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126-574: American Baháʼí , a successor periodical which began publication in 1970 and is still in production, carries a particular focus on domestic developments in the American Baha'i community. Baháʼí News was founded as part of Shoghi Effendi 's strengthening of the administration of the Baháʼí Faith in his role as Guardian . As William Garlington writes in his book The Baha'i Faith in America, "[E]mphasis

252-655: A Canadian. She was the only child of May Maxwell , a disciple of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, and William Sutherland Maxwell , a Canadian architect. Shoghi Effendi had first met Mary as a girl when she came on pilgrimage with her mother in 1923. She made another pilgrimage as a teenager with two of her mother's close friends. With Shoghi Effendi's encouragement, Mary became an active Baháʼí teacher and a letter written to him described her as "a beautiful and most refreshing girl to know". In 1936, Shoghi Effendi wrote to Mary and her mother, inviting them to visit Haifa. They arrived in January 1937, and

378-549: A Messenger of God. Today Baháʼís celebrate the twelve days that Baháʼu'lláh was in the Garden of Ridván as the festival of Ridván . After travelling for four months over land, Baháʼu'lláh arrived in the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople (now Istanbul ). Although not a formal prisoner yet, the forced exile from Baghdad was the beginning of a long process which would gradually move him into further exiles and eventually

504-480: A companion (a young man named Anis) were suspended on a wall and a large firing squad prepared to shoot. After the order was given to shoot and the smoke cleared, the Báb was no longer in the courtyard and Anis stood there unharmed; the bullets apparently had not harmed either man, but had cut the rope suspending them from the wall. The soldiers subsequently found the Báb in another part of the barracks, completely unharmed. He

630-481: A couple of the radical Bábí leaders and learned of an assassination plan. He condemned the plan, but was soon asked to leave Tehran by the authorities. In the vacuum of leadership on August 15, 1852, about 3 Bábís attempted the assassination of the Shah and failed. Notwithstanding the assassins' claim that they were working alone, the entire Bábí community was blamed, and a slaughter of several thousand Bábís followed. Amidst

756-561: A discreet courtship between Shoghi Effendi and Mary ensued. At the time of their marriage, Mary was 26 years old and a tall, athletic woman who had spent 18 months living in Nazi Germany with her cousin before coming to Haifa. The couple exchanged vows in the room of Bahíyyih Khánum in the House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Haifa. The ceremony was brief, simple, and quiet, with Rúhíyyih Khánum wearing black. Only

882-618: A distinct separation of powers between the "twin pillars" of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice. The roles of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice are complementary, the former providing authoritative interpretation, and the latter providing flexibility and the authority to adjudicate on "questions that are obscure and matters that are not expressly recorded in the Book." Shoghi Effendi went into detail explaining that

1008-545: A flow of pilgrims started coming there from Persia. In Baghdad people began to look to Ṣubḥ-i-Azal for leadership less and less due to his policy of remaining hidden, and instead saw Baháʼu'lláh as their leader. Ṣubḥ-i-Azal started to try to discredit Baháʼu'lláh and further divided the community. The actions of Subh-i-Azal drove many people away from the religion and allowed its enemies to continue their persecution. On April 10, 1854, Baháʼu'lláh left Baghdad in order to distance himself from Ṣubḥ-i-Azal and as to avoid becoming

1134-509: A guideline for all future translations of the Baháʼí writings. The vast majority of his writings were in the style of letters to Baháʼís from all parts of the globe. These letters, of which 17,500 have been collected thus far, are believed to number a total of 34,000 unique works. They ranged from routine correspondence regarding the affairs of Baháʼís around the world to lengthy letters to the Baháʼís of

1260-643: A hereditary line of heads of the religion, in many respects similar to the Shia Imamate . Each Guardian was to be appointed by the previous from among the male descendants of Baháʼu'lláh , preferably according to primogeniture . The appointment was to be made during the Guardian's lifetime and clearly assented to by a group of Hands of the Cause . The Guardian would be the head of the Universal House of Justice , and had

