell amplification in the axolotl. The technology to do more complex conditional gene knockouts, or conditional knockouts that give the scientist spatiotemporal control of the gene is not yet suitable for axolotls. However, research in this field continues to develop and

14256-482: The future, e.g. for personalized medicine and neurodegenerative diseases in an aging society. This continuing need is also reflected in the EU Directive of 2010 (2010 /63/EU) on animals used for scientific purposes, in which it is recognized that research in non-human primates will remain irreplaceable in the foreseeable future. 2. Biomedical research cannot be divided into “basic research” and “applied research”: it

14400-470: The future. With their Basel Declaration, researchers are seeking to achieve a more impartial approach to scientific issues by the public and a more trusting and reliable cooperation with national and international decision makers. The signatories to the Basel Declaration are actively seeking to show that science and animal welfare are not diametrically opposed and to make a constructive contribution to

14544-460: The gene they wish to insert into the host organism. This can be taken from a cell containing the gene or artificially synthesised . If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library . The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and usually a selectable marker . A number of techniques are available for inserting

14688-460: The genome of an African Elephant , although the lead researcher says he has no intention of using live elephants. Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes which can cure disease in humans. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency and Leber's congenital amaurosis . Treatments are also being developed for

14832-648: The headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine , Inn , Ticino and Rhône , which flow in the four cardinal directions, spreading across Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of fresh water in Central and Western Europe, among which are Lake Geneva (Lac Léman in French), Lake Constance (Bodensee in German) and Lake Maggiore . Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes and contains 6% of Europe's freshwater stock. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of

14976-413: The highest in terms of quality of life, albeit with some of the highest costs of living . Switzerland holds an international reputation for its established banking sector, alongside its distinctive recognition for their watchmaking and chocolate production. It has four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh . Although most Swiss are German-speaking, national identity

15120-616: The hormone. Pout also have antifreeze proteins in their blood, which allow the GM salmon to survive near-freezing waters and continue their development. A wild-type salmon takes 24 to 30 months to reach market size (4–6 kg), whereas the producers of the GM salmon say that it requires only 18 months for the GM fish to reach that size. In November 2015, the FDA of the USA approved the AquAdvantage salmon for commercial production, sale, and consumption,

15264-414: The isolated gene into the host genome . With animals DNA is generally inserted into using microinjection , where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus , or through the use of viral vectors . The first transgenic animals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females. It is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA

15408-462: The laboratory. by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive ). This has been taken further by swapping it for a lethal gene. In trials the populations of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the single most important carrier of dengue fever and Zika virus, were reduced by between 80% and by 90%. Another approach

15552-597: The last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA but not the European Economic Area (EEA). An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but did not advance since rejecting the EEA in December 1992 when Switzerland conducted a referendum on the EEA. Several referendums on the EU issue ensued; due to opposition from

15696-449: The level of information gained by studying these fish. GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of "all fish" growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry, to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks. This has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmon , trout , and tilapia . AquaBounty Technologies have produced

15840-470: The media and schools in the future and to give greater importance to the communication of science. The authors of the Basel Declaration acknowledge the need for greater discussion of animal experiment issues in public and also of the risks of research approaches and possible misuse of new technological developments. In addition, they declare their intention to communicate not only results und scientific controversies, but also processes and approval procedures in

15984-410: The most common mammals used in biomedical research , as they are cheap and easy to manipulate. Examples include humanized mice created by xenotransplantation of human gene products, so as to be utilized as murine human-animal hybrids for gaining relevant insights in the in vivo context for understanding of human-specific physiology and pathologies. Pigs are also a good target, because they have

16128-560: The name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for "Confederates", Eidgenossen (literally: comrades by oath ), used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland , CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica ( Helvetic Confederation ). The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes , perhaps related to swedan 'to burn' (cf. Old Norse svíða 'to singe, burn'), referring to

16272-738: The national territory. Lake Geneva is the largest lake and is shared with France. The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second largest and, like Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border with Austria and Germany. While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camargue region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam , about 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) apart, both springs are only about 22 kilometres (14 miles) apart in

16416-416: The north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Plateau , the Alps and the Jura ; the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, whereas most of the country's population of 9 million are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts its largest cities and economic centres, including Zurich , Geneva , and Basel . Switzerland originates from

