Misplaced Pages

#62937

113-562: The Indian Independence League was a political organisation operated from the 1920s to the 1940s to organize those living outside of India into seeking the removal of British colonial rule over India. Some accounts indicate it was founded in 1928 by Indian nationalists Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru , By the start of the war the organisation was located in various parts of South-East Asia and included Indian expatriates, and later, Indian nationalists in-exile under Japanese occupation following Japan's successful Malayan Campaign during

226-472: A megacity and an extreme primate city , dwarfing Thailand's other urban centres in both size and importance to the national economy. Bangkok traces its roots to a small trading post during the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 15th century, which eventually grew and became the site of two capital cities, Thonburi in 1767 and Rattanakosin in 1782. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam during

339-494: A right to resist occupation. According to Joint Publication 1-02, the United States Department of Defense defines a resistance movement as "an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability". In strict military terminology, a resistance movement is simply that; it seeks to resist (change)

452-412: A centre for the arts, fashion, and entertainment. The city is known for its street life and cultural landmarks, as well as its red-light districts . The Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the nightlife scenes of Khaosan Road and Patpong . Bangkok is among the world's top tourist destinations, and has been named

565-424: A generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements in any country. Resistance movements can include any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government , or administration . This frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resisting tyranny or dictatorship . Some resistance movements are underground organizations engaged in

678-559: A national subdivision. In 1915, the monthon was split into several provinces, the administrative boundaries of which have since further changed. The city in its current form was created in 1972 with the formation of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), following the merger of Phra Nakhon province on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya and Thonburi province on the west during the previous year. The origin of

791-735: A natural feature. In the 1940s, enclosing concrete walls were added to stop the hill from eroding. Like most of Thailand, Bangkok has a tropical savanna climate (Aw) under the Köppen climate classification and is under the influence of the Asian monsoon system. The city experiences three seasons: hot, rainy, and cool, although temperatures are fairly hot year-round, ranging from an average low of 23.2 °C (73.8 °F) in December to an average high of 35.7 °C (96.3 °F) in April. The annual average temperature

904-523: A rise by 2100 to, on average, 297 to 344 days at or above 32 °C. Bangkok's fifty districts serve as administrative subdivisions under the authority of the BMA. Thirty-five of these districts lie to the east of the Chao Phraya, while fifteen are on the western bank, known as the Thonburi side of the city. The fifty districts, arranged by district code, are: Bangkok's districts often do not accurately represent

1017-444: A sex tourism destination. Disproportionate urban development led to increasing income inequalities and migration from rural areas into Bangkok; its population surged from 1.8 million to 3 million in the 1960s. Following the US withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973, Japanese businesses took over as leaders in investment, and the expansion of export-oriented manufacturing led to growth of

1130-644: A similar fire accident at Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York, 1911, killing 146 workers, which caused a labor resistance by 100,000 people. He argued that no resistance took place in response to the fire accident in Hamlet because most of the people who died there were black and women workers, and he believed that not only class but also other identities such as race, gender, and sexuality were important factors in understanding nature and outcome of resistance. For an effective resistance, he proposed that four tasks should be undertaken: First, social justice must be defined from

1243-490: A struggle for national liberation in a country under military occupation or totalitarian domination. Tactics of resistance movements against a constituted authority range from nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience , to guerrilla warfare and terrorism , or even conventional warfare if the resistance movement is powerful enough. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts as terrorism , even when such attacks target only

SECTION 10

#1732868814063

1356-653: A third revision is undergoing public hearings in 2012. Bangkok's historic centre remains the Rattanakosin Island in Phra Nakhon District. It is the site of the Grand Palace and the City Pillar Shrine, primary symbols of the city's founding, as well as important Buddhist temples. Phra Nakhon, along with the neighbouring Pom Prap Sattru Phai and Samphanthawong Districts, formed what was the city proper in

1469-636: A time when Japan began its successful Malayan Campaign , the council reflected the Congress leadership's reluctance to appear Quisling of the Japanese. The council also had differences with the Indian Independence League , with Puri openly questioning Tokyo's anti-imperialist credibility in light of her actions in Korea and China . Puri was killed in a plane crash, along with Giani Pritam Singh en route to

1582-399: Is Ficus benjamina . Giant barb ( Catlocarpio siamensis ) has been chosen as the aquatic animal of Bangkok. The official city slogan, adopted in 2012, reads: As built by deities, the administrative centre, dazzling palaces and temples, the capital of Thailand กรุงเทพฯ ดุจเทพสร้าง เมืองศูนย์กลางการปกครอง วัดวังงามเรืองรอง เมืองหลวงของประเทศไทย As the capital of Thailand, Bangkok is

1695-498: Is 28.9 °C (84.0 °F). The rainy season begins with the arrival of the southwest monsoon around mid-May. September is the wettest month, with an average rainfall of 335.9 millimetres (13.22 in). The rainy season lasts until October, when the dry and cool northeast monsoon takes over until February. The hot season is generally dry, but also sees occasional summer storms. The surface magnitude of Bangkok's urban heat island has been measured at 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) during

