134-575: The Baltic Landwehr or Baltische Landeswehr ("Baltic Territorial Army") was the name of the unified armed forces of Couronian and Livonian nobility from 7 December 1918 to 3 July 1919. The Landeswehr was subordinated to the German VI Reserve Corps which Generalmajor Rüdiger von der Goltz (military governor of Libau in Latvia from 1 February 1919) commanded from 2 February 1919 until 12 October 1919. Major Alfred Fletcher and
268-641: A "peanut" and a "feather duster", exploited this weakness. With the cessation of hostilities, Alexander was under serious consideration for appointment to the post of Chief of the Imperial General Staff , the British Army's most senior position beneath the sovereign. He was invited, though, by Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King to be his recommendation to the King for the post of Governor General of Canada . Alexander thus chose to retire from
402-624: A campaign in cooperation with the white Russian forces to overturn the Bolshevik regime by marching on Saint Petersburg and to install a pro-German government in Russia. The purged Baltische Landeswehr units subsequently assisted in the liberation of Latgale from Bolsheviks together with Latvian and Polish armies in January 1920. Prominent Baltic officers from the Landeswehr era include: (the ranks are
536-526: A ceremony in the Senate chamber on 12 April that year. Alexander took his duties as the viceroy quite seriously, feeling that as governor general, he acted as a connection between Canadians and their King, and spent considerable time travelling Canada during his term; he eventually logged no less than 294,500 km (184,000 mi) during his five years as governor general. On these trips, he sought to engage with Canadians through various ceremonies and events; he
670-552: A childhood background of relative socio-economic deprivation . For example, after the US suspended conscription in 1973, "the military disproportionately attracted African American men, men from lower-status socioeconomic backgrounds, men who had been in nonacademic high school programs, and men whose high school grades tended to be low". However, a study released in 2020 on the socio-economic backgrounds of U.S. Armed Forces personnel suggests that they are at parity or slightly higher than
804-583: A civilian job while training under military discipline at weekends; he or she may be called out to deploy on operations to supplement the full-time personnel complement. After leaving the armed forces, recruits may remain liable for compulsory return to full-time military employment in order to train or deploy on operations . Military law introduces offences not recognized by civilian courts, such as absence without leave (AWOL) , desertion, political acts, malingering , behaving disrespectfully, and disobedience (see, for example, offences against military law in
938-411: A distinct military uniform . They may consist of one or more military branches such as an army , navy , air force , space force , marines , or coast guard . The main task of a military is usually defined as defence of their state and its interests against external armed threats. In broad usage, the terms "armed forces" and "military" are often synonymous, although in technical usage a distinction
1072-512: A full general . Alexander was unable to fulfil his orders to hold Rangoon , which was abandoned on 6–7 March. He took personal charge of some small local engagements, and was encircled by the Japanese troops in the Battle of Yenangyaung . Rescued by Chinese troops commanded by General Sun Li-jen , Alexander was able to escape. Following that, Alexander increasingly left much of the tactical conduct of
1206-458: A history of the Irish Guards, in which his own son, Jack Kipling , fought and was killed in action, noted that, "it is undeniable that Colonel Alexander had the gift of handling the men on the lines to which they most readily responded ... His subordinates loved him, even when he fell upon them blisteringly for their shortcomings; and his men were all his own." Alexander in 1919 served with
1340-515: A huge influence on Asian military doctrine, and from the late 19th century, on European and United States military planning . It has even been used to formulate business tactics, and can even be applied in social and political areas. The Classical Greeks and the Romans wrote prolifically on military campaigning . Among the best-known Roman works are Julius Caesar 's commentaries on the Gallic Wars , and
1474-519: A large part in planning the landings (code-named "Operation Shingle"), and intended to draw German strength away from the Winter Line and to cut their lines of communication . The scheme was supported by Prime Minister Churchill, who had very high expectations for Shingle. However, the operation was flawed in many ways. In particular, Alexander's plan of seizing the Alban Hills might possibly have led to
SECTION 10
#17328690591781608-747: A major, second in command of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards; in May 1922, he was promoted substantive lieutenant-colonel and appointed commanding officer. He commanded the battalion at Constantinople (a sensitive posting in the runup to the Chanak Crisis ), then Gibraltar from October 1922, then in London from April 1923 until January 1926, when he was released from that role to attend the Staff College at Camberley , England, from 1926 to 1927. By now Alexander had gained an excellent reputation for himself. In addition, he
1742-516: A minimum period of service of several years; between two and six years is typical of armed forces in Australia, the UK and the US, for example, depending on role, branch, and rank. Some armed forces allow a short discharge window, normally during training, when recruits may leave the armed force as of right. Alternatively, part-time military employment, known as reserve service , allows a recruit to maintain
1876-659: A number of dignitaries. The visit of the Irish Taoiseach , John A. Costello , in 1948 caused Alexander some embarrassment when Costello chose the occasion to announce that most of Ireland would leave the Commonwealth ( Northern Ireland would remain a constituent part of the United Kingdom ). Although the decision had been taken in principle earlier, the sudden announcement caused a diplomatic storm and Costello, to deflect criticism, claimed that he had been provoked into making
2010-614: A role, Alexander eventually, but reluctantly, allowed the Seventh Army commander to have his way, although Palermo did not appear to have much strategic significance. Despite this, it turned out to be the key to unlocking the Axis forces' defences and gave the Americans an easier route towards Messina . The brief campaign in Sicily proved largely successful, but some (with Montgomery among the loudest of
2144-464: A sense of military tradition , which is used to create cohesive military forces. Still, another is to learn to prevent wars more effectively. Human knowledge about the military is largely based on both recorded and oral history of military conflicts (war), their participating armies and navies and, more recently, air forces . Despite the growing importance of military technology , military activity depends above all on people. For example, in 2000
2278-457: A sensible way to maintain inter-Allied cooperation, but Alexander's reserve was such that some thought him empty of strategic ideas and unable to make decisions. Graham and Bidwell, however, wrote that Alexander's impenetrable reserve made it hard to judge whether or not he had any military ideas. They state that he was "unable or unwilling" to assert his will over his army commanders, and that Mark Clark, who often referred to Alexander scornfully as