16560-401: The on-going discussion about GM crops [1], and the developing debate about the safety and ethics of foods and pharmaceutical products produced by both GM animals and plants, have provoked varying views across different sectors of society Genetic modification and genome editing hold potential for the future, but decisions regarding the use of these technologies must be based not only on what

16704-562: The patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes, such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg ) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the Sonderbund ). The war lasted less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire . The Sonderbundskrieg had

16848-419: The presence of pollutants. The fish will then glow and can be used as environmental sensors. The GloFish is a brand of genetically modified fluorescent zebrafish with bright red, green, and orange fluorescent color. It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as

16992-512: The products of the genetic modification. Fluorescent pigs have been bred to study human organ transplants, regenerating ocular photoreceptor cells , and other topics. In 2011 green-fluorescent cats were created to find therapies for HIV/AIDS and other diseases as feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is related to HIV. Researchers from the University of Wyoming have developed a way to incorporate spiders' silk-spinning genes into goats, allowing

17136-550: The progeny will be a clone of Randy, but without his horns, and their offspring should also be hornless. In 2011, Chinese scientists generated dairy cows genetically engineered with genes from human beings to produce milk that would be the same as human breast milk. This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula. The researchers claim these transgenic cows to be identical to regular cows. Two months later, scientists from Argentina presented Rosita,

17280-499: The researchers to harvest the silk protein from the goats' milk for a variety of applications. Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia. To protect the Iberian species from viral diseases, the myxoma virus was genetically modified to immunize the rabbits, while in Australia

17424-483: The resources required to produce genetically modified animals; along with the one to two-year generation time, Xenopus laevis can be considered less than ideal for transgenic experiments because of its pseudotetraploid genome. Due to the same genes appearing in the genome multiple times, the chance of mutagenesis experiments working is lower. Current methods of freezing and thawing axolotl sperm render them nonfunctional, meaning transgenic lines must be maintained in

17568-414: The right to vote . Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level, it was achieved in 1971 and, after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde , along with Glarus ) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance. The first woman on the seven-member Federal Council executive

17712-481: The same myxoma virus was genetically modified to lower fertility in the Australian rabbit population. There have also been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction . It involves changing the genome of a close living relative to resemble the extinct one and is currently being attempted with the passenger pigeon . Genes associated with the woolly mammoth have been added to

17856-415: The science process, in order to foster a deeper understanding of research.[4] With regard to the improvement of information for the public on research involving experiments the signatories to the Basel Declaration commit to the following: Modern medicine is based on discoveries of basic biological research and their implementation in applied research . The initial signatories to the Basel Declaration see

18000-431: The sea anemone Nematostella vectensis are attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity and certain developmental processes. Other organisms that have been genetically modified include snails , geckos , turtles , crayfish , oysters , shrimp , clams , abalone , and sponges . Food products derived from genetically modified (GM) animals have not yet entered the European market. Nonetheless,

18144-756: The sixth century, following Clovis I 's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians. Throughout the rest of the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony ( Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties) but after its extension under Charlemagne , the Frankish Empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The territories of present-day Switzerland became divided into Middle Francia and East Francia until they were reunified under

18288-754: The southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing St. Moritz , is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m or 13,284 ft). The Swiss Plateau has greater open and hilly landscapes, partly forested, partly open pastures, usually with grazing herds or vegetable and fruit fields, but it is still hilly. Large lakes and the biggest Swiss cities are found there. Switzerland contains two small enclaves : Büsingen belongs to Germany, while Campione d'Italia belongs to Italy. Switzerland has no exclaves. Genetically modified animal Genetically modified animals are animals that have been genetically modified for

18432-423: The symposium on the Basel Declaration. They see the following advantages in the use of genetically modified organisms in animal experiments: The participants at the symposium on the Basel Declaration at the end of November 2010 summarized the outcome of their discussions on the subject of experiments in non-human primates as follows: 1. Research in non-human primates is an essential part of biomedical progress in

18576-407: The symposium that adopted the Basel Declaration were unanimously agreed that science must not only take a clear stand with regard to the responsible handling of laboratory animals, but also has to show greater transparency toward the public.[3] To make their motivation and methods more comprehensible to the public and the decision makers, the researchers aim to cooperate more closely with politicians,

