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75-683: The Balbo Monument includes a column that was taken from a site about 200 meters outside of Porta Marina in Ostia . The building that the column originated from is called the Prospetto a Mare which translates to the Prospectus to Sea. Due to extensive renovation that was done during the second century AD, many of the buildings throughout the settlement of Ostia were repurposed or built over. Although this building endured through years of change and innovation, there are very few records still in existence that pertain to

150-420: A Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa , a code indicating warm-temperate with dry, hot summers). Located on the coast, enjoys warmer winters and cooler summers than central Rome. The regional Metromare , which carries over 90,000 passengers a day, connects Rome's Ostia neighborhood to the centre of Rome, providing up to 12 journeys per hour during rush hour. The full length of

225-458: A siege . They set up two camps under command of legates : Censorinus's had the primary role of protecting the beached Roman ships and Manilius's housed the Roman legions. Hasdrubal moved up his army to harass the Roman supply lines and foraging parties. The Romans launched another assault on the city but were repulsed again. Scipio Aemilianus, the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, who was serving as

300-457: A tribune  – a middle-ranking military position – held back his men and was able to deploy them to beat off the pursuing Carthaginians, preventing heavy losses. The camp established by Censorinus was badly situated and by early summer was so pestiferous that it was moved to a healthier location. This was not as defensible, and the Carthaginians inflicted losses on

375-565: A Roman army, had himself crowned King Philip VI and sparked the Fourth Macedonian War . Scipio intended to stand in the 147 BC elections for the post of aedile , which was a natural progression for him. Aged 36 or 37, he was too young to stand as consul, for which by the Lex Villia the minimum age was 41. There was considerable political manoeuvring behind the scenes. Scipio and his partisans played on his successes over

450-403: A controversial law was passed ordering the establishment of a new settlement there, called Junonia . Conservatives argued against the law and after its passage spread rumours that markers delimitating the new settlement had been dug up by wolves – a very poor omen. These rumours, and other political machinations, caused the plan to be scrapped. In 111 BC legislation repeated

525-504: A house property of the Diocesi of Rome, on their way back to Africa after Augustine's conversion to Christianity. Given the important position at the mouth of the Tiber, Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere ordered the construction of a fortress to defend the river to stem pirate raids; however, a major flood in 1557 diverted the course of the river, nullifying the strategic function of the fort, which

600-554: A large army commanded by the previously unrecorded Carthaginian general Hasdrubal and, the treaty notwithstanding, counter-attacked the Numidians. The campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Oroscopa and the army surrendered. Many Carthaginians were subsequently massacred by the Numidians. Hasdrubal escaped to Carthage, where, in an attempt to placate Rome, he was condemned to death. Carthage paid off its indemnity in 151 BC and

675-521: A message in Italian. In English the message reads: This column twenty centuries old erected on the beach of Ostia port of Imperial Rome to safeguard the fortunes and victories of the Roman triremes Fascist Italy, by command of Benito Mussolini, presents to Chicago exaltation, symbol, memorial of the Atlantic Squadron led by Balbo that with Roman daring flew across the ocean in

750-475: A middle-ranking officer, distinguishing himself several times. A new Roman commander took over in 148 BC and fared equally badly. At the annual election of Roman magistrates in early 147 BC the public support for Scipio was so great that the usual age restrictions were lifted to allow him to be appointed consul and commander in Africa. Scipio's term commenced with two Carthaginian successes, but he tightened

825-664: A rapid connection service from the Lido di Ostia Centro station of the Metromare to Fiumicino airport. Third Punic War The Third Punic War (149–146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome . The war was fought entirely within Carthaginian territory, in what is now northern Tunisia . When the Second Punic War ended in 201 BC one of

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900-433: A strong enemy such as Carthage would keep the common people in check and avoid social division. Cato was a member of an embassy to Carthage, probably in 153 BC, and noted her growing economy and strength; Nasica was likely a member of the same embassy. Using the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext, Rome began preparing a punitive expedition. Modern scholars have advanced several theories as to why Rome

975-402: A successful night attack and broke into the city with 4,000 men. Panicked in the dark, the Carthaginian defenders, after an initial fierce resistance, fled. Scipio decided that his position would be indefensible once the Carthaginians reorganised themselves in daylight and so withdrew. Hasdrubal, horrified at the way the Carthaginian defences had collapsed, had Roman prisoners tortured to death on