2412-606: A significant impact at the strategic level. This concept was pioneered by the German army prior to and during the Second World War . At this level, planning and duration of activities takes from one week to a month, and are executed by Field Armies and Army Corps and their naval and air equivalents. Military tactics concerns itself with the methods for engaging and defeating the enemy in direct combat. Military tactics are usually used by units over hours or days, and are focused on
2546-454: A slogging match against typically skilful German opposition on the Catanian plain and on the slopes of Mount Etna . Patton, resentful in his belief that he and his Seventh Army had been given a secondary role in the campaign, confronted Alexander and successfully argued for his army to be allowed to drive to the northwest and to capture Palermo . Although initially reluctant to allow Patton such
2680-834: A temporary brigadier and given command of the Nowshera Brigade, on the Northwest Frontier in India . For his service there, and in particular for his actions in the Loe-Agra operations against the Pathans in Malakand between February and April 1935, Alexander was that year made a Companion of the Order of the Star of India and was mentioned in dispatches . He was mentioned once more for his service during
2814-634: A victory more often than that achieved by the Romans in praying to the gods before the battle. Later this became known as military science , and later still, would adopt the scientific method approach to the conduct of military operations under the influence of the Industrial Revolution thinking. In his seminal book On War , the Prussian Major-General and leading expert on modern military strategy , Carl von Clausewitz defined military strategy as 'the employment of battles to gain
SECTION 20
#17328690591782948-431: Is also an area in which much effort is invested – it includes everything from global communication networks and aircraft carriers to paint and food. Possessing military capability is not sufficient if this capability cannot be deployed for, and employed in combat operations. To achieve this, military logistics are used for the logistics management and logistics planning of the forces military supply chain management ,
3082-407: Is arguably one of the most complex activities known to humanity; because it requires determining: strategic, operational, and tactical capability requirements to counter the identified threats; strategic, operational , and tactical doctrines by which the acquired capabilities will be used; identifying concepts, methods, and systems involved in executing the doctrines; creating design specifications for
3216-405: Is conducted by determining a military budget , which is administered by a military finance organization within the military. Military procurement is then authorized to purchase or contract provision of goods and services to the military, whether in peacetime at a permanent base, or in a combat zone from local population. Capability development, which is often referred to as the military 'strength',
3350-571: Is in the nature of the secrecy of the information they seek, and the clandestine nature that intelligence operatives work in obtaining what may be plans for a conflict escalation , initiation of combat , or an invasion . An important part of the military intelligence role is the military analysis performed to assess military capability of potential future aggressors, and provide combat modelling that helps to understand factors on which comparison of forces can be made. This helps to quantify and qualify such statements as: " China and India maintain
3484-457: Is sometimes made in which a country's armed forces may include other paramilitary forces such as armed police. A nation's military may function as a discrete social subculture , with dedicated infrastructure such as military housing, schools , utilities, logistics , hospitals , legal services, food production, finance, and banking services. Beyond warfare, the military may be employed in additional sanctioned and non-sanctioned functions within
3618-559: The 18th Army Group in Tunisia . He then commanded the 15th Army Group for the capture of Sicily and again in Italy before being promoted to field marshal and being made Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean in late 1944. In 1946 he was appointed as Governor General of Canada by King George VI , on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada , William Lyon Mackenzie King , to replace
3752-753: The 47th (1/2nd London) Division , in the Territorial Army (TA), a post he held until January 1930, when he again returned to study, attending the Imperial Defence College in London for one year. Alexander then held staff appointments as (from January 1931) GSO2 in the Directorate of Military Training at the War Office and (1932–1934) GSO1 at HQ Northern Command in York , before being made in October 1934
3886-665: The Baltische Landeswehr led to the coup d'état of April 16, 1919, by the proclamation of the Government of a Lutheran clergyman, Andrievs Niedra . Parleys, in which the United States and the United Kingdom took part, did not prevent the advance on Riga and the capture of this city on May 22, where Baron Hans von Manteuffel-Szoege made an entry with a small detachment, and died leading his men. Latvian national government
4020-600: The British Minister of Defence in the Cabinet of Winston Churchill , into the Imperial Privy Council . Alexander retired in 1954 and died in 1969. Alexander was born in London into an aristocratic family from County Tyrone of Anglo-Irish descent. He was the third son of James Alexander, 4th Earl of Caledon , and Lady Elizabeth Graham-Toler, Countess of Caledon, a daughter of the 3rd Earl of Norbury . Alexander
4154-589: The Canadian Amateur Hockey Association in November 1950; the cup became the championship trophy of the Major Series of senior ice hockey . Among Canadians, Alexander proved to be a popular viceroy, despite the calls for a Canadian-born governor general that had preceded his appointment. He not only had a much praised military reputation (he was considered to be the best military strategist since
Baltische Landeswehr - Misplaced Pages Continue
4288-627: The Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces (and in December 1941 succeeding John Dill as Chief of the Imperial General Staff ), and Winston Churchill , the Prime Minister. Churchill in particular became a great admirer of Alexander and visited him numerous times throughout 1941, nominating him as the commander of Force 110. Created on paper as the first expeditionary force since the BEF's evacuation from France
4422-614: The Earl of Athlone as viceroy , and he occupied the post until he was succeeded by Vincent Massey in 1952. Alexander proved to be enthusiastic about the Canadian wilderness and popular with Canadians. He was the last Governor General who was born in the United Kingdom as well as the last Governor General to be a peer. After the end of his viceregal tenure, Alexander was sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada and thereafter, in order to serve as
4556-457: The Eastern Front or during the impending Allied invasion of Normandy. When Eisenhower was appointed in December 1943 as Supreme Allied Commander for the planned Normandy landings, he suggested that Alexander become ground-forces commander, as he was popular with both British and American officers. Omar Bradley (who had commanded U.S. II Corps in Sicily, and later the U.S. First Army and then