18720-464: The tendency to restrict animal experiments, especially in the field of basic research, as a major risk. And they maintain that no stage of research (neither basic nor applied research) must be categorically excluded from those purposes of animal experiments that are deemed permissible. Apart from the difficulty of differentiating the two stages in the field of medical research, applied research is generally inconceivable without basic research. Basic research

18864-566: The time of his death Herman was one of the oldest bulls in the Netherlands. Herman's hide has been preserved and mounted by taxidermists and is permanently on display in Naturalis. They say that he represents the start of a new era in the way man deals with nature, an icon of scientific progress, and the subsequent public discussion of these issues. In October 2017, Chinese scientists announced they used CRISPR gene editing technology to create of

19008-603: The two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system has effectively halved the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified animals. Humans have domesticated animals since around 12,000 BCE, using selective breeding or artificial selection (as contrasted with natural selection ). The process of selective breeding , in which organisms with desired traits (and thus with

19152-481: The white strain that are often used in research have a transcriptional mutation at the Edn3 gene locus. Unlike other model organisms, the first fluorescently labeled cells in axolotls were differentiated muscle cells instead of embryos. In these initial experiments in the early 2000s, scientists were able to visualize muscle cell regeneration in the axolotl tail using a microinjecting technique, but cells could not be traced for

19296-674: The wider world by Axis-controlled territory. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees aided by the International Red Cross , based in Geneva. Strict immigration and asylum policies and the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, only at the end of the 20th century. During the war, the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides, shooting down 11 intruding Luftwaffe planes in May and June 1940, then forcing down other intruders after

19440-447: The wool production of sheep and udder health of cows. Goats have been genetically engineered to produce milk with strong spiderweb-like silk proteins. The goat gene sequence has been modified, using fresh umbilical cords taken from kids, in order to code for the human enzyme lysozyme . Researchers wanted to alter the milk produced by the goats, to contain lysozyme in order to fight off bacteria causing diarrhea in humans. Enviropig

19584-402: Was AquAdvantage salmon in 2015. The salmon were transformed with a growth hormone -regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout enabling it to grow year-round instead of only during spring and summer. GM mammals are created for research purposes, production of industrial or therapeutic products, agricultural uses or improving their health. There is also

19728-548: Was Elisabeth Kopp , who served from 1984 to 1989, and the first female president was Ruth Dreifuss in 1999. In 1979 areas from the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new canton of Jura . On 18 April 1999, the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution . In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving Vatican City as

19872-516: Was a genetically enhanced line of Yorkshire pigs in Canada created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional Yorkshire pigs. The A transgene construct consisting of a promoter expressed in the murine parotid gland and the Escherichia coli phytase gene was introduced into the pig embryo by pronuclear microinjection . This caused the pigs to produce

20016-557: Was complicated and controversial; over the course of the war, it admitted as many as 300,000 refugees while refusing tens of thousands more, including Jews persecuted by the Nazis. After the war, the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable fund known as the Schweizerspende and donated to the Marshall Plan to help Europe's recovery, efforts that ultimately benefited

20160-419: Was genetically engineered by micro-injected embryonic cells with the human gene coding for lactoferrin . The Dutch Parliament changed the law in 1992 to allow Herman to reproduce. Eight calves were born in 1994 and all calves inherited the lactoferrin gene. With subsequent sirings, Herman fathered a total of 83 calves. Dutch law required Herman to be slaughtered at the conclusion of the experiment . However

20304-503: Was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia . Sometime around the start of the Common Era , the Romans maintained a large camp called Vindonissa , now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch . The first and second century AD was an age of prosperity on the Swiss Plateau. Towns such as Aventicum , Iulia Equestris and Augusta Raurica reached

20448-450: Was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians , who introduced the French language to the area. The Alemanni settled the Swiss Plateau in the fifth century and the valleys of the Alps in the eighth century, forming Alemannia . Modern-day Switzerland was then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy . The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in

20592-552: Was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos . In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. He said that twin girls- Lulu and Nana , had been born a few weeks earlier, and that they carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 ( mosaicism ), and were still vulnerable to HIV. The work

20736-640: Was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research, as pets, and as a food source. Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half of the consumed fish worldwide. Through genetic engineering, it is possible to increase growth rates, reduce food intake, remove allergenic properties, increase cold tolerance, and provide disease resistance. Fish can also be used to detect aquatic pollution or function as bioreactors. Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by

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