1808-423: Is 3.3 square metres (36 sq ft) of green space per person, compared to an average of 39 square metres (420 sq ft) in other cities across Asia. In Europe, London has 33.4 m of green space per head. Bangkokians thus have 10 times less green space than is standard in the region's urban areas. Green belt areas include about 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi) of rice paddies and orchards on

1921-532: Is among its most important road junctions, serving over 100 bus lines as well as an elevated train station. From the monument, Phahonyothin and Ratchawithi  / Din Daeng Roads respectively run north and east linking to major residential areas. Most of the high-density development areas are within the 113-square-kilometre (44 sq mi) area encircled by the Ratchadaphisek inner ring road. Ratchadaphisek

2034-523: Is an issue in the gulf coastal area, a small length of which lies within Bangkok's Bang Khun Thian District . Tidal flat ecosystems existed on the coast; however, many have been reclaimed for agriculture, aquaculture, and salt works. There are no mountains in Bangkok. The closest mountain range is the Khao Khiao Massif , about 40 km (25 mi) southeast of the city. Phu Khao Thong, the only hill in

2147-479: Is an officially recognized category by the Indian government covering those who took part in the country's independence movement ; people in this category (can also include dependant family members) get pensions and other benefits like special railway counters. People described as freedom fighters are often also called assassins , rebels , insurgents or terrorists . This leads to the aphorism "one man's terrorist

2260-478: Is an organized group of people that tries to resist or try to overthrow a government or an occupying power , causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such a movement may seek to achieve its goals through either the use of violent or nonviolent resistance (sometimes called civil resistance ), or the use of force, whether armed or unarmed. In many cases, as for example in the United States during

2373-600: Is another man's freedom fighter". The degree to which this occurs depends on a variety of factors specific to the struggle in which a given freedom fighter group is engaged. During the Cold War , the term freedom fighter was first used with reference to the Hungarian rebels in 1956. Ronald Reagan picked up the term to explain America's support of rebels in countries controlled by communist states or otherwise perceived to be under

SECTION 20

#1732868814063

2486-412: Is another term for those engaged in a struggle to achieve political freedom for themselves or obtain freedom for others. Though the literal meaning of the words could include "anyone who fights for the cause of freedom", in common use it may be restricted to those who are actively involved in an armed rebellion, rather than those who campaign for freedom by peaceful means, or those who fight violently for

2599-689: Is categorized as "power". In fact, they believe that resistance has its own characteristics and spatialities. In Steve Pile's (1997) "Opposition, Political Identities and Spaces of Resistance", geographies of resistance show: That people are positioned differently in unequal and multiple power relationships, that more or less powerful people are active in the constitution of unfolding relationships of authority, meaning and identity, that these activities are contingent, ambiguous and awkwardly situated, but that resistance seeks to occupy, deploy and create alternative spatialities from those defined through oppression and exploitation. From this perspective, assumptions about

2712-502: Is characterised by a top layer of soft marine clay , known as "Bangkok clay", averaging 15 metres (49 ft) in thickness, which overlies an aquifer system consisting of eight known units. This feature has contributed to the effects of subsidence caused by extensive groundwater pumping. First discovered in the 1970s, subsidence soon became a critical issue, reaching a rate of 120 millimetres (4.7 in) per year in 1981. Ground water management and mitigation measures have since lessened

2825-582: Is found in many of its soi s ('alley' or 'lane'). Bangkok lacks a single distinct central business district . Instead, the areas of Siam and Ratchaprasong serve as a "central shopping district" containing many of the bigger malls and commercial areas in the city, as well as Siam Station , formerly the only transfer point between the city's then-two elevated train lines (the Sukhumvit and Silom BTS lines). The Victory Monument in Ratchathewi District

2938-426: Is found within the city limits: 3,887 rai (6.2 km ; 2.4 sq mi), amounting to 0.4 per cent of city area. Land use in the city consists of 23 per cent residential use, 24 per cent agriculture, and 30 per cent used for commerce, industry, and government. The BMA's City Planning Department (CPD) is responsible for planning and shaping further development. It published master plan updates in 1999 and 2006, and

3051-662: Is lined with businesses and retail outlets, and office buildings also cluster around Ratchayothin Intersection in Chatuchak District to the north. Farther from the city centre, most areas are primarily mid- or low-density residential. The Thonburi side of the city is less developed, with fewer high rises. With the exception of a few secondary urban centres, Thonburi, in the same manner as the outlying eastern districts, consists mostly of residential and rural areas. While most of Bangkok's streets are fronted by vernacular shophouses ,

3164-561: Is located. Ban Khrua on Saen Saep Canal is home to descendants of the Cham who settled in the late 18th century. Although the Portuguese who settled during the Thonburi period have ceased to exist as a distinct community, their past is reflected in Santa Cruz Church , on the west bank of the river. Likewise, Assumption Cathedral on Charoen Krung Road is among many European-style buildings in

3277-603: Is managed by a district director appointed by the governor. District councils, elected to four-year terms, serve as advisory bodies to their respective district directors. The BMA is divided into sixteen departments, each overseeing different aspects of the administration's responsibilities. Most of these responsibilities concern the city's infrastructure, and include city planning, building control, transportation, drainage, waste management and city beautification, as well as education, medical and rescue services. Many of these services are provided jointly with other agencies. The BMA has