4690-711: The Irish Guards . He rose to prominence through his service in the First World War , and continued his military career through various British campaigns across Europe and Asia during the interwar period . In the Second World War , Alexander, initially in command of a division, oversaw the final stages of the Allied evacuation from Dunkirk and subsequently held field commands in Britain, Burma , North Africa and Italy , including serving as Commander-in-Chief Middle East and commanding
4824-618: The Military Cross for his bravery at Loos. For service in the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916 , he was, in October, appointed to the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), the citation for which read: For conspicuous gallantry in action. He was the life and soul of the attack, and throughout the day led forward not only his own men but men of all regiments. He held the trenches gained in spite of heavy machine gun fire. In
4958-576: The Roman Civil war – written about 50 BC. Two major works on tactics come from the late Roman period: Taktike Theoria by Aelianus Tacticus , and De Re Militari ('On military matters') by Vegetius . Taktike Theoria examined Greek military tactics, and was most influential in the Byzantine world and during the Golden Age of Islam . De Re Militari formed the basis of European military tactics until
5092-543: The Second Mohmand Campaign in Northwest Frontier Province from August to October of the same year, serving under Brigadier Claude Auchinleck . Alexander had a reputation for leading from the front and for reaching mountain crests with or even ahead of his troops. In March 1937, Alexander was appointed as one of the aides-de-camp to the recently acceded King George VI and in May returned to
5226-676: The Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean theatre at Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ). The American General Omar Bradley , who fought in the Tunisian campaign, then commanding the U.S. II Corps , credited Alexander's patience and experience with helping an inexperienced United States "field command mature and eventually come of age". The Axis forces in Tunisia surrendered by May 1943, with some 250,000 Axis troops surrendering,
5360-526: The U.S. 12th Army Group ) remarked that he would have preferred to work with Alexander rather than Montgomery, as he regarded the former as "a restrained, self-effacive and punctilious soldier". Of the problems that subsequently surfaced with Montgomery's command of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group , Bradley suspected they would not have occurred with Alexander in command. Brooke, however, applied pressure to keep Alexander in Italy, considering him unfit for
5494-407: The history of war , with military history focusing on the people and institutions of war-making, while the history of war focuses on the evolution of war itself in the face of changing technology, governments, and geography. Military history has a number of facets. One main facet is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes, so as to more effectively wage war in the future. Another is to create
Baltische Landeswehr - Misplaced Pages Continue
5628-643: The 15th Army Group, as well as of its successor, the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), for most of the Italian campaign, until December 1944, when he relinquished his command to Clark and took over as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces Headquarters, responsible for all military operations in the Mediterranean theatre . Alexander was concurrently promoted to the rank of field marshal , though this
5762-549: The 1st Duke of Wellington ) but also was a charismatic figure, with an easy ability to communicate with people. Others, however, did not fully approve of Alexander; editor Hugh Templin, from Fergus, Ontario , met with Alexander during Templin's time as a special correspondent with the Canadian Press during the Second World War, and he said of the encounter: "Lord Alexander impressed us considerably, if not too favourably. He
5896-690: The Allied Control Commission in Poland . As a temporary lieutenant-colonel, he led the Baltic German Landeswehr in the Latvian War of Independence , commanding units loyal to Latvia in the successful drive to eject the Bolsheviks from Latgalia . During service there, he was accidentally wounded by one of his own sentries on 9 October 1919. Alexander returned to Britain in May 1920 as
6030-671: The Allies managed to force the Axis forces back and, with both the Fifth and Eighth Armies now united at last, began pursuing the retreating enemy. By December 1943 progress had virtually ground to a halt as the Axis had Alexander's 15th Army Group held up at the Winter Line (also known as the Gustav Line) and ground was gained only at the expense of heavy casualties. At around this time there were numerous Allied command changes, with Montgomery handing over
6164-485: The Baltic with the task of clearing the Germans from the region and organizing native armies for the Baltic States. To ensure its return to Latvian control, the Baltische Landeswehr was placed under British authority. After taking command of the Baltische Landeswehr in mid-July 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Harold Alexander (the future Field Marshal the Earl Alexander of Tunis and Governor-General of Canada , 1946–1952) gradually dismissed German nationals born within
6298-450: The Bolsheviks a free hand. In June 1919, General von der Goltz ordered his troops not to advance east against the Red Army, as the Allies had been expecting, but north, against the Estonians. On June 19, the Landeswehr launched an attack to capture areas around Cēsis (Wenden), however in the battles over the following few days they were defeated by the Estonian 3rd Division, including the Latvian 2nd Cesis regiment, led by Ernst Põdder . On
6432-559: The British Army declared: "Man is still the first weapon of war." The military organization is characterized by a command hierarchy divided by military rank , with ranks normally grouped (in descending order of authority) as officers (e.g. colonel ), non-commissioned officers (e.g. sergeant ), and personnel at the lowest rank (e.g. private ). While senior officers make strategic decisions, subordinated military personnel ( soldiers , sailors , marines , or airmen ) fulfil them. Although rank titles vary by military branch and country,
6566-432: The British officer Lieutenant-Colonel Harold Alexander commanded the Landeswehr during its operations. After the November 11, 1918, armistice the Inter-Allied Commission of Control insisted that the German troops remain in the Baltic countries to prevent the region from being re-occupied by the Red Army . As the Soviet westward offensive approached, the Provisional Government of Latvia approached August Winnig ,
6700-400: The British retreat from the German Army 's Spring Offensive . He once again commanded the 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards, at Hazebrouck in April 1918, where it took such severe casualties that it saw no further action. Still an acting lieutenant colonel, he then commanded a corps infantry school in October 1918, a month before the war ended on 11 November 1918 . Rudyard Kipling , who wrote
6834-440: The Duke of Edinburgh , the Viscount and Viscountess hosted a square dance in the palace's ballroom. Alexander painted (creating a personal studio in the former dairy at Rideau Hall and mounting classes in art at the National Gallery of Canada ), partook in a number of sports (including golf , ice hockey , and rugby ), and enjoyed the outdoors, particularly during Ontario and Quebec 's maple syrup harvest, himself overseeing
SECTION 50
