176-641: The president of Bangladesh ( Bengali : বাংলাদেশের রাষ্ট্রপতি — Bangladesher Raṣhṭrôpôti ), officially the president of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( Bengali : গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশের রাষ্ট্রপতি — Gaṇaprajātantrī Bangladesher Raṣhṭrôpôti ), is the head of state of Bangladesh and commander-in-chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces . The role of the president has changed three times since Bangladesh achieved independence in 1971. Presidents had been given executive power . In 1991, with
352-752: A Cabinet with the Prime Minister as its Head . Prescribes that the executive power of the Republic is to be exercised by or on the authority of the Prime Minister. States that appointments to the Cabinet will be determined by the Prime Minister and made by the President . Specifies that not less than nine-tenths of members of the Cabinet must be Members of Parliament. States that the President will appoint as Prime Minister
528-579: A Chittagong Hill Tracts Development Commission in 1976, but resisted holding a political dialogue with the representatives of the hill tribes on the issue of autonomy and cultural self-preservation. On 2 July 1977 Ziaur Rahman organised a tribal convention to promote a dialogue between the government and tribal groups. However, most cultural and political issues would remain unresolved and intermittent incidents of inter-community violence and militancy occurred throughout Zia's rule. Reforms and international relations Notable mentions of Ziaur Rahman's tenure as
704-717: A Liberal Nationalism that emphasised on the liberation of Bengalis from Pakistan's autocratic regime. Zia emphasised the national role of Islam (as practised by the majority of Bangladeshis). Claiming to promote an inclusive national identity, Zia reached out to non-Bengali minorities such as the Santals , Garos , Manipuris and Chakmas , as well as the Urdu -speaking peoples of Bihari origin. However, many of these groups were predominantly Hindu and Buddhist and were alienated by Zia's promotion of political Islam. In an effort to promote cultural assimilation and economic development, Zia appointed
880-484: A Constitutional Assembly. Rifat Hasan contends that the current constitution has lost its ethical authority to its citizens, particularly in the context of the July uprising, making it necessary to adopt a new one. He has suggested forming an all-party Guardian Council to ensure broad participation in the drafting and adopting process. This council would draft the constitution and, after approval, present it for adoption via
1056-532: A Judge is entitled to serve until they have attained the age of sixty-seven years. States that the President can, pursuant to a resolution passed by not less than two-thirds of Members of Parliament, remove Judges. Makes provision for the temporary appointment of the Chief Justice. States that the President may appoint one or more duly qualified persons to serve as an Additional Judge for a period not exceeding two years. States that after their retirement or removal,
1232-643: A Judge is prohibited from holding an office of profit in service of the Republic. States that the seat of the Supreme Court will be the national capital, Dhaka . Specifies the jurisdiction of the High Court Division. Grants the High Court Division the authority to issue certain orders and directions. Specifies the jurisdiction of the Appellate Division. Grants the Appellate Division the power to issue directions, orders, decrees or writs. States that
1408-492: A bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent" graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from
1584-401: A citizen of Bangladesh who has attained the age of 18 years. Outlines the timetable for conducting general elections. States that Parliament may from time to time pass laws that regulate the delimitation of constituencies, the preparation of electoral rolls, or the holding of elections. Prohibits courts in the Republic from questioning the validity of electoral law or elections. States that it
1760-590: A different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is লবণ lôbôṇ in the east which corresponds to নুন nun in the west. Bengali exhibits diglossia , though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n-glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax : Linguist Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar categorises
1936-480: A diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following: In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic ; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযোগিতা shô -hô- jo -gi- ta "cooperation", where
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#17328632445632112-455: A general election, elect a Speaker and Deputy Speaker among its members. States that the individual presiding over proceedings is not entitled to vote unless there is an equality of votes. Specifies that the quorum of the Parliament will be 60 members. States that Parliament will appoint among its members a number of standing committees. Makes provision for the establishment of the office of
2288-672: A large scale and were communally limited. Owing to Bengal's geographic location, Bengali areas bordering non-Bengali regions have been influenced by each other. Small numbers of people in Midnapore , which borders Odisha , have used the Odia script to write in Bengali. In the border areas between West Bengal and Bihar , some Bengali communities historically wrote Bengali in Devanagari , Kaithi and Tirhuta . In Sylhet and Bankura , modified versions of
2464-660: A majority in Bangladesh speaks dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB. The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety – often, speakers are fluent in Cholitobhasha (SCB) and one or more regional dialects. Even in SCB,
2640-451: A military interim government. However, the next day a popular uprising led by the retired lieutenant colonel Abu Taher ended in yet another coup with the deaths of several military generals, including Mosharraf. With Mosharraf dead, the office of Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) was taken by Sayem. Sayem dissolved the parliament and scheduled a general election in February 1977 in
2816-647: A new Pakistani Constitution based on the Six Points. The League won 167 out 169 East Pakistani seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan and 288 out of 300 seats in the East Pakistan Provincial Assembly . The Pakistani military junta refused to transfer power to Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, and instead executed Operation Searchlight which triggered Bangladesh War of Independence . The Provisional Government of Bangladesh issued
2992-646: A new national emergency and called for elections within 6 months. Sattar was elected president and won. Sattar was ineffective, however, and Army Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup in March 1982. Hussain Muhammad Ershad (Jatiya Party) Like his predecessors, Ershad dissolved parliament, declared martial law, assumed the position of CMLA, suspended the constitution, and banned political activity. Ershad reaffirmed Bangladesh's moderate, non-aligned foreign policy. In December 1983, he assumed
3168-564: A part in the adoption of the English alphabet to write Bengali, with certain social media influencers publishing entire novels in Roman Bengali. Constitution of Bangladesh The Constitution of Bangladesh is the supreme law of Bangladesh . Adopted by the 'controversial' and virtually "one-party" Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh on 4 November 1972, it came into effect on 16 December 1972. The Constitution establishes Bangladesh as
3344-486: A penalty for Members of Parliament who take their seats or vote before reciting the oath of office . States that a member of parliament who resigns from their party or votes against their party in Parliament will vacate their seat. Allows candidates to stand for election in multiple constituencies, but in the event a single candidate is elected to more than one, they are required to vacate all but one seat. Specifies that Parliament will be summoned, prorogued and dissolved by
3520-488: A person is required to be a citizen of Bangladesh who has attained the age of 25 years in order to qualify for election to Parliament. Also specifies the procedure to disqualify an individual from election to Parliament. Outlines the procedure for a member of parliament to vacate their seat. States that a member of parliament who is absent from Parliament for 90 consecutive days will of vacated their seat. States that Members of Parliament are entitled to remuneration. Prescribes
3696-512: A president have been radical reforms both in country's infrastructure and diplomacy. President Zia successfully pointed out the grounds those could be effectively and exclusively decisive for development of Bangladesh and his reforms covered the political, economical, agricultural and military infrastructure of Bangladesh. Reorganisation of Bangladesh's international relations are especially mentionable because it had active influence over both economy and politics. He successfully bailed Bangladesh out of
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#17328632445633872-550: A presidential speech addressed to the nation but indefinitely postponed it in November 1976. Mostaq Ahmad was sentenced for five years for corruption and abuse of power. Ziaur Rahman (Bangladesh Nationalist Party) Major General Ziaur Rahman , a renowned war hero who was put under house arrest on alleged charges of participation in the Mujib assassination plot (probably due to being among Mostaq's promoted armed forces chiefs), emerged into