3390-580: Is more commonly translated as 'City of Angels', which is also used to draw comparisons with Los Angeles in the United States, a comparably sized city with similar traffic issues. Another nickname sometimes used to refer to the city is The Big Mango, a tongue-in-cheek comparison to The Big Apple for New York City . The city of Bangkok is locally governed by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA). Although its boundaries are at

3503-739: Is not always about the dominated versus the dominator, the exploited versus the exploiter, or the oppressed versus the oppressor. There are various forms of resistance for various reasons, which then can be, again, classified as violent and nonviolent resistance (and "other" which is unclear). Different geographical spaces can also make different forms of resistance possible or impossible and more effective or less effective. Furthermore, in order to understand any resistance – its capacity to achieve its objective effectively, its success or failure – we need to take closely into account many variables, such as political identities, cultural identities, class, race, gender and so on. The reason

Bangkok Conference - Misplaced Pages Continue

3616-531: Is of the opinion that the program and plan of action of this Movement must be so guided, controlled and directed as to bring them in line with the aims and intentions of the Indian National Congress. The resolution itself adopted a thirty-four point resolution, to each of which it expected the Japanese government to respond to. These included the demand that the Japanese government clearly, explicitly and publicly recognize India as an independent nation and

3729-502: Is often taken for granted that resistance takes place where domination, power, or oppression occurs and so resistance is often understood as something that always opposes to power or domination. However, some scholars believe and argue that looking at resistance in relation to only power and domination does not provide a full understanding of the actual nature of resistance. Not all power, domination, or oppression leads to resistance, and not all cases of resistance are against or to oppose what

3842-474: Is that these variations can define the nature and outcome of resistance. Harvey (1993), who looked at resistance in relations to capitalist economic exploitation, took on a fire accident happened in the Imperial Foods chicken processing plant in Hamlet, North Carolina in 1991, in which 20 of 200 workers were killed and 56 were injured due to poor working conditions and protections. He compared this accident with

3955-460: Is the capital and most populous city of Thailand . The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi) in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated population of 9.0 million as of 2021, 13% of the country's population. Over 17.4 million people (25%) live within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region as of the 2021 estimate, making Bangkok

4068-520: Is the centrally located Lumphini Park near the Silom–Sathon business district with an area of 57.6 hectares (142 acres). It is connected by a 1.3 km elevated pedestrian and bicycle walkway to the Benjakitti Park, which includes a recently completed expansion including wetlands, skywalks and rare plants. Other parks include the 80-hectare (200-acre) Suanluang Rama IX in the east of the city, and

4181-591: Is the site of many of the country's major corporate headquarters, but also of some of the city's red-light districts . The Siam and Ratchaprasong areas in Pathum Wan are home to some of the largest shopping malls in Southeast Asia . Numerous retail outlets and hotels also stretch along Sukhumvit Road leading southeast through Watthana and Khlong Toei Districts. More office towers line the streets branching off Sukhumvit, especially Asok Montri , while upmarket housing

4294-580: The American Revolution , or in Norway in the Second World War , a resistance movement may employ both violent and non-violent methods, usually operating under different organizations and acting in different phases or geographical areas within a country. The Oxford English Dictionary records use of the word "resistance" in the sense of organised opposition to an invader from 1862. The modern usage of

4407-536: The Chatuchak – Queen Sirikit – Wachirabenchathat park complex in northern Bangkok, which has a combined area of 92 hectares (230 acres). More parks are expected to be created through the Green Bangkok 2030 project, which aims to leave the city with 10 square metres (110 sq ft) of green space per person, including 30% of the city having tree cover. The city of Bangkok has a population of 8,305,218 according to

4520-833: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front , the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in India and the National Resistance Army in Uganda, which were considered freedom fighters by supporters. However, a person who is campaigning for freedom through peaceful means may still be classed as a freedom fighter, though in common usage they are called political activists , as in the case of the Black Consciousness Movement . In India, "Freedom fighter"

4633-682: The Malayan campaign or surrendered at Singapore. Although not formally proclaimed until September 1942, the unit rapidly came to be an important component of the Indian movement in South-east Asia and of Japanese projects and agenda in the region, especially with regards to her subsequent plans in the South-east Asian theatre. Following the end of the Malayan Campaign, and after Thailand's support to

Bangkok Conference - Misplaced Pages Continue

4746-598: The laws of war in the form of a series of international treaties took place. In the Preamble to the 1899 Hague Convention II on Land War, the Martens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between the Great Powers who considered francs-tireurs to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants. More recently

4859-473: The nine gems , seat of the king, city of royal palaces, home of gods incarnate, erected by Vishvakarman at Indra 's behest. The name is listed in Guinness World Records as the world's longest place name , at 168 letters. Many Thais who recall the full name do so because of its use in the 1989 song "Krung Thep Maha Nakhon" by Thai rock band Asanee–Wasan , the lyrics of which consist entirely of

4972-420: The 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailand's politics, economy, education, media and modern society. The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their regional headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance, business and pop culture. It is an international hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as