#17328690591786968-440: The Eighth Army to Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese and departing for the United Kingdom to take up command of the 21st Army Group , which controlled all Allied land forces for the planned invasion of Normandy , whilst General Sir Henry Wilson replaced Eisenhower as the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean in January 1944. The fighting in Italy would continue to prove even more difficult for Alexander's forces over
7102-445: The German attorney in the Baltics, and signed an agreement with him authorising the organisation of land defense forces on 7 December 1918. The parties signed another agreement on 29 December which secured all foreign soldiers, who participated in the battles for the freedom of Latvia, full citizenship of Latvia. The arms, horse harness and uniforms were to be supplied by the state of Germany. The food supplies were to be taken care of by
7236-430: The MI their true capabilities, and to impress potential ideological recruits. Having military intelligence representatives participate in the execution of the national defence policy is important, because it becomes the first respondent and commentator on the policy expected strategic goal , compared to the realities of identified threats . When the intelligence reporting is compared to the policy, it becomes possible for
7370-403: The Provisional Government of Latvia. In late February 1919 only the seaport of Liepāja (Libau) and surroundings remained in the hands of the German and Latvian forces . In February and March 1919, the Landeswehr was able to win a series of victories over the Red Army , first occupying the port of Ventspils (Windau), and then advancing south and east towards Riga . The murder of three men of
7504-408: The Staff College in the mid-1920s, knew what he was doing, simply allowed Montgomery (or "Monty") to continue with what he was doing. The two men got along well and their relationship would continue in a similar manner later on in the war. It was during this period and most of 1941 where Alexander came to the attention of his superiors, the most notable among them being General Sir Alan Brooke , then
7638-911: The United Kingdom ). Penalties range from a summary reprimand to imprisonment for several years following a court martial . Certain rights are also restricted or suspended, including the freedom of association (e.g. union organizing) and freedom of speech (speaking to the media). Military personnel in some countries have a right of conscientious objection if they believe an order is immoral or unlawful, or cannot in good conscience carry it out. Personnel may be posted to bases in their home country or overseas, according to operational need, and may be deployed from those bases on exercises or operations . During peacetime, when military personnel are generally stationed in garrisons or other permanent military facilities, they conduct administrative tasks, training and education activities, technology maintenance , and recruitment . Initial training conditions recruits for
7772-433: The United Kingdom to take part in this capacity in the state procession through London during the King's coronation . Alexander would have been seen in this event by two of his Canadian viceregal successors: Vincent Massey , who was then the Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom , and Massey's secretary, Georges Vanier , who watched the procession from the roof of Canada House on Trafalgar Square . Following
7906-406: The United Kingdom, as C-in-C of Middle East Command , the post responsible for the overall conduct of the campaign in the desert of North Africa. At the same time, Lieutenant-General Montgomery replaced Auchinleck as GOC of the British Eighth Army . Alexander presided over Montgomery's victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance of the Eighth Army to Tripoli , for which Alexander
8040-437: The Winter Line was breached by the Allies, and Alexander's forces moved on to capture Rome in June 1944, thereby achieving one of the strategic goals of the Italian campaign. However, the U.S. VI Corps, now under Major General Lucian Truscott , in the Anzio beachhead, under U.S. Fifth Army commander Clark's orders, failed to follow their original break-out plan that would have trapped the German 10th Army escaping northwards in
8174-416: The aftermath of the Battle of Monte Cassino, instead favouring an early and highly publicised entry into Rome two days before the Allied landings in Normandy. Although Alexander was angry at Clark for deliberately disobeying his specific orders in order to reach Rome first, he chose to say nothing, believing that it would do nothing for the Allied cause if he were to do so. Alexander remained in command of
SECTION 60
#17328690591788308-429: The announcement by a series of diplomatic snubs by Lord Alexander. In his memoirs, Costello was to admit that Alexander's behaviour had in fact been perfectly civil and could have had no bearing on a decision which had already been made to declare the Republic of Ireland . The Alexanders' relatively informal lifestyle at Rideau Hall was demonstrated when during the Canadian tour of Princess Elizabeth and her husband,
8442-497: The armed forces, and at all levels of the military hierarchy of command. Although concerned with research into military psychology , particularly combat stress and how it affects troop morale , often the bulk of military science activities is directed at military intelligence technology, military communications , and improving military capability through research. The design, development, and prototyping of weapons , military support equipment, and military technology in general,
8576-412: The army and take up the new position, in anticipation of which he was on 26 January 1946 appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George and created Viscount Alexander of Tunis, of Errigal in the County of Donegal, on 1 March. On 21 March 1946, the commission under the royal sign-manual and signet appointing Alexander was issued. Alexander was subsequently sworn in during
8710-402: The assignment in France. Thus Alexander remained in command of the 15th Army Group, and, with the support of numerous Allied commanders, controversially authorised the bombing of the historic abbey at Monte Cassino (February 1944), which resulted in little advance on the German Winter Line defences, which had managed to halt the Allied advance in Italy. It was not until the fourth attempt that
8844-615: The borders of Imperial Germany . The Germans released from the Baltische Landeswehr were incorporated into the Deutsche Legion in September 1919. The legion served under the West Russian Volunteer Army commanded by Colonel Prince Pavel Bermondt-Avalov in his attempt to capture Riga, but suffered complete defeat by the end of November 1919. The British insisted that General von der Goltz leave Latvia, and he turned his troops over to Bermondt-Avalov's West Russian Volunteer Army . General von der Goltz later claimed in his memoirs that his major strategic goal in 1919 had been to launch
8978-556: The campaign to his corps commander, Lieutenant-General William Slim , while he himself handled the more political aspects of relations with Joseph Stilwell , the nominal commander of the Chinese forces. Alexander was promoted to Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of Allied Land Forces in Burma, March 1942, and ordered Slim to abandon Mandalay and retreat to India. By July 1942, the British and Indian forces in Burma had completed their fighting retreat into India, and Alexander, having yet again been mentioned in despatches for his Burma service,