4048-409: A religion other than his own. Governments have generally supported and respected religious freedom. As of 2017, Bangladesh is a state party to the following international treaties concerning human rights. Bangladesh can in theory be held liable for its performance in the fields of these treaties. Among the notable agreements Bangladesh is not a state party to include the following. Article 111 of
4224-562: A rounded total of 280 million) worldwide. The Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal , which comprises the present-day nation of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal . Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura , southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Bengali is also spoken in
4400-408: A special diacritic, called the hôsôntô (্) , may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in ম্ [m] ). This diacritic, however, is not common and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable-final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a hôsôntô , may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in
4576-575: A state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan . On 21 February 1952, five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka ; they were the first ever martyrs to die for their right to speak their mother tongue. In 1956, Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan. 21 February has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and has also been commemorated as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO every year since 2000. In 2010,
4752-576: A unitary parliamentary republic based on the British Westminster System and transferring all executive powers to the prime minister. Later, after the general election in 1973 where Mujib's party the Awami League achieved an expected landslide victory overkilling the opposition (not only because of intimidation of candidates and ballot stuffing by the ruling party leaders), in January 1974,
4928-886: A unitary parliamentary republic. Directly borrowing from the four tenets of Mujibism , the political ideology of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , the constitution states nationalism , socialism , democracy and secularism as its four fundamental principles. While the Constitution nominally declares the protection of fundamental rights and an independent judiciary, it has been often labelled as " fascist " and criticized for fostering autocracy and failing to safeguard human rights. The Fundamental Principles of State Policy in Part II are often described as empty rhetoric due to their unjusticiability, while Fundamental Rights in Part III are constrained by extensive, imposable restrictions. Loopholes in
5104-476: A vice-president Zia assumed acting presidency. The presidency was legitimized 40 days later through a national confidence referendum . Finally in the presidential election the following year , Zia became the first directly elected president. His government removed the remaining restrictions on political parties and encouraged all opposition parties to participate in the pending general election while putting military generals into politics. More than 30 parties vied in
5280-463: A vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই [moj] "ladder" and in ইলিশ [iliʃ] "Hilsa fish", the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent form ি) . A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realised using its independent form. In addition to the inherent-vowel-suppressing hôsôntô , three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are
5456-494: Is Bangladesh's national march, written by The National Poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali in 1928. It was adopted as the national marching song by the Bangladeshi government in 1972. Additionally, the first two verses of Vande Mataram , a patriotic song written in Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee , was adopted as the "national song" of India in both the colonial period and later in 1950 in independent India. Furthermore, it
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5632-536: Is a classical Indo-Aryan language from the Indo-European language family native to the Bengal region of South Asia. With over 237 million native speakers and another 41 million as second language speakers as of 2024, Bengali is the fifth most spoken native language and the seventh most spoken language by the total number of speakers in the world. It is the fifth most spoken Indo-European language . Bengali
5808-468: Is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs , and thirty-nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words . Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাত্রা matra . Since
5984-453: Is a parliamentary system , it does not have a vice-president. However, during the presidential system of governance, Bangladesh had a vice-president who would assume the president's role in his absence; the post was abolished by the twelfth amendment to the Constitution in 1991. A president can resign from office by writing a letter by hand to the Speaker. The president can also be impeached by
6160-469: Is a titular position at universities in Bangladesh, always held by the incumbent president of Bangladesh under the Private Universities Act 1992. The position in public universities is not fixed for the president under any acts or laws (since the erection of a state university in Bangladesh requires an act to be passed in itself), but it has been the custom so far to name the incumbent president of
6336-636: Is akin to the magna carta in Pakistan , in terms of the concept of independence. On 20 June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted on the partition of Bengal . It was decided by 126 votes to 90 that, if Bengal remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan . At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided by 58 votes to 21 that the province should be partitioned and that West Bengal should join
6512-400: Is an abugida , a script with letters for consonants, with diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (অ ô ) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked. The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th–11th century). It
6688-668: Is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka ( Sri Lanka Matha ) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore , while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhala . After the contribution made by the Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force in the Sierra Leone Civil War under the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ,
6864-699: Is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardisation of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural centre of Bengal was in Kolkata , a city founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia and Kushtia District . There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use
7040-543: Is granted immunity for all his actions by Article 51 of the Constitution and is not answerable to anybody for his actions, and no criminal charges can be brought to the Court against him. The only exception to this immunity is if the Parliament seeks to impeach the President . Article 54 of the Constitution of Bangladesh provides for the succession of the president. It states that in case of absence due to illness or other reasons,
7216-463: Is his office and residence. The president is elected by the 350 parliamentarians in an open ballot , and thus generally represents the majority party of the legislature. He continues to hold office after his five-year term expires until a successor is elected to the presidency. Mohammed Shahabuddin is the current president; he was elected unopposed on 13 February 2023. He took office for a five-year term on Monday, 24 April 2023. Currently, although
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7392-404: Is known as Apabhraṃśa , by the end of the first millennium. The Bengali language evolved as a distinct language over the course of time. Though some archaeologists claim that some 10th-century texts were in Bengali, it is not certain whether they represent a differentiated language or whether they represent a stage when Eastern Indo-Aryan languages were differentiating. The local Apabhraṃśa of
7568-929: Is located in Dhaka . There is also a Presidential Palace at Uttara Ganabhaban in Natore District . At the beginning of the Bangladesh war of independence in April 1971, the Bangladesh Forces , better known as the Mukti Bahini , and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh , popularly called the Mujibnagar Government , were both established. After the oath ceremony held at Meherpur , Kushtia following Yahya Khan 's anti-secessionist military operation in Dhaka ,
7744-404: Is our sacred duty to safeguard, protect and defend this Constitution and to maintain its supremacy as the embodiment of the will of the people of Bangladesh so that we may prosper in freedom and may make our full contribution towards international peace and co operation in keeping with the progressive aspirations of mankind; States that Bangladesh is a unitary republic. Demarcates the territory of