1386-506: A holy person. He asked Baháʼís not to celebrate his birthday or have his picture on display. In his correspondences, Shoghi Effendi signed his letters to Baháʼís as "brother" and "co-worker," to the extent that even when addressing youth, he referred to himself as "Your True Brother." Shoghi Effendi wrote that the infallibility of his interpretations only extended to matters relating to the Baháʼí Faith and not subjects such as economics and science. In his writings, Shoghi Effendi delineates

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1512-585: A minor schism that attracted about 100 followers, mostly in the United States. Remey was excommunicated by a unanimous decision of the remaining 26 Hands. Although initially disturbed, the mainstream Baháʼís paid little attention to his movement within a few years. At the end of the Ten Year Crusade in 1963, the Universal House of Justice was first elected. It was authorized to adjudicate on situations not covered in scripture. As its first order of business,

1638-452: A new prime minister, Amir Kabir , ordered the execution of the Báb, probably because various Bábí insurrections had been defeated and the movement's popularity appeared to be waning. The Báb was brought back to Tabríz from Chihríq, so that he could be shot by a firing squad . On the morning of July 9, 1850, the Báb was taken to the courtyard of the barracks in which he was being held, where thousands of people had gathered to watch. The Báb and

1764-451: A rare public statement, revealing his private sentiments, in 1951 he described his wife as "my helpmate, my shield in warding off the darts of Covenant breakers and my tireless collaborator in the arduous tasks I shoulder". Shoghi Effendi's leadership focused on two aspects: developing the administration of the religion and spreading it around the world. The Baháʼí community was relatively small and undeveloped when he assumed leadership of

1890-740: A select few were aware of the wedding, including the witnesses and a small group of Haifa residents. Consequently, the news of the marriage came as a significant surprise to the global Baháʼí community when Shoghi Effendi's mother cabled the Baháʼís. Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Baháʼu'lláh Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by Baháʼí Faith cemented. Ziaiyyih mother of Guardian. While Shoghi Effendi and Rúhíyyih Khánum never had children, Rúhíyyih Khánum became his constant companion and helpmate; in 1941, she became Shoghi Effendi's principal secretary in English. In

2016-472: A series of letters to world rulers, proclaiming his station as the promised one of all religions. His letters also asked them to renounce their material possessions, work together to settle disputes, and endeavour towards the betterment of the world and its peoples. Some of these leaders written to in the coming years include Pope Pius IX , Napoleon III of France , Czar Alexander II of Russia , Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland, Násiriʼd-Dín Sháh of

2142-598: A severe crisis of leadership. The 27 living Hands gathered in a series of six secret conclaves (or signed agreements if they were absent) to decide how to navigate the uncharted situation. The Hands of the Cause unanimously voted it was impossible to legitimately recognize and assent to a successor. They made an announcement on 25 November 1957 to assume control of the Faith, certified that Shoghi Effendi had left no will or appointment of successor, said that no appointment could have been made, and elected nine of their members to stay at

2268-562: A succession of Guardians, Shoghi Effendi remains the first and last occupant of this office. Bahá'u'lláh envisioned a scenario in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas in which the line of Guardians would be broken prior to the establishment of the Universal House of Justice, and in the interim the Hands of the Cause of God would administer the affairs of the Baha'i community. The institution of the 'Guardian' provided

2394-558: A tablet read to him, challenging him to accept Baháʼu'lláh's revelation, refused and challenged Baháʼu'lláh to a test of divine will at a local mosque, but he lost face when he did not appear. This caused a break within the Bábí community, and the followers of Baháʼu'lláh—who became the vast majority—became known as Baháʼís, while the followers of Ṣubḥ-i-Azal became known as Azalis . Starting in 1866, while in Adrianople, Baháʼu'lláh started writing

2520-651: A ten-year Baháʼí teaching plan with the goal of establishing many new National Spiritual Assemblies and forming the Universal House of Justice , the highest elected Baháʼí body, for the first time in 1963 with National Spiritual Assemblies around the world participating in the election. This plan is commonly known as the Ten Year Crusade . The means for spreading the Baháʼí Faith was what Baháʼís beginning with Shoghi Effendi have called " pioneering ," in which Baháʼís relocate to places within their country or in another country where there are not Baháʼí communities. Those who started Baháʼí communities in new countries were given