5085-642: The 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts , referred in Article 1. Paragraph 4 to armed conflicts "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes..." This phraseology, according USA that refused to ratify the Protocol, contains many ambiguities that cloud

5198-419: The 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating 10 urban rail lines and building other public transit; however, congestion remains a prevalent issue. The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, to when it was a village on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River , under the rule of Ayutthaya . Because of its strategic location near

5311-488: The 2010 census, or 12.6 per cent of the national population, while 2020 estimates place the figure at 10.539 million (15.3 per cent). Roughly half are internal migrants from other Thai provinces; population registry statistics recorded 5,676,648 residents belonging to 2,959,524 households in 2018. Much of Bangkok's daytime population commutes from surrounding provinces in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region,

5424-585: The Bangkok Metropolitan Council. The council is the BMA's legislative body, and has power over municipal ordinances and the city's budget. The latest gubernatorial election took place on 22 May 2022 after an extended lapse following the 2014 Thai coup d'état , and was won by Chadchart Sittipunt . Bangkok is divided into fifty districts ( khet , equivalent to amphoe in the other provinces), which are further subdivided into 180 sub-districts ( khwaeng , equivalent to tambon ). Each district

5537-690: The Cold War, partisans often received arms from either NATO or Warsaw Pact member states. Where partisan resources are stretched, improvised weapons are also deployed. The following examples are of groups that have been considered or would identify themselves as groups. These are mostly, but not exclusively, of armed resistance movements. For movements and phases of activity involving non-violent methods, see civil resistance and nonviolent resistance . Bangkok Bangkok , officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep ,

5650-641: The Conference in Tokyo in 1942 that saw Rash Behari Bose accepted as the leader of the expatriate Indian movement in South-east Asia. Later, the council sent delegates to attend the Bangkok Conference. The Indian National Army was initially formed under Capt Mohan Singh with Japanese aid and support after the Fall of Singapore and consisted of approximately 20,000 Indian prisoners of war who were captured either during

5763-590: The Council was Swami Satyananda Puri , along with Debnath Das as the founding secretary. Along with the Indian Independence League , it came to be one of the two prominent Indian associations that corresponded with I Fujiwara 's F Kikan on the scopes of Japanese assistance to the Indian movement. However, the Indian National Council emphasised solidarity with the Indian National Congress and, at

SECTION 50

#1732868814063

5876-595: The Department of Employment, more than half of them migrants from Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. Following its establishment as capital city in 1782, Bangkok grew only slightly throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries. British diplomat John Crawfurd , visiting in 1822, estimated its population at no more than 50,000. As a result of Western medicine brought by missionaries as well as increased immigration from both within Siam and overseas, Bangkok's population gradually increased as

5989-538: The Grand Palace, reflect the heavy influence of European architecture at the time. Major government offices line the avenue, as does the Democracy Monument . The area is the site of the country's seat of power as well as the city's most popular tourist landmarks. In contrast with the low-rise historic areas, the business district on Si Lom and Sathon Roads in Bang Rak and Sathon Districts teems with skyscrapers. It

6102-596: The Indian National Army be accorded the status of an allied army and treated as such, and that all Indian Prisoners of Wars be released to the INA. The Japanese must help the army with loans, and not to ask it to march in any other purpose than for the liberation of India. The resolution was duly passed on to what was then the Japanese liaison office, the Iwakuro Kikan . Resistance movement A resistance movement

6215-535: The Japanese Ambassador Tsubokami Teiji , German minister Ernst Wendler , and the Italian minister Guido Crolla . The conference defined the structure of the league as consisting of a Council for Action and a Committee of representatives below it. Below the committee was to be the territorial and local branches. Rash Behari Bose was to chair the council, while K.P.K Menon, Nedyam Raghavan were among

6328-512: The Japanese campaign, these organisations were encouraged by Japan to unify the overseas Indian movement. Although differences existed between the organisations, they met at the Tokyo Conference in March 1942. It was while en route to this conference that the plane carrying Pritam Singh and Satyananda Puri crashed. However, although divided on the interests of different communities and regions and on

6441-576: The Old Farang Quarter, where European diplomats and merchants lived in the late 19th to early 20th centuries. Nearby, the Haroon Mosque is the centre of a Muslim community. Newer expatriate communities exist along Sukhumvit Road, including the Japanese community near Soi Phrom Phong and Soi Thong Lo , and the Arab and North African neighbourhood along Soi Nana. Sukhumvit Plaza, a mall on Soi Sukhumvit 12,

6554-488: The area was originally swampland , which was gradually drained and irrigated for agriculture by the construction of canals ( khlong ) which took place from the 16th to 19th centuries. The course of the river as it flows through Bangkok has been modified by the construction of several shortcut canals . The city's waterway network served as the primary means of transport until the late 19th century, when modern roads began to be built. Up until then, most people lived near or on

6667-527: The authority to implement local ordinances, although civil law enforcement falls under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Police Bureau . The seal of the city shows Hindu god Indra riding in the clouds on Airavata , a divine white elephant known in Thai as Erawan. In his hand Indra holds his weapon, the vajra . The seal is based on a painting done by Prince Naris . The tree symbol of Bangkok