1050-442: Is an active seaside resort , the official seaside resort of the city of Rome , equipped with beaches, dedicated facilities, restaurants, hotels and points of interest. Ostia, due to its historical roots and its natural characteristics, is an important tourist location . It is known and famous, as it was at its origins when it was completely regenerated during the fascist period, as the "Sea of Rome", and consequently has become one of

1125-467: Is now a major archaeological site known as Ostia Antica . Ostia is also the only municipio or district of Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea , and many Romans spend the summer holidays there. It is entirely situated within the municipality of Rome and is the city's seaside resort . Ostia was the port city of ancient Rome ; it had a strategic function for trade, especially for the supply of grain, and as

1200-406: Is the exemption from military conscription during the Second Punic War . Later the port, partially blocked by a sandbank, became unsuitable for large ships and was replaced by the hexagonal port of Trajan . Already since the 3rd century it was the seat of the bishop of Ostia . Ostia Antica was especially important as the site of the death of Saint Monica (mother of Saint Augustine ) in 387 in

1275-522: The Century of Progress World's fair and placed in front of the Italian Pavilion. While the fair was eventually disassembled, the column was left standing in its original place just a short distance from the shores of Lake Michigan in an often overlooked area of Burnham Park . This token was a tribute to the first transatlantic crossing made by the Italian air force and fascist general, Italo Balbo . At

1350-470: The Roman province of Africa , with Utica as its capital. The province became a major source of grain and other food. The Punic cities which had stood by Carthage to the end were forfeit to Rome as ager publicus , or, as in the case of Bizerte , were destroyed. Surviving cities were permitted to retain at least elements of their traditional system of government and culture. The Romans did not interfere in

1425-551: The Roman province of Africa , with Utica as its capital. It was a century before the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city . The main source for most aspects of the Punic Wars is the historian Polybius ( c.  200 – c.  118 BC ), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics , but he is best known for The Histories , written sometime after 146 BC. He accompanied his patron and friend,

1500-642: The 11th year of the Fascist era. The monument represents a portion of history but it is also valued as a piece of art and it stands as a symbol that has very different meanings for different groups of people. After Benito Mussolini had the pillar removed from its original place in Ostia, he had it converted into a monument that he gave to the City of Chicago. It was transported by boat to America and arrived in Chicago in 1934 during

1575-526: The 17-year-long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC. Both wars ended with Roman victories; the Second when the Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal , the premier Carthaginian general of the war, at the Battle of Zama , 160 kilometres (100 mi) south west of Carthage. Africanus imposed a peace treaty on the Carthaginians which stripped them of their overseas territories and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents

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1650-459: The Carthaginians to pause long enough for most of the infantry to complete their retreat. That night Scipio led his cavalry back to rescue a trapped group of Romans. The Roman column retreated to its camp near Carthage, where a committee from the Senate had arrived to evaluate Scipio and Manilius' progress. Scipio's performance was prominent in their subsequent report. Scipio made contact with several of

1725-498: The Carthaginians' main camp near Nepheris, despite its strong position and fortifications. Arriving there, Manilius ordered an immediate assault, against Scipio's advice. This initially went well, but the Romans advanced into an untenable position. When they attempted to withdraw, the Carthaginians counterattacked, inflicting heavy casualties. Scipio led 300 cavalrymen in a series of limited and well-disciplined charges and threats which caused

1800-561: The Ostia quarter are Ostia Antica, Lido Nord, Lido Centro, Stella Polare, Castel Fusano and Cristoforo Colombo. Rome-Fiumicino airport is about 10km (6.2 mi) north from the center of Ostia, and is connected to it by the SS296 regional road. The sea quarter of Rome-Ostia is connected to central quarters of Rome and the Grande Raccordo Anulare (GRA) via the streets Via Cristoforo Colombo and Via Ostiense (SS8 bis). Cotral buses provide

1875-546: The Punic Wars, but all that survives of his account of events after 167 BC is a list of contents. Other ancient accounts of the Third Punic War or its participants which have also been largely lost include those of Plutarch , Dio Cassius and the Greek Diodorus Siculus . Modern historians also use the account of the 2nd-century AD Greek Appian . The modern historian Bernard Mineo states that it "is

1950-441: The Roman fleet with fireships . The Romans then made these attacks more difficult by building additional fortifications. Nevertheless, the Carthaginians repeatedly attacked the camps. In often confused fighting Scipio distinguished himself further by his role in thwarting these; the discipline which he imposed on his troops was in contrast with the behaviour of most of the rest of the Roman army. Manilius decided to strike against