9112-513: The civilian population with respect to socio-economic indicators such as parental income, parental wealth and cognitive abilities. The study found that technological, tactical, operational and doctrinal changes have led to a change in the demand for personnel. Furthermore, the study suggests that the most disadvantaged socio-economic groups are less likely to meet the requirements of the modern U.S. military. The obligations of military employment are many. Full-time military employment normally requires
9246-490: The commander of IX Corps of Anderson's First Army, to organise the coup de grace . However, Harold Macmillan (British Minister Resident in the Mediterranean from 1942 to 1945) was impressed by Alexander's calm and style - the general conducted dinners in his mess like those at an Oxbridge high table, discussing architecture and the campaigns of Belisarius , rather than the current war. Macmillan thought Alexander's urbane manner and willingness to discuss and compromise were
9380-536: The commanding forces and other military, as well as often civilian personnel participate in identification of these threats. This is at once an organization, a system and a process collectively called military intelligence (MI). Areas of study in Military intelligence may include the operational environment, hostile, friendly and neutral forces, the civilian population in an area of combat operations, and other broader areas of interest. The difficulty in using military intelligence concepts and military intelligence methods
9514-454: The concepts and methods used by the command to employ appropriately military skilled, armed and equipped personnel in achievement of the tangible goals and objectives of the war , campaign , battle , engagement, and action. The line between strategy and tactics is not easily blurred, although deciding which is being discussed had sometimes been a matter of personal judgement by some commentators, and military historians. The use of forces at
9648-410: The concerns of military command. Military strategy is more concerned with the supply of war and planning, than management of field forces and combat between them. The scope of strategic military planning can span weeks, but is more often months or even years. Operational mobility is, within warfare and military doctrine , the level of command which coordinates the minute details of tactics with
9782-512: The consumables, and capital equipment of the troops. Although mostly concerned with the military transport , as a means of delivery using different modes of transport; from military trucks , to container ships operating from permanent military base , it also involves creating field supply dumps at the rear of the combat zone, and even forward supply points in a specific unit's tactical area of responsibility . These supply points are also used to provide military engineering services, such as
9916-548: The coronation celebration, Alexander returned to India, where he was made the honorary colonel of the 3rd Battalion, 2nd Punjab Regiment , and then in October 1937 was promoted to the rank of major-general , making Alexander the youngest general in the British Army . He relinquished command of his brigade in January 1938, and in February returned to the United Kingdom to take command of the 1st Infantry Division . In June 1938 he
10050-454: The critics) believed that the campaign lacked direction - and blamed Alexander. Furthermore, although the Axis forces had been forced to withdraw from Sicily, they had managed to do so in relatively good order, crossing the Straits of Messina into Italy. After Sicily, planning began for the Allied invasion of Italy , which began on 3 September 1943 (the fourth anniversary of Britain's entry into
10184-429: The demands of military life, including preparedness to injure and kill other people, and to face mortal danger without fleeing. It is a physically and psychologically intensive process which resocializes recruits for the unique nature of military demands. For example: The next requirement comes as a fairly basic need for the military to identify possible threats it may be called upon to face. For this purpose, some of
10318-460: The end of war'. According to Clausewitz: strategy forms the plan of the War, and to this end it links together the series of acts which are to lead to the final decision, that is to say, it makes the plans for the separate campaigns and regulates the combats to be fought in each. Hence, Clausewitz placed political aims above military goals , ensuring civilian control of the military . Military strategy
10452-511: The entire Allied force (comprising only two infantry divisions, elements of the U.S. 1st Armored Division , and other smaller units in support) being wiped out. Despite Churchill's and Alexander's intentions, the Allied forces at Anzio did not achieve the somewhat unrealistic expectations, and were essentially cut off from any support, although they did manage to lure German reserves from elsewhere, which might otherwise have been available for service on
10586-401: The existence of the military is to engage in combat , should it be required to do so by the national defence policy, and to win. This represents an organisational goal of any military, and the primary focus for military thought through military history . How victory is achieved, and what shape it assumes, is studied by most, if not all, military groups on three levels. Military strategy is
10720-520: The field from March to June 1940, Alexander was again mentioned in despatches . After Dunkirk, Alexander returned to the United Kingdom and continued to command I Corps, now guarding the coasts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire as part of Northern Command . He was promoted acting lieutenant-general in July 1940, and in December 1940 he was appointed to succeed Claude Auchinleck as General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of Southern Command , which
10854-479: The following few months. Between January and May 1944, numerous Allied attacks were repulsed at Monte Cassino (which was also bombed in February 1944, with Alexander taking responsibility for the decision to bomb it) and the Anzio landings of January 1944 by Lucas's U.S. VI Corps began well but did not live up to expectations and eventually ended up in a stalemate, like the rest of the Italian fighting so far. Alexander had
10988-776: The form of military camouflage or misdirection using decoys , is used to confuse the enemy as a tactic. A major development in infantry tactics came with the increased use of trench warfare in the 19th and 20th centuries. This was mainly employed in World War I in the Gallipoli campaign , and the Western Front . Trench warfare often turned to a stalemate, only broken by a large loss of life, because, in order to attack an enemy entrenchment, soldiers had to run through an exposed ' no man's land ' under heavy fire from their opposing entrenched enemy. As with any occupation, since ancient times,
11122-538: The grounds of Rideau Hall today. By the end of the year, Alexander was also distinguished with his induction as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter . In 1947, the King issued letters patent granting his Canadian governor general permission to exercise all those powers belonging to the monarch in respect of Canada and, at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference of 1949, the decision
11256-596: The highest ranks reached in the Third Reich era) Members of the Baltische Landeswehr wore shoulder strap piping in light blue and white, the Baltic colors. Armed forces A military , also known collectively as armed forces , is a heavily armed , highly organized force primarily intended for warfare . Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state , with their members identifiable by