6780-513: The capital to the eastern bank's Rattanakosin Island , thus founding the Rattanakosin Kingdom . The City Pillar was erected on 21 April 1782, which is regarded as the date of foundation of Bangkok as the capital. Bangkok's economy gradually expanded through international trade, first with China , then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok

6893-950: The city as envoy of the United States in 1833, noted that the city, since becoming capital, was known as Sia-Yut'hia , and this is the name used in international treaties of the period. The city's ceremonial name came into use during the reign of King Mongkut. The full name reads as follows: Krungthepmahanakhon Amonrattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilokphop Noppharatratchathaniburirom Udomratchaniwetmahasathan Amonphimanawatansathit Sakkathattiyawitsanukamprasit กรุงเทพมหานคร อมรรัตนโกสินทร์ มหินทรายุธยา มหาดิลกภพ นพรัตนราชธานีบูรีรมย์ อุดมราชนิเวศน์มหาสถาน อมรพิมานอวตารสถิต สักกะทัตติยวิษณุกรรมประสิทธิ์ The name, composed of Pali and Sanskrit root words, translates as: City of angels, great city of immortals, magnificent city of

SECTION 60

#1732868814063

7006-411: The city modernized in the late 19th century. This growth became even more pronounced in the 1930s, following the discovery of antibiotics. Although family planning and birth control were introduced in the 1960s, the lowered birth rate was more than offset by increased migration from the provinces as economic expansion accelerated. Only in the 1990s have Bangkok's population growth rates decreased, following

7119-453: The city occurred in 1995 and 2011 . In 2011, most of Bangkok's northern, eastern and western districts were flooded, in some places for over two months. Bangkok's coastal location makes it particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels due to global warming and climate change. A study by the OECD has estimated that 5.138 million people in Bangkok may be exposed to coastal flooding by 2070,

7232-440: The city's full name, repeated throughout the song. Today, the city is officially known in Thai by a shortened form of the full ceremonial name, Krung Thep Maha Nakhon ( กรุงเทพมหานคร ), which is colloquially further shortened to Krung Thep ( กรุงเทพฯ ). Krung กรุง is a Thai word of Khmer origin, meaning 'capital, king', while thep , เทพ is from Pali/Sanskrit deva , meaning 'deity' or 'god'. The name

7345-413: The city's population is Buddhist, according to the 2010 census. Other religions include Islam (4.6 per cent), Christianity (1.9 per cent), Hinduism (0.3 per cent), Sikhism (0.1 per cent) and Confucianism (0.1 per cent). Apart from Yaowarat, Bangkok also has several other distinct ethnic neighbourhoods. The Indian community is centred in Phahurat , where the Gurdwara Siri Guru Singh Sabha, founded in 1933,

7458-404: The civilian members of the council. Mohan Singh and an officer by the name of Gilani were to be the INA's members. The committee of representatives took members from the 12 territories with Indian population, with representation proportional to the representative Indian population. The Bangkok resolution further decided that the Indian National Army was to be subordinate to it. The introduction to

7571-531: The day and 8.0 °C (14 °F) at night. The highest recorded temperature of Bangkok metropolis was 41.0 °C (105.8 °F) on 7 May 2023, and the lowest recorded temperature was 9.9 °C (49.8 °F) in January 1955. The Climate Impact Group at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies projected severe weather impacts on Bangkok caused by climate change . It found that Bangkok in 1960 had 193 days at or above 32 °C. In 2018, Bangkok can expect 276 days at or above 32 °C. The group forecasts

7684-450: The domination/resistance couplet become questionable. We can better understand resistance by accounting different perspectives and by breaking the presumptions that resistance is always against power. In fact, resistance should be understood not only in relations to domination and authority, but also through other experiences, such as "desire and anger, capacity and ability, happiness and fear, dreaming and forgetting", meaning that resistance

7797-407: The early days of its founding: several ethnic communities were formed by immigrants and forced settlers including the Khmer , northern Thai , Lao , Vietnamese , Mon and Malay . Most prominent were the Chinese, who played major roles in the city's trade and became the majority of Bangkok's population—estimates include up to three-fourths in 1828 and almost half in the 1950s. Chinese immigration

7910-498: The eastern and western edges of the city, although their primary purpose is to serve as flood detention basins rather than to limit urban expansion. Bang Kachao , a 20-square-kilometre (7.7 sq mi) conservation area on an oxbow of the Chao Phraya, lies just across the southern riverbank districts, in Samut Prakan province . A master development plan has been proposed to increase total park area to 4 square metres (43 sq ft) per person. One of Bangkok's largest parks

8023-489: The exception of Chachoengsao, these provinces, together with Bangkok, form the greater Bangkok Metropolitan Region . Bangkok is situated in the Chao Phraya River delta in Thailand's central plain . The river meanders through the city in a southerly direction, emptying into the Gulf of Thailand approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of city centre. The area is flat and low-lying, with an average elevation of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level . Most of