2025-457: The Roman general Scipio Aemilianus , in North Africa during the Third Punic War; this causes the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in a favourable light. In addition, significant portions of The Histories ' account of the Third Punic War have been lost. The account of the Roman annalist Livy , who relied heavily on Polybius, is much used by modern historians of

2100-453: The Senate and the People's Assembly of Rome declared war on Carthage. The Romans elected two men each year, known as consuls , as senior magistrates , who at time of war would each lead an army; on occasion their term of office was extended. A large Roman army landed at Utica in 149 BC under both consuls for the year, Manius Manilius commanding the army and Lucius Marcius Censorinus

2175-465: The Temple of Eshmoun and burnt it down around themselves when all hope was gone. At this point, Hasdrubal surrendered to Scipio on the promise of his life and freedom. Hasdrubal's wife, watching from a rampart, then blessed Scipio, cursed her husband and walked into the temple with her children to burn to death. 50,000 Carthaginian prisoners were sold into slavery. The notion that Roman forces then sowed

2250-464: The border with the residential areas of Casal Palocco and Infernetto , while to the south it borders with Torvaianica , a frazione of the municipality of Pomezia . The territory is almost completely flat with small hilly reliefs made up of dunes . The vegetation is composed of Maquis shrubland ( macchia ) and there are several centuries-old pine forests made up of domestic and maritime pines , holly oaks , elms and poplars . Ostia has

2325-451: The building's original purpose. The Romans constructed the column from breccia , a type of stone created from the combination of angular gravel and the fragments of boulders. The pillar is a greenish color, thirteen feet tall and three feet in diameter. Two Italian architects named Capraro and Komar created the base of the monument out of travertine , a type of light colored limestone frequently used in Roman architecture. They inscribed

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2400-458: The camp from several directions and overran it. Fleeing Carthaginians were pursued by Rome's mounted Numidian allies and few escaped. The town of Nepheris was then besieged and surrendered after three weeks. Most of the fortified positions still holding out in Carthage's hinterland now opened their gates. Scipio's position as the Roman commander in Africa was extended for a year in 146 BC. In

2475-402: The city wall, which enabled up to 4,000 Romans to fire onto the Carthaginian ramparts from short range. Once this feature was complete, Scipio detached a large force and led it against the Carthaginian field army at Nepheris. The Carthaginians, commanded by a Greek named Diogenes , had established a fortified camp for their winter quarters. Late in 147 BC Scipio directed an assault on

2550-444: The city with salt is likely a 19th-century invention. Many of the religious items and cult-statues which Carthage had pillaged from Sicilian cities and temples over the centuries were returned with great ceremony. Rome was determined that the city of Carthage remain in ruins. The Senate despatched a ten-man commission and Scipio was ordered to carry out further demolitions. A curse was placed on anyone who might attempt to resettle

2625-561: The end of Second World War, the anti-fascist Italian ambassador to the United States Alberto Tarchiani requested that the tributes to Balbo be removed. Mayor Edward J. Kelly , surprised, reportedly asked: "Why? Didn't Balbo cross the Atlantic?" Balbo's pillar endured in spite of intermittent objections. In 2017 there was discussion about removing the monument, but as of December 2023 it remains in place. Mixed emotions about

2700-605: The end of the war Masinissa , an ally of Rome, emerged as by far the most powerful ruler among the Numidians , the indigenous population which controlled much of what is now Algeria and Tunisia. Over the following 50 years, he repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to protect its possessions. Whenever Carthage petitioned Rome for redress or permission to take military action, Rome backed Masinissa and refused. Masinissa's seizures of and raids into Carthaginian territory became increasingly flagrant. In 151 BC Carthage raised

2775-461: The ensuing Battle of the Port of Carthage the Carthaginians held their own, but when withdrawing at the end of the day many of their ships were trapped against the city's sea wall and sunk or captured. The Romans now attempted to advance against the Carthaginian defences in the harbour area, eventually gaining control of the quay . Here, over several months, they constructed a brick structure as high as

2850-408: The fleet. The Carthaginians continued to attempt to appease Rome and sent an embassy to Utica. The consuls demanded that they hand over all weaponry, reluctantly the Carthaginians did so. Large convoys took enormous stocks of equipment from Carthage to Utica. Surviving records state that these included 200,000 sets of armour and 2,000 catapults . Carthage's warships all sailed to Utica and were burnt in