7920-477: Is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanisation (lower grapheme). Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs , combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable . Two of these, /oi̯/ and /ou̯/ , are the only ones with representation in script, as ঐ and ঔ respectively. /e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯/ may all form the glide part of
8096-545: Is the official , national , and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh , with 98% of Bangladeshis using Bengali as their first language. It is the second-most widely spoken language in India . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura and the Barak Valley region of the state of Assam . It is also the second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It
8272-543: Is the duty of all executive authorities in the Republic to assist the Election Commission in the discharge of its functions. Makes provision for the establishment of a Comptroller and Auditor General of Bangladesh . Prescribes the functions and duties of the Auditor-General. Outlines the term of office for the Auditor-General. Specifies the procedure for the appointment of an Acting Auditor-General. States that
8448-500: Is the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal , and is spoken by significant populations in other states including Bihar , Arunachal Pradesh , Delhi , Chhattisgarh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , Nagaland , Odisha and Uttarakhand . Bengali is also spoken by the Bengali diasporas ( Bangladeshi diaspora and Indian Bengalis) across Europe, North America,
8624-492: Is to be a Chief Justice and other Judges who are to be appointed by the President . Decrees that the Chief Justice and the other Judges will be independent in the exercise of their judicial functions. Outlines the procedure for the appointment of the Chief Justice and other Judges. States that a Judge must be a citizen of Bangladesh who has either been an Advocate at the Supreme Court for a minimum of ten years, or has held judicial office in Bangladesh for ten years. States that
8800-477: The 1979 general election , and with massive public support, Zia's Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) achieved a single-party majority. After the election in February, the withdrawal of martial law was proclaimed on 6 April and the 2nd parliament was formed 9 days later. Drifting away from the Secular State and Liberal Nationalism Zia moved to lead the nation in a new direction, significantly different from
8976-500: The Aesop's Fables in Bengali was printed using Roman letters based on English phonology by the Scottish linguist John Gilchrist . Consecutive attempts to establish a Roman Bengali have continued across every century since these times, and have been supported by the likes of Suniti Kumar Chatterji , Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda , and Muhammad Enamul Haq . The Digital Revolution has also played
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#17328632445639152-660: The Arabic , Persian , and Turkic languages . The arrival of merchants and traders from the Middle East and Turkestan into the Buddhist -ruling Pala Empire , from as early as the 7th century, gave birth to Islamic influence in the region. In the 13th century, subsequent Arab Muslim and Turco-Persian expeditions to Bengal heavily influenced the local vernacular by settling among the native population. Bengali absorbed Arabic and Persian influences in its vocabulary and dialect, including
9328-605: The Bengal Legislative Council and the Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council in the early 20th century. The Nehru Report recommended for universal suffrage, a bicameral legislature, a senate and a house of representatives. The Fourteen Points of Jinnah demanded provincial autonomy and quotas for Muslims in government. The Government of India Act 1935 established provincial parliaments based on separate electorates. The 1940 Lahore Resolution , supported by
9504-476: The Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh , which was formed out of the East Pakistani elected members of the 1970 Pakistani general election , convened a month after the war on 12 January 1972, he introduced parliamentarism through a presidential decree and left office for the role of prime minister. In December on the first anniversary of the end of the war, the new constitution of the country took effect founding
9680-566: The Constituent Assembly of India . At another separate meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided by 106 votes to 35 that Bengal should not be partitioned and 107 votes to 34 that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July 1947, the Sylhet referendum voted to partition Sylhet Division from Assam Province and merge it into East Bengal. On 11 August 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah ,
9856-414: The Constitution of Bangladesh states Bengali to be the sole official language of Bangladesh. The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 , made it mandatory to use Bengali in all records and correspondences, laws, proceedings of court and other legal actions in all courts, government or semi-government offices, and autonomous institutions in Bangladesh. It is also the de facto national language of
10032-578: The Government from the repayment of loans will form part of a single fund known as the Consolidated Fund. States that all other public revenue will be credited to the Public Account of the Republic. States that the custody of public money and their payment into and the withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund will be regulated by an Act of Parliament. Outlines the revenue payable to the Public Account of
10208-516: The Indo-Soviet bloc and grabbed the distancing strings to put bar on the gradually deterioration of Bangladeshi relations with the Western world . Zia gave attention to the other Eastern superpower China that later helped Bangladesh hugely to recover from economical setbacks and to enrich the arsenal of her armed forces . The most notable of Zia's reformed diplomacy was establishing a relationship with
10384-564: The Kaithi script had some historical prominence, mainly among Muslim communities. The variant in Sylhet was identical to the Baitali Kaithi script of Hindustani with the exception of Sylhet Nagri possessing matra . Sylhet Nagri was standardised for printing in c. 1869 . Up until the 19th century, numerous variations of the Arabic script had been used across Bengal from Chittagong in
10560-520: The Nadia region . Bengali shows a high degree of diglossia , with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Modern Bengali vocabulary is based on words inherited from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, along with tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and borrowings from Persian , Arabic , Austroasiatic languages and other languages with which it has historically been in contact. In
10736-466: The Proclamation of Independence on 10 April 1971, which served as the interim first Constitution of Bangladesh. It declared "equality, human dignity and social justice" as the fundamental principles of the republic. East Pakistani members of Pakistan's federal and provincial assemblies were transformed into members of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh . The constituent assembly had 404 members. After
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#173286324456310912-424: The Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad will act as the president of Bangladesh until the president resumes office. This Article was used during the ascension of Speaker Jamiruddin Sircar as the acting president of the State following the resignation of former president A. Q. M. Badruddoza Chowdhury , and when President Zillur Rahman could not discharge his duties due to his illness, and later, death. Since Bangladesh
11088-534: The Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad , an oath or affirmation that he/she shall protect, preserve and defend the Constitution as follows: I, (name), do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully discharge the duties of the office of President of Bangladesh according to law: That I will bear true faith and allegiance to Bangladesh: That I will preserve, protect and defend the Constitution: And that I will do right to all manner of people according to law, without fear or favour, affection or ill-will" The president
11264-432: The University of Karachi (established by East Pakistani politicians before Independence of Bangladesh ) also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature. The national anthems of both Bangladesh ( Amar Sonar Bangla ) and India ( Jana Gana Mana ) were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore . Notuner Gaan known as " Chol Chol Chol"
11440-499: The boldface represents primary and secondary stress. Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters ; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e., one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম geram (CV.CVC) for গ্রাম gram (CCVC) "village" or ইস্কুল iskul (VC.CVC) for স্কুল skul (CCVC) "school". The Bengali-Assamese script
11616-399: The first presidential election was held. Mohammad Mohammadullah , who replaced Mujib's successor Abu Sayeed Chowdhury as acting president upon the latter's resignation, was indirectly elected uncontested and sworn in as the ceremonial head of state . Mujib is widely considered the founder of Bangladesh and deemed as the "Father of the Nation" of the country. He is popularly referred with