11390-513: The largest armed forces in the World" or that "the U.S. Military is considered to be the world's strongest". Although some groups engaged in combat, such as militants or resistance movements , refer to themselves using military terminology, notably 'Army' or 'Front', none have had the structure of a national military to justify the reference, and usually have had to rely on support of outside national militaries. They also use these terms to conceal from
11524-875: The largest surrender yet in the war. Alexander telegraphed Churchill in response, stating: Sir, it is my duty to report that the Tunisian campaign is over. All enemy resistance has ceased. We are masters of the North African shores. After the Tunisian campaign, Alexander's command became the 15th Army Group , which became responsible (under General Eisenhower) for mounting the July 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily (codenamed Operation Husky). Once again, Alexander directed two field armies , both commanded by strong-willed characters who were not easy to control: General Montgomery's British Eighth Army and Lieutenant General George S. Patton 's U.S. Seventh Army . The campaign did not portray Alexander at his best and he failed to grip his two commanders. Montgomery's Eighth Army found itself in
11658-525: The late 17th century. Perhaps its most enduring maxim is Igitur qui desiderat pacem, praeparet bellum (let he who desires peace prepare for war). Due to the changing nature of combat with the introduction of artillery in the European Middle Ages , and infantry firearms in the Renaissance , attempts were made to define and identify those strategies, grand tactics , and tactics that would produce
11792-482: The level of organization between strategic and tactical is called operational mobility . Because most of the concepts and methods used by the military, and many of its systems are not found in commercial branches, much of the material is researched, designed, developed, and offered for inclusion in arsenals by military science organizations within the overall structure of the military. Therefore, military scientists can be found interacting with all Arms and Services of
11926-426: The management of forces in wars and military campaigns by a commander-in-chief , employing large military forces, either national and allied as a whole, or the component elements of armies , navies and air forces ; such as army groups , naval fleets , and large numbers of aircraft . Military strategy is a long-term projection of belligerents' policy, with a broad view of outcome implications, including outside
12060-630: The manufacturers who would produce these in adequate quantity and quality for their use in combat; purchase the concepts, methods, and systems; create a forces structure that would use the concepts, methods, and systems most effectively and efficiently; integrate these concepts, methods, and systems into the force structure by providing military education , training , and practice that preferably resembles combat environment of intended use; create military logistics systems to allow continued and uninterrupted performance of military organizations under combat conditions, including provision of health services to
12194-497: The military has been distinguished from other members of the society by their tools: the weapons and military equipment used in combat. When Stone Age humans first took flint to tip the spear , it was the first example of applying technology to improve the weapon. Since then, the advances made by human societies, and that of weapons, has been closely linked. Stone weapons gave way to Bronze Age and Iron Age weapons such as swords and shields . With each technological change
12328-510: The morning of June 23, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga. The Allies again insisted that the Germans withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia and intervened to impose a ceasefire between the Estonians and the Landeswehr when the Estonians were about to march into Riga. In the meantime, an Allied mission composed of British troops under General Sir Hubert de la Poer Gough had arrived in
12462-425: The national leadership to consider allocating resources over and above the officers and their subordinates military pay, and the expense of maintaining military facilities and military support services for them. Source: SIPRI Defense economics is the financial and monetary efforts made to resource and sustain militaries, and to finance military operations , including war. The process of allocating resources
12596-519: The newly raised 2nd Battalion on 7 February the following year. Alexander returned to the Western Front in August 1915, fought at the Battle of Loos and was, for ten days in October 1915, an acting major and acting Commanding Officer (CO) of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, as a "Battle Casualty Replacement". He then returned to the 2nd Battalion as a company officer and, in January 1916, received
12730-408: The night of 5–6 February and Alexander, in respect of the King's mourning, departed quietly for the United Kingdom, leaving Chief Justice of Canada Thibaudeau Rinfret as administrator of the government in his place. After his return to the UK, Alexander was on 14 March 1952 elevated in the peerage by Queen Elizabeth II, becoming Earl Alexander of Tunis , Baron Rideau of Ottawa and Castle Derg. He
12864-421: The overarching goals of strategy . A common synonym is operational art. The operational level is at a scale bigger than one where line of sight and the time of day are important, and smaller than the strategic level, where production and politics are considerations. Formations are of the operational level if they are able to conduct operations on their own, and are of sufficient size to be directly handled or have
12998-417: The personnel, and maintenance for the equipment; the services to assist recovery of wounded personnel, and repair of damaged equipment; and finally, post-conflict demobilization , and disposal of war stocks surplus to peacetime requirements. Development of military doctrine is perhaps the most important of all capability development activities, because it determines how military forces are used in conflicts,
13132-476: The physicality of armed forces, their personnel , equipment , and the physical area which they occupy. As an adjective, military originally referred only to soldiers and soldiering, but it broadened to apply to land forces in general, and anything to do with their profession. The names of both the Royal Military Academy (1741) and United States Military Academy (1802) reflect this. However, at about
13266-573: The process on Rideau Hall's grounds. The Viscount was known to escape from official duties to partake in his most favourite pastime of fishing , once departing from the 1951 royal tour of Princess Elizabeth to take in a day's fishing at Griffin Island, in Georgian Bay , and granting a day off for students in the town of Drayton, Ontario , where his train briefly stopped. He presented the Alexander Cup to
13400-445: The rank hierarchy is common to all state armed forces worldwide. In addition to their rank, personnel occupy one of many trade roles, which are often grouped according to the nature of the role's military tasks on combat operations: combat roles (e.g. infantry ), combat support roles (e.g. combat engineers ), and combat service support roles (e.g. logistical support ). Personnel may be recruited or conscripted , depending on