2925-465: The harbour. Once Carthage was disarmed, Censorinus made the further demand that the Carthaginians abandon their city and relocate 16 km (10 mi) away from the sea; Carthage would then be destroyed. The Carthaginians abandoned negotiations and prepared to defend their city. The city of Carthage itself was unusually large for the time: modern scholars give population estimates ranging from 90,000 to 800,000. Any of these would make Carthage one of

3000-501: The injunction against any resettlement. A century after the war, Julius Caesar planned to rebuild Carthage as a Roman city, but little work was done. Augustus revived the concept in 29 BC and brought the plan to completion. Roman Carthage had become one of the main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the Empire . Rome still exists as the capital of Italy; the ruins of Carthage lie 16 km (10 mi) east of modern Tunis on

3075-495: The leaders of Carthage's Numidian cavalry , then joined a second, better-planned expedition led by Manilius against Hasdrubal at Nepheris. Despite the greater forethought, the Romans made no progress, although one of the Numidians contacted by Scipio did defect to the Romans with 2,200 men. Manilius withdrew after the Romans ran out of food and Scipio led the Romans' new allies on a successful foraging expedition. The Romans elected two new consuls in 148 BC, but only one of them

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3150-524: The line is 28.359 kilometres (17.621 mi). It has 13 stops, and the journey time is roughly 37 minutes. The Metromare railway intersects the metro line B at the EUR Magliana and Basilica San Paolo stations and at the terminus Roma Porta San Paolo , where it is possible to change to the station Piramide ( Rome Metro , Line B ) and with the Roma Ostiense railway station . Rail stops in

3225-448: The locals' private lives and Punic culture, language and religion survived, and is known to modern scholars as "Neo-Punic civilization". The Punic language continued to be spoken in north Africa until the 7th century AD. In 123 BC a reformist faction in Rome led by Gaius Gracchus was eager to redistribute land , including publicly held land. This included the site of Carthage and

3300-410: The main base of the Roman navy . It had a fundamental function during the Punic Wars , and after the final destruction of Carthage , and the end of Macedon's independence ; by the latter half of the 2nd century BC, Roman control over all of what was later to be dubbed Mare Nostrum ("our sea") had been established. The ancient city of Ostia stood in a strategic point near the mouth of the Tiber and

3375-560: The mid-2nd-century BC Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean region , while Carthage was a large city-state in the north east of what is now Tunisia. The Carthaginians were referred to by the Romans by the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus ) and is a reference to Carthage's Phoenician origin. "Punic" derives from this usage. Carthage and Rome had fought the 23-year-long First Punic War from 264 to 241 BC and

3450-471: The monument survive to this day: some observers regard its link to Fascism as unacceptable, while older Chicago residents hold on to fond memories of an age of progress. Ostia (Rome) Ostia ( / ˈ ɒ s t i ə / , Italian: [ˈɔstja] ; officially Lido di Ostia ) is a large neighbourhood in the Municipio X of the comune of Rome , Italy, near the ancient port of Rome, which

3525-525: The most populous and sought-after neighborhoods in Rome. The main (and often crowded) free beaches of Ostia extend in the southern area, protected with dunes and rich in Mediterranean flora . The neighborhood is located on the Tyrrhenian coast, close to Acilia and separated from Fiumicino by the mouth of the Tiber . Other borders are the pine forest of Castelfusano and Viale dei Promontori, which represents

3600-471: The most populous cities in the Mediterranean area at the time. It was strongly fortified with walls of more than 35 km (20 mi) circumference. Defending the main approach from the land were three lines of defences, of which the strongest was a brick-built wall 9 metres (30 ft) wide and 15–20 metres (50–70 ft) high with a 20-metre-wide (70 ft) ditch in front of it. Built into this wall

3675-403: The only complete and continuous account of this war". It is thought to have been largely based on Polybius's account, but several problems with it have been identified. These issues mean that of the three Punic Wars, the third is the one about which the least is reliably known. Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions. In

3750-458: The original settlement in the eighth century BC at the mouth of the river Tiber and precisely called Ostia Tiberina . The settlement of Ostia, according to tradition, was built under the reign of the fourth king of Rome Ancus Marcius , around 630 BC, as the first official Roman colonia on the then coastline of the Tyrrhenian Sea and near the mouth of the Tiber river. Ostia Antica