8136-616: The existing cultural norms in many societies. Resistance can also be mapped in various scales ranging from local to national to regional and to global spaces. We can look at a big-scale resistance movement such as anti-globalization movement that tries to resist the global trend of capitalist economic system. Or we can look at the internal resistance to apartheid , which took place at national level. Most, if not all, social movements can be considered as some forms of resistance. Not all resistance takes place in physical spaces or geographies but in "other spaces" as well. Some resistance happens in

8249-425: The exploitation of the capitalist economic systems and the capitals, while other resistance takes place against the state or authority in power. Moreover, some other resistance takes place in order to resist or question the social/culture norms or discourse or in order to challenge a global trend called " globalization ". For example, LGBT social movements is an example of resistance that challenges and tries to reform

8362-407: The financial market in Bangkok. Rapid growth of the city continued through the 1980s and early 1990s, until it was stalled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . By then, many public and social issues had emerged, among them the strain on infrastructure reflected in the city's notorious traffic jams. Bangkok's role as the nation's political stage continues to be seen in strings of popular protests, from

8475-635: The first part of the Second World War . Among the most prominent of the leaders was Giani Pritam Singh . The IIL also had links with local Indian clubs. The Indian National Council was founded in December 1941 in Bangkok by another group of Indian nationalists resident in Thailand . This organisation was founded from the Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge on 22 December 1941. The founding president of

8588-503: The form of Protest Art or in the form of music. Music can be used and has been used as a tool or space to resist certain oppression or domination. Gray-Rosendale, L. (2001) put it this way: Music acts as a rhetorical force that sanctions the construction of the boys' new black urban subjectivities that both challenge urban experience and yet give voice to it...music contributes a way to avoid physical and psychological immobility and to resist economic and cultural adaptation...and challenges

8701-633: The freedom of others outside the context of an uprising (though this title may be applied in its literal sense) Generally speaking, freedom fighters are people who use physical force to cause a change in the political and or social order. Notable examples include uMkhonto we Sizwe in South Africa, the Sons of Liberty in the American Revolution , the Irish Republican Army in Ireland and Northern Ireland ,

8814-629: The functional divisions of its neighbourhoods or land usage. Although urban planning policies date back to the commission of the "Litchfield Plan" in 1960, which set out strategies for land use, transportation and general infrastructure improvements, zoning regulations were not fully implemented until 1992. As a result, the city grew organically throughout the period of its rapid expansion, both horizontally as ribbon developments extended along newly built roads, and vertically, with increasing numbers of high rises and skyscrapers being built in commercial areas. The city has grown from its original centre along

8927-831: The influence of the Soviet Union, including the Contras in Nicaragua , UNITA in Angola and the multi-factional mujahideen in Afghanistan . In the media, the BBC tries to avoid the phrases "terrorist" or "freedom fighter", except in attributed quotes, in favor of more neutral terms such as " militant ", " guerrilla ", " assassin ", " insurgent ", " rebel ", " paramilitary ", or " militia ". Partisans often use captured weapons taken from their enemies, or weapons that have been stolen or smuggled in. During

9040-535: The issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant: ultimately, in US Government opinion the distinction is just a political judgment. Some definitions of resistance movement have proved controversial. Hence depending on the perspective of a state's government, a resistance movement may or may not be labelled a terrorist group based on whether the members of a resistance movement are considered lawful or unlawful combatants and whether they are recognized as having

9153-591: The large slums in Khlong Toei District . In total there were 125 squatted areas. Bangkok has several parks, although these amount to a per capita total park area of only 1.82 square metres (19.6 sq ft) in the city proper. Total green space for the entire city is moderate, at 11.8 square metres (127 sq ft) per person. In the more densely built-up areas of the city these numbers are as low as 1.73 and 0.72 square metres (18.6 and 7.8 sq ft) per person. More recent numbers claim that there

9266-515: The largely unrestricted building euphoria of the 1980s has transformed the city into an urban area of skyscrapers and high rises of contrasting and clashing styles. There are 581 skyscrapers over 90 metres (300 feet) tall in the city. Bangkok was ranked as the world's eighth tallest city in 2016. As a result of persistent economic disparity , many slums have emerged in the city. In 2000 there were over one million people living in about 800 informal settlements . Some settlements are squatted such as

9379-563: The late 19th century. Many traditional neighbourhoods and markets are found here, including the Chinese settlement of Sampheng . The city was expanded toward Dusit District in the early 19th century, following King Chulalongkorn's relocation of the royal household to the new Dusit Palace . The buildings of the palace, including the neoclassical Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall , as well as the Royal Plaza and Ratchadamnoen Avenue which leads to it from

9492-484: The late-19th century, as the country faced pressures from the West. The city was at the centre of the country's political struggles throughout the 20th century , as Siam—later renamed Thailand—abolished absolute monarchy, adopted constitutional rule, and underwent numerous coups and several uprisings. The city, incorporated as a special administrative area under the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in 1972, grew rapidly during

9605-415: The league as the nation's representatives and guardians. Other points also demanded assurances from the Japanese on Free India 's relation with Japan , respect for her sovereignty and her territorial integrity, to all of which the council unanimously demanded that Japan clearly and unequivocally commit themselves before the league proceeded any further in collaboration. The resolution further demanded that