11792-557: The phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalised vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the "cerebral" consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of western Bengal). Some varieties of Bengali, particularly Sylheti , Chittagonian and Chakma , have contrastive tone ; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong
11968-457: The 16th century, Portuguese missionaries began a tradition of using the Roman alphabet to transcribe the Bengali language. Though the Portuguese standard did not receive much growth, a few Roman Bengali works relating to Christianity and Bengali grammar were printed as far as Lisbon in 1743. The Portuguese were followed by the English and French respectively, whose works were mostly related to Bengali grammar and transliteration. The first version of
12144-532: The 1970 cyclone had not worn off, and the state's economy had immensely deteriorated by the conflict. Economically, Mujib's huge nationalization program and socialist planning caused the economy to suffer. By the end of the year, thousands of Bengalis arrived from Pakistan, and thousands of non-Bengalis migrated to Pakistan; and yet many thousands remained in refugee camps. Mujib forged a close friendship with Indira Gandhi, strongly praising India's decision to intercede, and professed admiration and friendship for India. In
12320-417: The 1973 general election, the Awami League government often flouted Constitutional rules and principles. The government received strong criticism from the Bangladeshi press, including both Bengali and English newspapers. The Committee for Civil Liberties and Legal Aid was formed to defend the Constitution. The Awami League enacted three Constitutional amendments between 1973 and 1975. The most drastic amendment
12496-487: The 19th and 20th centuries, there were two standard forms of written Bengali: In 1948, the government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, giving rise to the Bengali language movement . This was a popular ethnolinguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh ), which arose as a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis and their desire to promote and protect spoken and written Bengali's recognition as
12672-576: The 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. The ancestor of Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty . During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterised by the elision of the word-final অ ô and the spread of compound verbs, which originated from the Sanskrit Schwa . Slowly, the word-final ô disappeared from many words influenced by
12848-447: The Appellate Division will have the power to review any judgments or orders issued by it. States that in the event that the President believes a question of law has arisen that is of public importance, the Supreme Court may report its opinion to the President. States that the Supreme Court has the power to make rules which regulate the practise and procedure of each Division of the Supreme Court and any other subordinate court. States that
13024-592: The Attorney General is entitled to attend the proceedings of any courts in the Republic. Proclaims that there will be a Parliament for Bangladesh known as the House of the Nation, which will be vested with the legislative powers of the Republic. States that Parliament will consist of 300 directly elected members, while 50 seats will be reserved exclusively for women and will be allocated on a proportional basis . Specifies that
13200-451: The Bengali equivalent of a full stop – have been adopted from Western scripts and their usage is similar. Unlike in Western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাত্রা matra . The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example,
13376-426: The Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments , but carry an "inherent" vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel , either [ɔ] as in মত [m ɔ t] "opinion" or [o] , as in মন [m o n] "mind", with variants like the more open [ɒ] . To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it,
13552-624: The Constitution proclaims the doctrine of binding judicial precedent . According to the article, the law declared by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh , including its Appellate Division and the High Court Division , are binding in all subordinate courts. Article 111 makes Bangladesh an integral part of the common law world. Judicial review is also supported by the Constitution The Constitution does not specifically mention
13728-404: The Constitution's principles. Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman , a former Chief Justice and interim prime minister, proposed that a Constitution Commission be formed to explore the prospects for Constitutional reform. A. T. M. Shamsul Huda , a former Chief Election Commissioner, has called for a Constitutional amendment to ensure "checks and balances" and the separation of powers . Following
13904-455: The Constitution. Lieutenant General Ziaur Rahman is credited for many of these Proclamation Orders. The most significant of these orders was defining citizenship as Bangladeshi ; other orders included the insertion of religious references and the controversial Indemnity Ordinance . In 1979, martial law was lifted, multiparty politics was restored and Constitutional rule was revived. The Fifth Amendment in 1979 validated all Proclamation Orders of
14080-520: The Middle East and other regions. Bengali was accorded the status of a classical language by the government of India on 3 October 2024. It is the second most spoken and fourth fastest growing language in India , following Hindi in the first place, Kashmiri in the second place, and Meitei ( Manipuri ), along with Gujarati , in the third place, according to the 2011 census of India . Bengali has developed over more than 1,400 years. Bengali literature , with its millennium-old literary history,
14256-593: The Muslim world as well as the Middle East . The present bulk overseas recruitment of Bangladeshi migrant workers to Middle Eastern countries are direct outcome of Zia's efforts those he put to develop a long-lasting relationship with the Muslim leadership of the world . The purpose of Middle East relations has been largely economical whereas the rapid improvement of relations with China was particularly made to for rapid advancement of
14432-653: The North West Frontier Province, 1 from Baluchistan and 4 from the acceding princely states. The Bengali Language Movement and demands for replacing separate electorates with joint universal suffrage were key issues in East Bengal. The first constituent assembly was arbitrarily dissolved by the Governor General in 1954. This led to the court challenge of Federation of Pakistan v. Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan , in which
14608-548: The Ombudsman. States that Members of Parliament are protected by parliamentary privilege . Prescribes that Parliament will have its own secretariat. Outlines the legislative procedure for a Bill to become an act of parliament . States that assent is required from the President in order for a Bill to become an Act of Parliament. Specifies that if the President fails to assent to a Bill within fifteen days of it being presented to them, it will be deemed that they have assented to
14784-442: The Parliament. In case of impeachment, the Parliament must bring specific charges against the president, and investigate it themselves, or refer it to any other body for investigation. The president will have the right to defend himself. Following the proceedings, the president is impeached immediately if two-thirds of the Parliament votes in favour, and the Speaker ascends to power. The principal Presidential residence at Bangabhaban
14960-449: The President must write under their hand addressed to the Speaker . Outlines the process of impeachment and removal from office of the President. Specifies the process of removal from office of the President on grounds of physical or mental incapacity. States that the Speaker will discharge the duties of President in the event of the President's absence. States that the Republic is to have
15136-436: The President. States that the control and discipline of subordinate courts will be vested in the President and will be exercised in consultation with the Supreme Court. States that all persons employed in the judicial service and all magistrates shall be independent in the exercise of their judicial functions. States that Parliament shall have the power to establish one or more administrative tribunals. Makes provision for
15312-503: The President. States that Parliament will sit for a five-year term. Decrees that at the commencement of the first session of Parliament after a general election and the commencement of the first session of Parliament every year, the President is to make an address to Parliament. States that Ministers are entitled to address and take part in the proceedings of Parliament, but only Minister who are Members of Parliament are entitled to vote. States that Parliament will, in its first sitting after
15488-473: The Public Accounts of the Republic will be kept in a manner prescribed by the Auditor-General. States that the reports of the Auditor-General are to be laid before Parliament. States that Parliament may by law regulate the appointment of persons employed by the Republic. Specifies the tenure in office for persons employed by the Republic. Outlines the procedure for the dismissal of persons from service to