3825-546: The previous two years and the fact that it was his adoptive grandfather, Scipio Africanus, who had sealed Roman victory in Africa in the Second Punic War. Public demand to appoint him as consul and so allow him to take charge of the African war, was so strong that the Senate put aside the age requirements for all posts for the year. Scipio was elected consul and appointed to sole command in Africa; usually theatres were allocated to

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3900-400: The sea, which at the time was closer to the city. The modern seaside resort, Lido di Ostia, is in fact located about 5 km (3 miles) south-west of the ancient city and about 28 km from center of Rome (17.4 miles). The name of Ostia derives from the Latin ostia , in turn plural of the neuter ostium i.e. 'mouth', or alternatively 'door, entrance'. The current placename is a reference to

3975-458: The seaside, and Ostia experienced a tourist boom. Italian intellectual, film director and poet Pier Paolo Pasolini was assassinated near the water aerodrome on 2 November 1975. In 1976, Ostia became part of the X Municipio of the comune of Rome. Nowadays, due to the expansion of the city, only the Park of Castelfusano separates Ostia from the other quarters of Rome. The Ostia quarter

4050-417: The siege and started to build a large mole to prevent supplies from getting into Carthage via blockade runners . The Carthaginians had partially rebuilt their fleet, and it sortied , to the Romans' surprise. After an indecisive engagement, the Carthaginians mismanaged their withdrawal and lost many ships. The Romans then built a large brick structure in the harbour area that dominated the city wall. Once this

4125-410: The site in the future. The former site of the city was confiscated as ager publicus , public land. Scipio celebrated a triumph and took the agnomen "Africanus", as had his adoptive grandfather. Hasdrubal's fate is not known, although he had surrendered on the promise of a retirement to an Italian estate. The formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become

4200-417: The spring he launched a full-scale assault from the harbour area, which successfully breached the walls. Over six days, the Romans systematically worked their way through the residential part of the city, killing everyone they encountered and setting the buildings behind them on fire. On the last day Scipio agreed to accept prisoners, except for 900 Roman deserters in Carthaginian service, who fought on from

4275-507: The surrender of the Carthaginian army. Anti-Carthaginian factions in Rome used the illicit military action as a pretext to prepare a punitive expedition. Later in 149 BC a large Roman army landed at Utica in North Africa. The Carthaginians hoped to appease the Romans, but despite the Carthaginians surrendering all of their weapons, the Romans pressed on to besiege the city of Carthage. The Roman campaign suffered repeated setbacks through 149 BC, only alleviated by Scipio Aemilianus ,

4350-418: The terms of the peace treaty prohibited Carthage from waging war without Rome's permission. Rome's ally, King Masinissa of Numidia , exploited this to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. In 149 BC Carthage sent an army, under Hasdrubal , against Masinissa, the treaty notwithstanding. The campaign ended in disaster as the Battle of Oroscopa ended with a Carthaginian defeat and

4425-465: The time and the stylistic themes of Italian rationalism . New infrastructure, such as a second road to Rome (Via del Mare'), the promenade, and a water airport, were all built during this period. The new Via Cristoforo Colombo was built on the occasion of the 1942 universal exhibition, to connect the EUR district to Ostia and the center of Rome. After World War II , many bathing establishments were built on

4500-486: The time of this celebration, relations between Fascist Italy and the United States were friendly. In fact, they had been for most of the duration of the regime. Mussolini, Grandi, Balbo and others were recurringly portrayed in a positive light on American media, with Mussolini featured on the cover of Newsweek magazine as late as May 1940. Balbo in particular was hugely popular, especially in Chicago and New York. After

4575-429: The two consuls by lot. He was granted the usual right to conscript enough men to make up the numbers of the forces there and the unusual entitlement to enroll volunteers. Scipio moved the Romans' main camp back to near Carthage, closely observed by a Carthaginian detachment of 8,000. He made a speech demanding tighter discipline and dismissed those soldiers he considered ill-disciplined or poorly motivated. He then led

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4650-415: The walls, in sight of the Roman army. He was reinforcing the will to resist in the Carthaginian citizens; from this point, there could be no possibility of negotiation or even surrender. Some members of the city council denounced his actions and Hasdrubal had them too put to death and took full control of the city. The renewed close siege cut off landward entry to the city, but a tight seaward interdiction

4725-505: The waterfront. The new village was connected to central Rome through the new Via Ostiense, which was opened in 1907. During the Fascist period , the government massively expanded the neighbourhood, which got its ultimate architectural character due to many new buildings in Stile Littorio. The neighborhood was planned, and partially built, according to the urban planning criteria in force at