9718-399: The metropolitan area, originated with a very large chedi that King Rama III (1787–1851) built at Wat Saket . The chedi collapsed during construction because the soft soil could not support its weight. Over the next few decades, the abandoned mud-and-brick structure acquired the shape of a natural hill and became overgrown with weeds. The locals called it phu khao ( ภูเขา ), as if it were

9831-459: The military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932 . As Thailand allied with Japan in World War II , Bangkok was subjected to Allied bombing , but rapidly grew in the post-war period as a result of US aid and government-sponsored investment. Bangkok's role as a US military R&R destination boosted its tourism industry as well as firmly establishing it as

9944-549: The military or security forces. Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting the Axis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi Hitler, German resistance movement in this period. Although the United Kingdom did not suffer invasion in World War II, preparations were made for a British resistance movement in the event of a German invasion (see Auxiliary Units ). When geographies of resistance are discussed, it

10057-634: The mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and was the site of a siege in 1688 in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese in 1767, the newly crowned King Taksin established his capital at the town, which became the base of the Thonburi Kingdom . In 1782, King Phutthayotfa Chulalok (Rama I) succeeded Taksin, moved

10170-419: The name Bangkok ( บางกอก , pronounced in Thai as [bāːŋ kɔ̀ːk] ) is unclear. Bang บาง is a Thai word meaning 'a village on a stream', and the name might have been derived from Bang Ko ( บางเกาะ ), ko เกาะ meaning 'island', stemming from the city's watery landscape. Another theory suggests that it is shortened from Bang Makok ( บางมะกอก ), makok มะกอก being

10283-490: The name of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus , a plant bearing olive-like fruit. This is supported by the former name of Wat Arun , a historic temple in the area, that used to be called Wat Makok . Officially, the town was known as Thonburi Si Mahasamut ( ธนบุรีศรีมหาสมุทร , from Pali and Sanskrit , literally 'city of treasures gracing the ocean') or Thonburi , according to the Ayutthaya Chronicles . Bangkok

10396-486: The national rate; Thailand had long since become highly centralized around the capital. In 1980, Bangkok's population was fifty-one times that of Hat Yai and Songkhla , the second-largest urban centre at the time, making it the world's most prominent primate city . The majority of Bangkok's population identify as Thai , although details on the city's ethnic make-up are unavailable, as the national census does not document race. Bangkok's cultural pluralism dates back to

10509-468: The occupying power in South-east Asia, and were wary of vested Japanese interests. The conference agreed to meet again in Bangkok at a future date. The Indian delegation returned to Singapore in April with Rash Behari. The Bangkok conference opened on 22 June 1942 at the Silpakon theatre in Bangkok with an opening address by the Thai deputy foreign minister Wichit. Amongst the guests to this conference were

10622-416: The other 76 provinces of Thailand. Of this, about 700 square kilometres (270 sq mi) form the built-up urban area. It is ranked 73rd in the world in terms of land area. The city's urban sprawl reaches into parts of the six other provinces that it borders, namely, in clockwise order from northwest: Nonthaburi , Pathum Thani , Chachoengsao , Samut Prakan , Samut Sakhon , and Nakhon Pathom . With

10735-500: The perspective of the oppressed; second, a hierarchy of the oppressions has to be defined…..; third, political actions need to be understood and undertaken in terms of their situatedness and position in dynamic power relations: and finally, an epistemology capable of telling the difference between different differences has to be developed. There are many forms of resistance in relations to different power dominations and actors. Some resistance takes place in order to oppose, change, or reform

10848-403: The physical spaces. In other cases, people sometimes simply resist to certain ideology, belief, or culture norms within their minds. These kinds of resistance are less visible but very fundamental parts of all forms of resistance. On the lawfulness of armed resistance movements in international law , there has been a dispute between states since at least 1899, when the first major codification of

10961-498: The policies of a government or occupying power. This may be accomplished through violent or non-violent means. In this view, a resistance movement is specifically limited to changing the nature of current power, not to overthrow it; and the correct military term for removing or overthrowing a government is an insurgency . However, in reality many resistance movements have aimed to displace a particular ruler, especially if that ruler has gained or retained power illegally. Freedom fighter

11074-492: The provincial ( changwat ) level, unlike the other 76 provinces Bangkok is a special administrative area whose governor is directly elected to serve a four-year term. The governor, together with four appointed deputies, form the executive body, who implement policies through the BMA civil service headed by the Permanent Secretary for the BMA. In separate elections, each district elects one or more city councillors, who form

11187-430: The resolution states: That Indian be considered as ONE and indivisible. That all activities of this movement be on a national basis and not on sectional, communal or religious bases. That in view of the fact that the Indian National Congress is the only political organisation which could claim to represent the real interests of the people of India and as such acknowledged as the only body representing India, this conference

11300-426: The river into a sprawling metropolis surrounded by swaths of suburban residential development extending north and south into neighbouring provinces. The highly populated and growing cities of Nonthaburi , Pak Kret , Rangsit and Samut Prakan are effectively now suburbs of Bangkok. Nevertheless, large agricultural areas remain within the city proper at its eastern and western fringes, and a small number of forest area