15664-550: The Republic. Makes provision for the reorganisation of the services of the Republic Freedom of religion is one of the cornerstones of Bangladesh's Constitution. Article 12 calls for secularity , the elimination of interfaith tensions and prohibits the abuse of religion for political purposes and any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a particular religion. Article 41 subjects religious freedom to public order, law and morality; it gives every citizen
15840-435: The Republic. Proclaims that Islam is the state religion, but guarantees equal status and equal rights to all religions. Declares Bangla as the state language. Specifies the national anthem , national flag , and national emblem of the Republic. Declares Dhaka as the national capital . Provides eligibility for citizenship. States that all powers are derived from the people, and the exercise of such powers will be by
16016-414: The Republic. States that all authorities, executive and judicial, in the Republic will act in aid of the Supreme Court. Specifies the appointment procedure of the staff of the Supreme Court. Makes provision for the establishment of subordinate courts in the Republic. Outlines that the appointment of persons to offices in the judicial service or as magistrates exercising judicial functions will be made by
16192-477: The Republic. States that an Annual Financial Statement must be laid before Parliament for each respective financial year . Specifies the charges of the Consolidated Fund. Outlines the procedure relating to the Annual Financial Statement. Makes provision for an Appropriations Act to be defrayed from the Consolidated Fund. Makes provision for the use of supplementary and excess grants, in the event
16368-411: The Supreme Court will be a court of record . States that the Supreme Court will have superintendence over all courts and tribunals subordinate to it. Outlines the procedure for the transfer of cases from subordinate courts to the High Court Division. States that the law declared by the Appellate Division and the High Court Division will be legally-binding and will be binding in all subordinate courts in
16544-470: The Supreme Court will enforce the fundamental rights of the Constitution. Reserves the right to provide indemnity to individuals. Declares that Bangladesh will have a President who will serve as Head of State of the Republic. States that the President will be elected by members of the Jatiya Sangsad . Prescribes that the President will only act in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, with
16720-469: The aftermath of the 1974 Famine , there was growing dissatisfaction with his government. Irked by the heavy criticism from the opposition and news outlets and worried about the Awami League's prospects in the next election, on 28 December 1974 Mujib declared a state of emergency . The following month, he openly advocated to the view that parliamentarism has failed in the country and had the lawmakers amend
16896-655: The amendment as instituting prime ministerial dictatorship. The Thirteen Amendment in 1996 introduced the Caretaker government of Bangladesh . In 2010, the Supreme Court of Bangladesh ruled that the Fifth Amendment of 1979 went against the Constitutional spirit of the country and hence invalidated its removal of clauses related to secularism. The Supreme Court gave the verdict in the case of Bangladesh Italian Marble Works Ltd. v. Government of Bangladesh . While implementing
17072-459: The authority of the Constitution. Proclaims that the Constitution is the supreme law of Bangladesh, and that any laws inconsistent with the Constitution are void and of no effect. Article 7A prohibits the suspension or abrogation of the Constitution. States that certain parts of the Constitution are unamendable. States that nationalism , socialism , democracy and secularism are the fundamental principles of state policy. Pledges to ensure
17248-536: The basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh ( Barisal , Chittagong , Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal and western Bangladesh are pronounced as fricatives . Western alveolo-palatal affricates চ [ tɕɔ ] , ছ [ tɕʰɔ ] , জ [ dʑɔ ] correspond to eastern চ [tsɔ] , ছ [tsʰɔ~sɔ] , জ [dzɔ~zɔ] . The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on
17424-407: The bill and it will become law. Outlines the legislative procedure for Money Bills . States that Money Bills can only be introduced with the recommendation of the President. States that taxes can only be levied or collected under the authority of an Act of Parliament. States that taxes can only be levied and collected under the authority of an Act of Parliament. States that all revenue received by
17600-469: The consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in
17776-473: The constitution redefined the nature of the republic from the secularism laid out by Sheikh Mujib and his supporters. Islamic religious education was introduced as a compulsory subject in Bangladeshi schools, with provisions for non-Muslim students to learn of their own religions. In public speeches and policies that he formulated, Zia began expounding "Bangladeshi nationalism," as opposed to Mujib's assertion of
17952-506: The constitution to revive the presidential system in order to better manage emergencies in the country. After assuming the presidency again, Mujib criticized "free-style" liberal democracy and established an autocratic one-party state with the strongly socialist Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League as the national party and him as the unelected president and unopposed supreme leader for life. He banned all other political parties and activities while sharply curtailing freedom of speech and
18128-427: The country as chancellor of all state universities thus established. The Constitution of Bangladesh sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A person shall not be qualified for election as president if he- Certain conditions, as per Article 27 of the Constitution, debar any eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are: Whenever
18304-416: The country's armed forces. Throughout the study of Zia's international relations it could have been suggested that attention to the bigger neighbour India has been largely ignored. But Zia was found to put strong emphasis on regional co-operation particularly for South Asia . It came evident after Zia took initiative to found SAARC . Zia's dream of Bangladesh's involvement in a strong regional co-operation
18480-503: The country. In India, Bengali is one of the 23 official languages . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal , Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam . Bengali has been a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. In Pakistan , Bengali is a recognised secondary language in the city of Karachi mainly spoken by stranded Bengalis of Pakistan . The Department of Bengali in
18656-651: The country. A five-year plan released in 1973 focused state investments into agriculture, rural infrastructure and cottage industries. After Bangladesh achieved recognition from most countries, Mujib helped Bangladesh enter into the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. He travelled to the United States, the United Kingdom and other European nations to obtain humanitarian and developmental assistance for
18832-587: The development of Dobhashi . Bengali acquired prominence, over Persian, in the court of the Sultans of Bengal with the ascent of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah . Subsequent Muslim rulers actively promoted the literary development of Bengali, allowing it to become the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate. Bengali adopted many words from Arabic and Persian , which was a manifestation of Islamic culture on
19008-672: The east to Meherpur in the west. The 14th-century court scholar of Bengal, Nur Qutb Alam , composed Bengali poetry using the Persian alphabet . After the Partition of India in the 20th century, the Pakistani government attempted to institute the Perso-Arabic script as the standard for Bengali in East Pakistan ; this was met with resistance and contributed to the Bengali language movement. In
19184-549: The eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta (lit. 'meaningless sounds'), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups, the Bengali–Assamese languages , the Bihari languages , and the Odia language . The language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around
19360-412: The emancipation of peasants and workers. States that education will be free and compulsory. Endeavours to protect and improve the environment. States that the Republic will ensure equality of opportunity to all citizens. States that endeavours will be made to ensure the equality of opportunity and participation of women in all spheres of life. Declares the separation of powers between the judiciary and
19536-478: The establishment of an Bangladesh Election Commission , chaired by the Chief Election Commissioner. Prescribes the functions of the Election Commission. Outlines the procedure for the appointment of staff to the election commission. States that there is to be a single electoral roll for each constituency. Specifies that in order to qualify for registration as a voter, an individual is required to be