13534-415: The recovery of defective and derelict vehicles and weapons, maintenance of weapons in the field, the repair and field modification of weapons and equipment; and in peacetime, the life-extension programmes undertaken to allow continued use of equipment. One of the most important role of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of consumable, their storage, and disposal . The primary reason for
13668-562: The reign of Ramses II , features in bas-relief monuments. The first Emperor of a unified China , Qin Shi Huang , created the Terracotta Army to represent his military might. The Ancient Romans wrote many treatises and writings on warfare, as well as many decorated triumphal arches and victory columns . The first recorded use of the word "military" in English, spelled militarie ,
13802-606: The respect of all at the college, with two notable exceptions—the future field marshals Alan Brooke and Bernard Montgomery —who did not come away with a particularly favourable impression of him. After graduating from the Staff College, Alexander was then, in February 1928, promoted to colonel (backdated to 14 May 1926 ) and was the next month appointed Officer Commanding the Irish Guards Regimental District and 140th (4th London) Infantry Brigade , part of
13936-491: The same month, Alexander was further honoured with induction into the French Légion d'honneur . On 10 December 1916, his twenty-fifth birthday, Alexander became second-in-command (2-i-c) of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, as an acting major. By May, he was briefly acting CO of the 1st Battalion, as an acting lieutenant colonel , while still only a substantive captain. He became a permanent major on 1 August 1917, and
14070-403: The sea. He supported McCreery when he refused to consider evacuation plans that Clark had been considering. Alexander was also instrumental in convincing Clark to replace the U.S. VI Corps commander, Major General Ernest J. Dawley - who had not performed well and whom Alexander described as "a broken reed" - with Major General John P. Lucas . Despite the heavy casualties sustained at Salerno,
14204-448: The specific tasks and objectives of squadrons , companies , battalions , regiments , brigades , and divisions , and their naval and air force equivalents. One of the oldest military publications is The Art of War , by the Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu . Written in the 6th century BCE, the 13-chapter book is intended as military instruction, and not as military theory , but has had
14338-428: The state, including internal security threats, crowd control , promotion of political agendas , emergency services and reconstruction, protecting corporate economic interests, social ceremonies, and national honour guards . The profession of soldiering is older than recorded history . Some images of classical antiquity portray the power and feats of military leaders . The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC from
14472-684: The system chosen by the state. Most military personnel are males; the minority proportion of female personnel varies internationally (approximately 3% in India, 10% in the UK, 13% in Sweden, 16% in the US, and 27% in South Africa ). While two-thirds of states now recruit or conscript only adults, as of 2017 50 states still relied partly on children under the age of 18 (usually aged 16 or 17) to staff their armed forces. Whereas recruits who join as officers tend to be upwardly-mobile , most enlisted personnel have
14606-464: The time of the Napoleonic Wars , military began to be used in reference to armed forces as a whole, such as " military service ", " military intelligence ", and " military history ". As such, it now connotes any activity performed by armed force personnel. Military history is often considered to be the history of all conflicts, not just the history of the state militaries. It differs somewhat from
14740-604: The war). Montgomery's Eighth Army launched Operation Baytown , crossing over into Calabria but initially facing little real opposition and slowly making its way up the Italian peninsula. Six days later the U.S. Fifth Army (which, despite its name, included the British X Corps under Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery , under its command) under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark landed at Salerno as part of Operation Avalanche , which, initially at least, started off well, before encountering heavy resistance and almost being thrown back into
14874-700: The year before, Force 110 was considered for several projects throughout the year of 1941, such as landings in the Azores , the Canary Islands and Sicily , but these were, perhaps fortunately, all ultimately abandoned. On 1 January 1942 he was knighted and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath , and in February, after the Japanese invasion of Burma , was sent to India to become GOC-in-C of British Forces in Burma as
15008-439: Was evacuated to England , along with the rest of the BEF. Shortly after Major-General Bernard Montgomery had been appointed to command II Corps (and before that the 3rd Division ), Alexander was, while still on the beachhead , placed in command of I Corps , and left the eastern mole on the destroyer Venomous late on 2 June after ensuring that all British troops had been evacuated. In recognition of his services in
15142-481: Was a senior and highly decorated British Army officer who served in both of the world wars . In addition, following the end of his military career, he served as Governor General of Canada and became the first Lord Lieutenant of Greater London in 1965. Alexander was born in London and was educated at Harrow before moving on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst , for training as an army officer of
15276-509: Was admitted to the Blackfoot tribe as Chief Eagle Head. However, though the post-war period saw a boom in prosperity for Canada, the country was again at war by 1950, with Alexander, in his role as acting commander-in-chief , deploying to the Korean War soldiers, sailors, and airmen, whom he would visit prior to their departure for north-east Asia. In May 1951, as Commander-in-Chief of Canada, he
15410-423: Was again promoted acting lieutenant colonel, this time confirmed as CO of the 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards, on 15 October. Alexander commanded his battalion at Third Ypres , where he was slightly wounded, then at Bourlon Wood (part of the battle of Cambrai ), where his battalion suffered 320 casualties out of 400 men. Alexander, between 23 and 30 March 1918, had to assume command of the 4th Guards Brigade , during
15544-659: Was also appointed to the organising committee for the Queen's coronation and was charged with carrying the Sovereign's Orb in the state procession on that occasion in 1953. The Earl served as the British defence minister until 1954, when he retired from politics. In 1959 the Queen appointed Alexander to the Order of Merit . From 1960 to 1965, he served as Constable of the Tower of London . Alexander
15678-671: Was an active freemason . Canada remained a favourite second home for the Alexanders and they returned frequently to visit family and friends until Alexander died on 16 June 1969 of a perforated aorta. His funeral was held on 24 June 1969, at St. George's Chapel , in Windsor Castle , and his remains are buried in the churchyard of Ridge , near Tyttenhanger, his family's Hertfordshire home. Alexander married Lady Margaret Bingham , daughter of George Bingham, 5th Earl of Lucan , on 14 October 1931. They had three children together and adopted