11413-422: The scopes and limits of Japanese interventions, the delegates agreed to a reorganisation of the Indian Independence League and accepted Rash Behari Bose as the leader of the organisation. The Tokyo conference, however, failed to reach any definitive decisions. A number of the Indian delegations held differences with Rash Behari, especially given his long connection with Japan and the current position of Japan as

11526-534: The seat of all branches of the national government . The Government House , Parliament House and Supreme , Administrative and Constitutional Courts are all in the city. Bangkok is the site of the Grand Palace and Dusit Palace , respectively the official and de facto residence of the king. Most government ministries also have headquarters and offices in the capital. Bangkok covers an area of 1,568.7 square kilometres (605.7 sq mi), ranking 69th among

11639-528: The seventh highest figure among the world's port cities. There are fears that the city may be submerged by 2030. A study published in October 2019 in Nature Communications corrected earlier models of coastal elevations and concluded that up to 12 million Thais—mostly in the greater Bangkok metropolitan area—face the prospect of annual flooding events. This is compounded by coastal erosion, which

11752-829: The severity of the situation, and the rate of subsidence decreased to 10 to 30 millimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year in the early 2000s, though parts of the city are now 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) below sea level. Subsidence has resulted in increased flood risk, as Bangkok is already prone to flooding due to its low elevation and an inadequate drainage infrastructure, often compounded by blockage from rubbish pollution (especially plastic waste). The city now relies on flood barriers and augmenting drainage from canals by pumping and building drain tunnels, but parts of Bangkok and its suburbs are still regularly inundated. Heavy downpours resulting in urban runoff overwhelming drainage systems, and runoff discharge from upstream areas, are major triggering factors. Severe flooding affecting much of

11865-695: The social injustice prevalent within the Northern economy. In the age of advanced IT and mass consumption of social media , resistance can also occur in the cyberspace.The Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of NSW's Tobacco Resistance and Control (A-TRAC) team created a Facebook page to help promote anti-smoking campaign and rise awareness for its members. Sometimes, resistance takes place in people's minds and ideology or in people's "inner spaces". For example, sometimes people have to struggle within or fight against their inner spaces, with their consciousness and, sometimes, with their fear before they can resist in

11978-514: The student uprisings in 1973 and 1976 , anti-military demonstrations in 1992 , and frequent street protests since 2006 , including those by groups opposing and supporting former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra from 2006 to 2013 , and a renewed student-led movement in 2020 . Administration of the city was first formalized by King Chulalongkorn in 1906, with the establishment of Monthon Krung Thep Phra Maha Nakhon ( มณฑลกรุงเทพพระมหานคร ) as

12091-799: The term "Resistance" became widespread from the self-designation of many movements during World War II, especially the French Resistance . The term is still strongly linked to the context of the events of 1939–45, and particularly to opposition movements in Axis-occupied countries. Using the term "resistance" to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to World War II might be considered by some to be an anachronism . However, such movements existed prior to World War II (albeit often called by different names), and there have been many after it – for example in struggles against colonialism and foreign military occupations. "Resistance" has become

12204-547: The total population of which is 14,626,225 (2010 census). Bangkok is a cosmopolitan city; the census showed that it is home to 567,120 expatriates from Asian countries (including 71,024 Chinese and 63,069 Japanese nationals), 88,177 from Europe, 32,241 from the Americas, 5,856 from Oceania and 5,758 from Africa. Migrants from neighbouring countries include 216,528 Burmese, 72,934 Cambodians and 52,498 Lao. In 2018, numbers show that there are 370,000 international migrants registered with

12317-454: The water, leading the city to be known during the 19th century as the " Venice of the East". Many of these canals have since been filled in or paved over, but others still criss-cross the city, serving as major drainage channels and transport routes. Most canals are now badly polluted, although the BMA has committed to the treatment and cleaning up of several canals. The geology of the Bangkok area

12430-405: The world's most visited city consistently in several international rankings. Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network , an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion , which caused severe air pollution in

12543-509: Was likely a colloquial name, albeit one widely adopted by foreign visitors , who continued to use it to refer to the city even after the new capital's establishment. When King Rama I established his new capital on the river's eastern bank, the city inherited Ayutthaya's ceremonial name, of which there were many variants, including Krung Thep Thawarawadi Si Ayutthaya ( กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา ) and Krung Thep Maha Nakhon Si Ayutthaya ( กรุงเทพมหานครศรีอยุธยา ). Edmund Roberts , visiting

12656-588: Was restricted from the 1930s and effectively ceased after the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949. Their prominence subsequently declined as younger generations of Thai Chinese integrated and adopted a Thai identity . Bangkok is still nevertheless home to a large Chinese community, with the greatest concentration in Yaowarat , Bangkok's Chinatown . Religion in Bangkok The majority (93 per cent) of

12769-427: Was the centre of Siam's modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late-19th century. The reigns of Kings Mongkut (Rama IV, r. 1851–68) and Chulalongkorn (Rama V, r. 1868–1910) saw the introduction of the steam engine, printing press, rail transport and utilities infrastructure in the city, as well as formal education and healthcare. Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between

#62937