19712-587: The exception of the appointment of the Prime Minister and the Chief Justice . Specifies that the President must have attained the age of 35 years, and must be qualified for election as a member of parliament. States that the President has the power to grant pardons and to commute or suspend the sentences of individuals convicted in a court. Specifies that the President is limited to serving two 5-year terms in office, regardless of whether they are consecutive or not. Outlines that in order to tender their resignation,
19888-425: The executive head of government, and along with the cabinet, was responsible to parliament. Local government was made more democratic. However, the amendment restricted the voting freedom of MPs. According to Article 70, MPs would lose their seat if they voted against their party. This made it impossible for parliament to have a free vote, including no-confidence motions to remove a prime minister. Experts have described
20064-424: The executive. States that measures will be adopted to conserve cultural traditions and the heritage of the people. Ensures the protection of national monuments. States that the Republic will promote international peace and to support oppressed people throughout the world. Declares that all laws inconsistent with the fundamental rights of the Constitution are to be void. Enshrines the principle of equality before
20240-506: The federal court supported the Governor General's decision, although Justice A. R. Cornelius expressed dissent. The dissolution of the assembly was one of the first major blows to democracy in Pakistan. The Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 was adopted by a second constituent assembly elected in 1955. It declared two provinces- East Pakistan and West Pakistan ; and two federal languages- Urdu and Bengali . The first Pakistani Constitution
20416-466: The final ন in মন [m o n] or the medial ম in গামলা [ɡamla] ). A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent [ɔ] is orthographically realised by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel typographic ligatures . These allographs, called কার kar , are diacritical vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example,
20592-540: The first Prime Minister of Bengal , asked the British government that "the North Western and Eastern Zones of (British) India should be grouped to constitute 'independent states'". It further proclaimed "that adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the Constitution for minorities in these units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights". The resolution's status
20768-708: The government in the prime minister-led Cabinet, which is accountable to Parliament. This structure seems democratic but, in practice, results in a concentration of authority in the hands of the prime minister due to the dominant position within the Cabinet and the control over MPs through party discipline and party-loyalty enforcing provision Article 70 . Part IV further solidifies the prime minister’s control by granting them authority over Cabinet affairs, overshadowing other ministers and centralizing executive decisions. The Constitution has undergone 17 amendments, reflecting its susceptibility to political pressures over its pledge to ensure justice, equality, and liberty. Considering
20944-657: The government of Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared Bengali as an honorary official language in December 2002. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations . Regional varieties in spoken Bengali constitute a dialect continuum . Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji grouped the dialects of Bengali language into four large clusters: Rarhi , Vangiya , Kamrupi and Varendri ; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects ( Rarhi or Nadia dialect) form
21120-499: The graph মি [mi] represents the consonant [m] followed by the vowel [i] , where [i] is represented as the diacritical allograph ি (called ই-কার i-kar ) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা [ma] , মী [mi] , মু [mu] , মূ [mu] , মৃ [mri] , মে [me~mɛ] , মৈ [moj] , মো [mo] and মৌ [mow] represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant-vowel ligatures,
21296-412: The graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognise both the new "transparent" and the old "opaque" forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke । daṛi –
21472-627: The guise of poorly-defined 'restrictions' in rights provisions have enabled the continued enforcement of the repressive sections of British colonial laws such as the Penal Code of 1860 and the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1898, and facilitated the enactment of later repressive laws such as the Special Powers Act of 1974 , and the Cyber Security Act of 2023 . Part IV vests the executive power of
21648-563: The honorary title of Bangabandhu (বঙ্গবন্ধু "Friend of Bengal"). He introduced the state policy of Bangladesh according to four basic principles: nationalism, secularism, democracy and socialism. He nationalized hundreds of industries and companies as well as abandoned land and capital and initiated land reform aimed at helping millions of poor farmers. Major efforts were launched to rehabilitate an estimated 10 million refugees. He further outlined state programs to expand primary education, sanitation, food, healthcare, water and electric supply across
21824-500: The ideology and agenda of the 1st parliament of Bangladesh. He issued a proclamation order amending the constitution, replacing secularism with increasing the faith of the people in their creator, following the same tactics that was used in Pakistan during the Ayub Khan regime to establish a military rule over civilian democratic rule in the government system. In the preamble, he inserted the salutation " Bismillahir -Rahmaanir-Rahim" ( In
22000-527: The independence of the judiciary and the legislature from the executive . Many denounced the Constitution for facilitating authoritarian tendencies and labelled it as a " fascist constitution." Dr. Kamal Hossain , who is described as the "father of the Bangladeshi Constitution", has been an ardent supporter of reforming the document to reflect the values of the 21st century. Hossain has blamed amendments during military rule for eroding
22176-411: The judiciary. In 1990, a pro-democracy uprising ousted President Ershad. The uprising was followed by parliamentary elections in 1991. The Twelfth Amendment passed by the fifth parliament is the most influential Constitutional amendment in Bangladesh. It re-established parliamentary government. It amended Articles 48, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 70, 72, 109, 119, 124, 141A and 142. The Prime Minister became
22352-476: The killing of the imprisoned Syed Nazrul Islam , Tajuddin Ahmed , Abul Hasnat Muhammad Qamaruzzaman and Mujib's new PM Muhammad Mansur Ali . With the ousting of Mostaq three days later and the constitutional requirement for the direct election of the president and role of the vice-president as acting president suspended by Mostaq, Chief Justice Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem was appointed to the presidency of what became
22528-526: The lack of Mujib loyalists in the military. He also proclaimed the Indemnity Ordinance , which granted immunity from prosecution to the assassins of Mujib. Yet only a few months later on 3 November, his regime faced a bloodless coup by pro-Mujib officers led by Brigadier General Khaled Mosharraf in an attempt to depose Mostaq and the military assassins backing his government. At night, presumably on Mostaq's orders, some army officers secretly carried out
22704-483: The language as: While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterised by some unique words and constructions. However,
22880-510: The language movement. Although Sanskrit has been spoken by Hindu Brahmins in Bengal since the 3rd century BC, the local Buddhist population spoke varieties of the Prakrit . These varieties are generally referred to as "eastern Magadhi Prakrit ", as coined by linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji , as the Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were influential in the first millennium when Bengal
23056-535: The language. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400–1800) include Yusuf-Zulekha by Shah Muhammad Sagir and Srikrishna Kirtana by the Chandidas poets. Court support for Bengali culture and language waned when the Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the late 16th and early 17th century. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the west-central dialect spoken in
23232-532: The latter government-in-exile (GiE) set up its headquarters at 8 Theatre Road, in Kolkata , India . The de jure president of the GiE and thus the first president of Bangladesh was Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , who was the most popular leader of the independence struggle imprisoned shortly after the independence declaration, with vice-president and acting president being Syed Nazrul Islam and Tajuddin Ahmad as prime minister. As
23408-538: The law. Prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. States that there will be equality of opportunity for people who seek public employment. Prohibits citizens of the Republic from receiving foreign titles, honours, awards or decorations without prior approval by the President. Declares that the protection of the law is the inalienable right of all citizens. Proclaims that no person shall be deprived of life and personal liberty. Provides safeguards for those in detention. Prohibits