4800-410: Was a barracks capable of holding over 24,000 soldiers. The city had few reliable sources of ground water but possessed a complex system to catch and channel rainwater and many cisterns to store it. The Carthaginians raised a strong and enthusiastic force to garrison the city from their citizenry and by freeing all slaves willing to fight. They also formed a field army at least 20,000 strong, which

4875-421: Was all but impossible with the naval technology of the time. Frustrated at the amount of food being shipped into the city, Scipio built an immense mole to cut off access to the harbour via blockade runners . The Carthaginians responded by cutting a new channel from their harbour to the sea. They had built a new fleet and once the channel was complete, the Carthaginians sailed out, taking the Romans by surprise. In

4950-453: Was complete, Scipio led a strong force that stormed the camp of Carthage's field army and forced most of the towns and cities still supporting Carthage to surrender. In the spring of 146 BC the Romans launched their final assault and, over six days, systematically destroyed the city and killed its inhabitants; only on the last day did they take prisoners, 50,000 of them, who were sold into slavery. The conquered Carthaginian territories became

5025-769: Was eager for war. These include: a Roman fear of Carthaginian commercial competition; a desire to forestall a wider war which might have broken out with the death of Masinissa, who was aged 89 at the time; the factional use of Carthage as a political "bogeyman", irrespective of her true power; a greed for glory and loot; and a desire to quash a political system which Rome considered anathema. No consensus has been reached regarding these and other hypotheses. Carthaginian embassies attempted to negotiate with Rome, which responded evasively. The large North African port city of Utica , some 55 km (34 mi) north of Carthage, went over to Rome in 149 BC. Aware that Utica's harbour would greatly facilitate any assault on Carthage,

5100-453: Was founded in 1884, near the remains of Ostia Antica. This was possible after reclamation of the nearby marshland, which was infested by malarial mosquitos. The first inhabitants were peasants coming from Ravenna , in Romagna . Due to the opening of the urban Roma–Ostia railway in 1924, the new village soon became the favourite sea resort of the Romans, while many Art Nouveau houses were built on

5175-478: Was fruitlessly besieged. A Carthaginian sortie from Hippo destroyed the Roman siege engines , causing the Romans to break off the campaign and go into winter quarters. Hasdrubal, already in charge of the Carthaginian field army, overthrew the civilian leadership of Carthage and took command himself. Carthage allied with Andriscus , a pretender to the Macedonian throne. Andriscus had invaded Roman Macedonia, defeated

5250-426: Was placed under Hasdrubal, freshly released from his condemned cell. This army was based at Nepheris , 25 km (16 mi) south of Carthage. Appian gives the strength of the Roman army which landed in Africa as 84,000 soldiers; modern historians estimate it at 40,000–50,000 men, of whom 4,000 were cavalry . The Roman army moved to Carthage, unsuccessfully attempted to scale the city walls, and settled down for

5325-565: Was prospering economically but was no military threat to Rome. Nevertheless, there had long been a faction within the Roman Senate that had wished to take further military action against Carthage. For example, the dislike of Carthage by the senior senator Cato was so well known that since the 18th century (AD), he has been credited with ending all of his speeches with Carthago delenda est ("Carthage must be destroyed"). The opposing faction included Scipio Nasica , who argued that fear of

5400-411: Was sent to Africa: Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus ; Lucius Hostilius Mancinus commanded the navy as his subordinate. He pulled back the close siege of Carthage to a looser blockade and attempted to mop up the other Carthaginian-supporting cities in the area. He failed: Neapolis surrendered and was subsequently sacked , but Aspis withstood assaults from both the Roman army and navy, while Hippo

5475-496: Was supplanted by Tor San Michele and Tor Boacciana . An important stand in Italian nationalism of the 19th century was a veneration for the glories of the Roman past, manifested in a wish to revive or recreate various places and institutions connected with Ancient Rome. In 1871, the city of Rome became the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy . A recreation of Ostia was an obvious additional step. The modern neighbourhood of Ostia

5550-515: Was the port city of ancient Rome, and is often referenced in writings from the times of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire . It was the main port of Republican Rome, the main function of Ostia was that of supplying salt and grain although the archaeological site suggests that it had, in the beginning, an important military function as the base of the first Roman fleets. Proof of its importance

5625-399: Was to be paid over 50 years. Hostages were taken and Carthage was prohibited from waging war outside Africa—and could wage war in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject the treaty, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201 BC. Henceforth, it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome. At

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