15812-518: Was an aristocratic type, who didn't like newspaper men." Lord Alexander gave up the office of Governor General of Canada officially on 28 January 1952 after Churchill asked him to return to London to take the post of Minister of Defence in the British government. The aging Churchill had found it increasingly difficult to cope with holding that portfolio concurrently with that of prime minister, although he still took many major decisions himself, leaving Alexander with little real power. George VI died on
15946-580: Was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath . Following the outbreak of the Second World War , in September 1939, Alexander brought the 1st Division to France , where it became part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and served there for the next eight months. In May 1940, when the German Army invaded France , he successfully led the division's withdrawal to Dunkirk , where it
16080-544: Was backdated to the fall of Rome on 4 June 1944, so that Alexander would once again be senior to Montgomery, who had himself been made a field marshal on 1 September 1944, after the end of the Battle of Normandy . Alexander received the German surrender in Italy on 29 April 1945. As a reward for his leadership in North Africa and Italy, Alexander, along with a number of other prominent British Second World War military leaders,
16214-672: Was deemed a fitting inaugural recipient of the Canadian Forces' Decoration , starting a long tradition of every governor general accepting the CD, usually shortly after their installation as the Sovereign's personal representative in Canada. Alexander travelled abroad on official trips—in 1947 visiting US president Harry S. Truman and in June 1948 Brazilian president Eurico Gaspar Dutra —as well as hosting
16348-549: Was deposed while the Freikorps moved on to capture Riga on May 23, 1919. Latvians sought assistance from the Estonian Army which had been occupying Northern Latvia since earlier that year. After the Bolsheviks had been driven out from most of Latvia, the Allies ordered the German government to withdraw its troops from the Baltic region. However, the Germans succeeded in negotiating a postponement, arguing that this would have given
16482-423: Was educated at Hawtreys and Harrow School , there participating as the 11th batsman in the sensational Fowler's Match against Eton College in 1910. Though Alexander toyed with the notion of becoming an artist, he went instead on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1910. After passing out from Sandhurst he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Irish Guards on 23 September 1911. He
16616-580: Was elevated to a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath , and, after the Anglo-American forces of the First Army (under Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson ) from Operation Torch and the Eighth Army converged in Tunisia in February 1943, they were brought under the unified command of a newly formed 18th Army Group headquarters, commanded by Alexander and reporting to General Dwight D. Eisenhower ,
16750-527: Was elevated to the peerage on 1 March 1946 by King George VI ; he was created Viscount Alexander of Tunis and of Errigal in the County of Donegal . Brooke felt that Alexander needed an able chief of staff "to think for him", while Montgomery (Alexander's subordinate in North Africa, Sicily and Italy) claimed to think of Alexander as "incompetent" and believed that success was attained in Tunisia only because Montgomery lent Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks ,
16884-451: Was in 1582. It comes from the Latin militaris (from Latin miles ' soldier ' ) through French, but is of uncertain etymology, one suggestion being derived from *mil-it- – going in a body or mass. As a noun phrase, "the military" usually refers generally to a country's armed forces, or sometimes, more specifically, to the senior officers who command them. In general, it refers to
17018-475: Was keenly interested in his role as Chief Scout of Canada and, in preparation for his kicking of the opening ball in the 1946 Grey Cup final, practised frequently on the grounds of the royal and viceregal residence, Rideau Hall . Also, in commemoration of Alexander being named the first non-aboriginal chief of the Kwakiutl tribe, he was given a totem pole on 13 July 1946; crafted by Mungo Martin , it remains on
17152-556: Was older than many of his fellow students—and even some of his instructors—at the college. Among his many fellow students were Douglas Wimberley , who would later become a major-general and command the 51st (Highland) Division from 1941—1943, including at the Second Battle of El Alamein , who formed a high opinion of Alexander, who, despite his outstanding war record, showed little sign of being overly pleased with himself. Instead, he showed "simplicity, directness and kindness" and gained
17286-718: Was one of a triumvirate of ' arts ' or 'sciences' that governed the conduct of warfare, the others being: military tactics , the execution of plans and manoeuvring of forces in battle , and maintenance of an army. The meaning of military tactics has changed over time; from the deployment and manoeuvring of entire land armies on the fields of ancient battles, and galley fleets; to modern use of small unit ambushes , encirclements , bombardment attacks, frontal assaults , air assaults , hit-and-run tactics used mainly by guerrilla forces, and, in some cases, suicide attacks on land and at sea. Evolution of aerial warfare introduced its own air combat tactics . Often, military deception , in
17420-437: Was promoted to lieutenant on 5 December 1912. Alexander spent most of the First World War on the Western Front . As a 22-year-old platoon commander in the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, he served with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in 1914. He took part in the retreat from Mons and was wounded at First Ypres and invalided home. He was promoted to temporary captain on 15 November 1914 and permanent captain in
17554-638: Was reached to use the term 'member of the Commonwealth' instead of ' Dominion ' to refer to the non-British member states of the Commonwealth of Nations . That same year, Alexander oversaw the admission of the Newfoundland (a dominion by name but not self-governing) into the Canadian Confederation and toured the new province that summer. Then, during a later visit to Alberta , the Governor General
17688-535: Was realized some tangible increase in military capability, such as through greater effectiveness of a sharper edge in defeating armour , or improved density of materials used in manufacture of weapons. Harold Alexander Field Marshal Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis KG , GCB , OM , GCMG , CSI , DSO , KStJ , MC , CD , PC (Can) , PC (10 December 1891 – 16 June 1969 ),
17822-740: Was recalled to the United Kingdom. He was at first selected to command the British First Army , which was to take part in Operation Torch , the Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa . However, following a visit in early August to Egypt by the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), General Sir Alan Brooke , Alexander flew to Cairo on 8 August to replace General Claude Auchinleck , Alexander's predecessor at Southern Command in
17956-416: Was responsible for the defence of south-west England. His rank of lieutenant-general was made permanent in December 1940. While he was here he came into contact with Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery , who was then serving under his command as GOC of V Corps . Montgomery and Auchinleck had never seen eye-to-eye on much but Alexander, believing Montgomery, who had been one of Alexander's instructors at
#177822