23584-428: The letter ত tô and the numeral ৩ "3" are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra , as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র trô and the independent vowel এ e , also the letter হ hô and Bengali Ôbogroho ঽ (~ô) and letter ও o and consonant cluster ত্ত ttô . The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between
23760-534: The martial law authorities. An executive presidency continued until 1982. Martial law was again imposed in the 1982 Bangladesh coup d'état . When Constitutional rule was restored in 1986, the Sixth Amendment validated previous Proclamation Orders issued by the Chief Martial Law Administrator. The Eighth Amendment in 1988 declared Islam as the state religion and initiated limited devolution of
23936-401: The member of parliament who appears to command the confidence of the Jatiya Sangsad . States that the office of Prime Minister will become vacant in the event they: tender their resignation to the President; cease to be a member of parliament or cease to retain the confidence of the majority of members of the Jatiya Sangsad . There are no term limits specified for the Prime Minister. Specifies
24112-624: The name of Allah , the Beneficent, the Merciful ). In Article 8(1) and 8(1A) the statement "absolute trust and faith in Almighty Allah" was added, replacing the commitment to secularism . Socialism was redefined as "economic and social justice." In Article 25(2), Zia introduced the principle that "the state shall endeavour to consolidate, preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity." Zia's edits to
24288-403: The nation. He signed a treaty of friendship with India, which pledged extensive economic and humanitarian assistance and began training Bangladesh's security forces and government personnel. Mujib's premiership however faced serious challenges, which included the rehabilitation of millions of people displaced in 1971, organizing the supply of food, health aids and other necessities. The effects of
24464-473: The national liberation struggle, shall be the fundamental principles of the Constitution; Further pledging that it shall be a fundamental aim of the State to realise through the democratic process a socialist society, free from exploitation a society in which the rule of law, fundamental human rights and freedom, equality and justice, political, economic and social, will be secured for all citizens; Affirming that it
24640-532: The neighbouring states of Odisha , Bihar , and Jharkhand , and sizeable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi , Mumbai , Thane , Varanasi , and Vrindavan . There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East , the United States , Singapore , Malaysia , Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom , and Italy . The 3rd article of
24816-409: The office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by members of Parliament . Although presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs , they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties. The president may be impeached and subsequently removed from office by a two-thirds majority vote of the parliament. The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of
24992-514: The parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language. As of January 2023, no further action has been yet taken on this matter. However, in 2022, the UN did adopt Bangla as an unofficial language, after a resolution tabled by India. In 2024, the government of India conferred Bengali with the status of classical language . Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming
25168-466: The political scene when restored to the post of Chief of Army Staff following the uprising. With the country in a dire situation and no stability and security, he was promoted from one of Sayem's deputies to CMLA in November 1976. With Zia's military loyalists now running the state from behind, initially as Deputy CMLA (DCMLA) he sought to invigorate government policy and administration. Hence on 21 April 1977, when Sayem retired on health grounds, without
25344-455: The position of president holds de jure importance, its de facto powers are largely ceremonial. The Constitution allows the president to act only upon the advice of the prime minister and his/her Cabinet . The president can appoint the following to office: The president has the prerogative of mercy by Article 49 of the Constitution, which allows him to grant a pardon to anybody, overriding any court verdict in Bangladesh. By Article 80,
25520-510: The presidency. Over the ensuing months, Ershad sought a formula for elections while dealing with potential threats to public order. On 1 January 1986, full political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiyo (People's) Party (JP), designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established. Ershad resigned as chief of army staff, retired from military service, and
25696-420: The president can refuse to assent to any bill passed by the parliament, sending it back for review. A bill is enacted only after the president assents to it. But when the bill is passed again by the parliament, if the president further fails or refuse to assent a bill, after a certain period of days, the bill will be automatically transformed into law and will be considered as assented by the president. Chancellor
25872-691: The president of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, declared that religious minorities would enjoy full freedom of religion in the emergent new state. Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act 1947 provided that the Government of India Act, 1935 with certain amendments and adaptations would be the working Constitution of the Dominion of Pakistan during the transitional period. The Constituent Assembly of Pakistan included 79 members, of whom 44 were from East Bengal , 22 from West Punjab, 5 from Sind, 3 from
26048-589: The press. However, these changes were remarked as the "Second Revolution" by Mujib. In bringing together all politicians under a single national party apparently for the sake of unity of the country during a critical period it struck a similarity to Abraham Lincoln's National Union Party during the height of the American Civil War . The new party obliged all members of parliament, government and semi-autonomous associations and bodies to join, as well as intimidated and violently punished or eliminated opposition to
26224-483: The provision would have undermined judicial independence . We, the people of Bangladesh, having proclaimed our independence on the 26th day of March 1971 and through a historic struggle for national liberation, established the independent, sovereign People's Republic of Bangladesh; Pledging that the high ideals of nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism, which inspired our heroic people to dedicate themselves to, and our brave martyrs to sacrifice their lives in,
26400-492: The recent July uprising in Bangladesh, a fresh debate has arisen over constitutional reform. Professor Ali Riaz , who leads the Interim Government's Constitutional Reform Commission , and Rifat Hasan, an influential intellectual among the youth, have both advocated for creating a new constitution. Riaz asserts that rewriting the constitution is vital to restoring democratic institutions, even if it necessitates forming
26576-554: The regime using the Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini , the paramilitary "national defence force" and the ruling party's armed wing. Soon after, some close associates of Mujibur Rahman, who were ministers and secretaries, joined an assassination plot by the Bangladesh Army . On 15 August 1975, Mujib was assassinated in a coup d'état by some mid-ranking army officers, and replaced by one of his long time associates and cabinet members who
26752-479: The regulation of the defence services, including the maintenance of the defence services; the grating of commissions; the appointment of chiefs of staff of the defence services and the discipline and other matters relating to the defence services. Reserves the right to declare war for Parliament. States that the President will appoint someone who is qualified to serve as a Justice of the Supreme Court as Attorney General . States that in exercise of their duties,
26928-466: The restoration of a democratically elected government, Bangladesh adopted a parliamentary democracy based on a Westminster system . The President is now a largely ceremonial post elected by the Parliament. In 1996, Parliament passed new laws enhancing the president's executive authority, as laid down in the constitution, after the Parliament is dissolved. The president resides at the Bangabhaban , which
27104-406: The right to profess, practice or propagate any religion; every religious community or denomination the right to establish, maintain and manage its religious institutions; and states that no person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious instruction, or to take part in or to attend any religious ceremony or worship, if that instruction, ceremony or worship relates to
27280-427: The so-called "inherent" vowel [ɔ] is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম [mɔ] . The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent
27456-536: The superposed chôndrôbindu (ঁ) , denoting a suprasegmental for nasalisation of vowels (as in চাঁদ [tʃãd] "moon"), the postposed ônusbar (ং) indicating the velar nasal [ŋ] (as in বাংলা [baŋla] "Bengali") and the postposed bisôrgô (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative [h] (as in উঃ! [uh] "ouch!") or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দুঃখ [dukʰːɔ] "sorrow"). The Bengali consonant clusters ( যুক্তব্যঞ্জন juktôbênjôn ) are usually realised as ligatures, where
27632-639: The supreme court's verdict in the Fifteenth Amendment in 2011, the Awami League-led parliament abolished the caretaker government system, which the party itself had advocated in 1996. In 2017, the Supreme Court declared the Sixteenth Amendment Act of 2014 illegal and void. The amendment had introduced the provision of impeaching judges in parliament. The Supreme Court held that since parliament cannot hold conscience votes due to Article 70 ,
27808-561: The tenure of office of other Ministers. Makes provision for democratically elected local government in every administrative unit in the Republic. States that powers exercised by local government will be delegated by Parliament . Declares that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Bangladesh . States that the exercise of such powers will be determined by law. States that Parliament will by law provide for
27984-676: The term judicial review , but Article 102 allows writ petitions to be filed at the High Court Division for reviewing laws, the actions and policies of authorities and lower court proceedings. Articles 7(2), 26, 44(1) & 102 are considered to indirectly support the system of judicial review. Therefore, unlike the US Constitution, there is no countermajoritarian difficulty in the Constitution of Bangladesh. The Constitution of Bangladesh, since its adoption in 1972, has repeatedly come under criticism for its failure to build institutionalism in governance and politics, safeguard human rights, and ensure
28160-510: The term of citizenship as "Bangladeshi" instead of " Bengali ". Larma argued that labeling all citizens as Bengali discriminated against non-Bengali communities, including his own Chakma ethnic group. The third reading began on 4 November and it approved 65 amendments to the Constitution Bill and adopted and enacted the Constitution on 4 November. The Constitution came into effect on 16 December 1972. A Westminster style political system
28336-435: The total amount authorised to spend in a fiscal year is not sufficient. Specifies the powers of Parliament in relation to the Consolidated Fund. States that in the event that the Jatiya Sangsad is dissolved, and immediate action is necessary, the President may make or promulgate Ordinances. Declares that there is to be a Supreme Court , consisting of an Appellate Division and a High Court Division . States that there
28512-580: The unlimited powers granted to the prime minister and the people's limited civil rights, Badruddin Umar has famously termed it "A Constitution for Perpetual Emergency ." The interim government of Bangladesh , led by Muhammad Yunus , has established the Constitutional Reform Commission in 2024 with the aim of reforming or drafting and adopting a new inclusive democratic constitution through an elected constituent assembly. The commission
28688-451: The use of forced labour. Provides protections for persons in respect of trial and punishment. Enshrines freedom of movement; freedom of assembly; freedom of association; freedom of thought, conscience and speech; freedom of profession or occupation; and freedom of religion. States that all citizens have the right to acquire property. States that all citizens have the right to protect their homes and means of communication. Declares that
28864-484: The visible matra and an invisible baseline). There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem. Throughout history, there have been instances of the Bengali language being written in different scripts, though these employments were never popular on
29040-435: The vocabulary may differ according to the speaker's religion: Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin, along with more words naturally derived from Sanskrit ( tadbhava ), whereas Hindus are more likely to use tatsama (words directly borrowed from Sanskrit). For example: The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalised vowels . The inventory
29216-531: The war, the Constitution Drafting Committee was formed in 1972. The committee included 34 members with Dr. Kamal Hossain as its chairman. The Constitution Bill was introduced in the Assembly on 12 October. Its first reading began on 19 October and continued till 30 October. The second reading took place from 31 October to 3 November. Manabendra Narayan Larma made an impassioned appeal to declare
29392-554: Was a part of the Greater Magadhan realm. The local varieties had no official status during the Gupta Empire , and with Bengal increasingly becoming a hub of Sanskrit literature for Hindu priests, the vernacular of Bengal gained a lot of influence from Sanskrit. Magadhi Prakrit was also spoken in modern-day Bihar and Assam , and this vernacular eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi . Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what
29568-457: Was dubbed "Basic Democracy". In 1965, Fatima Jinnah 's failed bid for the presidency prompted allegations of a rigged electoral system. The Six Points of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman demanded parliamentary democracy. Rahman's Six Points were part of the manifesto of the Awami League, the party which won first general election in East and West Pakistan in 1970. The Awami League ran on the platform of developing
29744-624: Was elected president in October 1986. (Both the BNP and the AL refused to put up an opposing candidate.) In July 1987, the opposition parties united for the first time in opposition to government policies. Ershad declared a state of emergency in November, dissolved parliament in December, and scheduled new parliamentary elections for March 1988. Bengali language Bengali , also known by its endonym Bangla ( বাংলা , Bāṅlā , [ˈbaŋla] ),
29920-414: Was established. It declared nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism as the fundamental principles of the republic. It proclaimed fundamental human rights, including freedom of speech , freedom of religion , freedom of movement , freedom of assembly , the right to education and public healthcare among others. A two thirds vote of parliament was required to amend the Constitution. After winning
30096-597: Was extensively developed during the Bengali Renaissance and is one of the most prolific and diverse literary traditions in Asia. The Bengali language movement from 1948 to 1956 demanding that Bengali be an official language of Pakistan fostered Bengali nationalism in East Bengal leading to the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1999, UNESCO recognised 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of
30272-771: Was formed in the aftermath of a constitutional crisis that arose following the ouster of Sheikh Hasina on 5 August 2024, during a massive mass uprising . The advent of British rule in the 18th century displaced the centuries of governance developed by South Asian empires. The Regulating Act of 1773 passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom was the first basic law in the Bengal Presidency . The British Empire did not grant universal suffrage and democratic institutions to its colonies. The British slowly granted concessions for home rule. The Government of India Act 1858 , Indian Councils Act 1861 , Indian Councils Act 1892 and Indian Councils Act 1909 were later important laws of government. The legislatures of British India included
30448-405: Was in January 1975. It introduced a one party state and a presidential government, while the judiciary's independence was greatly curtailed. Constitutional rule was suspended on 15 August 1975 with the assassination of President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the declaration of martial law . The Chief Martial Law Administrator issued a series of Proclamation Orders between 1975 and 1979 which amended
30624-473: Was in a bitter bureaucratic rivalry with his loyalists, Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad . Immediately after, martial law was promulgated in the country. As soon as he assumed presidency, along with replacing the national slogan of Joy Bangla ("Hail Bengal"), a cry of Bengali nationalism with Bangladesh Zindabad ("Love Live Bangladesh") calling for Bangladeshi nationalism instead, Mostaq replaced all three armed forces chiefs with next in line seniors to likely ensure
30800-419: Was in place for only a few years. General Ayub Khan staged a military coup and introduced the Constitution of Pakistan of 1962 . The 1962 Constitution introduced a presidential system in which electoral colleges would be responsible for electing the president and governors. The chief ministers' offices were abolished; and parliament and provincial assemblies were delegated to a mainly advisory role. The system
30976-437: Was met after 4 years of his assassination when SAARC got founded on 8 December 1985 with a key role of the then Bangladeshi authority. Assassination of Ziaur Rahman In 1981, Zia was assassinated by fractions of the military who were dissatisfied with his non-conventional means of running many state affairs including the military. Vice-President Justice Abdus Sattar was constitutionally sworn in as acting president. He declared
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