2646-641: A weekend to nine days. The associated Ruhi Foundation, whose purpose was to systematically "consolidate" new Baháʼís, was registered in 1992, and since the late 1990s the courses of the Ruhi Institute have been the dominant way of teaching the Baháʼí Faith around the world. In May 1970, the Baháʼí International Community (BIC) gained consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and in 1976 it gained

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2772-568: Is believed to have gone into occultation since 874 CE. In the Twelver view the Twelfth Imam first went into a " Minor Occultation " between 874 and 941 CE where the Hidden Imam still communicated with the community through four official intermediaries. The " Greater Occultation " is then defined from the time when the Hidden Imam ceased to communicate regularly until the time when he returns to restore

2898-554: Is no time for anything else. Shoghi Effendi then set out to memorize a number of prayers, and chanted them as loud as he could. This caused family members to ask ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to quieten him down, a request which he apparently refused. Shoghi Effendi received his early education at home with the other children in the household, then attended a French Christian Brothers school in Haifa , and later boarded at another Catholic school in Beirut . He

3024-634: Is now buried in one of the front rooms in the Shrine of the Báb, in Haifa, Israel. During his lifetime communities of Baháʼís formed in Australia , Austria , Brazil , Canada , China , the United Kingdom , France , Germany , the Netherlands , Hungary , Italy , Japan , Jordan , Russia , South Africa , Switzerland , Tunisia , and the United States of America . The Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá

3150-469: Is the charter of the Baháʼí administrative order . In this document ʻAbdu'l-Bahá established the institutions of the appointed Guardianship and the elected Universal House of Justice . In that same document he appointed his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi , as the first Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith. Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated the sacred writings of the Baháʼí Faith; developed global plans for

3276-460: The Baháʼí Institute for Higher Education . The New York Times described the program as "an elaborate act of communal self-preservation." The Baháʼí Faith entered a new phase of activity when a message of the Universal House of Justice dated October 20, 1983, was released. Baháʼís were urged to seek out ways, compatible with the Baháʼí teachings , in which they could become involved in

3402-629: The Baháʼí World Centre in Haifa to exercise the executive functions of the Guardian (these were known as the Custodians). In Shoghi Effendi's final message to the Baha'i World, dated October 1957, he named the Hands of the Cause of God, "the Chief Stewards of Baháʼu'lláh's embryonic World Commonwealth." Following the death of Shoghi Effendi, the Baháʼí Faith was temporarily stewarded by the Hands of

3528-529: The Conference of Badasht , where 81 prominent Bábís met for 22 days; at that conference where there was a discussion between those Bábís who wanted to maintain Islamic law and those who believed that the Báb's message began a new dispensation, Baháʼu'lláh took the pro-change side, which eventually won out. Before his death, the Báb had been in correspondence with two brothers, Baháʼu'lláh and Ṣubḥ-i-Azal who, after

3654-600: The Four Valleys . In Baghdad, given the lack of firm and public leadership by Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, the Bábí community had fallen into disarray. Some Bábís, including Baháʼu'lláh's family, thus searched for Baháʼu'lláh, and pleaded with him to come back to Baghdad, which he did in 1856. Baháʼu'lláh remained in Baghdád for seven more years. During this time, while keeping his perceived station as the Manifestation of God hidden, he taught

3780-533: The Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1921 to 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , he was responsible for creating a series of teaching plans that oversaw the expansion of the Baháʼí Faith to a number of new countries, and also translated many of the written works of crucial Baháʼí leaders . Upon his death in 1957, the Hands of the Cause , which included his Canadian wife Rúhíyyih Khánum , took on

3906-717: The International Teaching Centre and other appointed Baháʼí institutions. Since its first election in 1963, the Universal House of Justice has overseen many international plans to spread the Baháʼí Faith, known as Baháʼí teaching plans . Up to the year 2000, there were six of these: the Nine-Year Plan (1964–1973), the Five-Year Plan (1974–1979), the Seven-Year Plan (1979–1986), the Six-Year Plan (1986–1992),

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4032-546: The Ottoman government call Baháʼu'lláh from Baghdad to Constantinople . Before he left Baghdad on the way to Constantinople, Baháʼu'lláh camped for twelve days in the Garden of Ridván near Baghdad starting on April 22, 1863. During his stay in the garden a large number of friends came to see him before he left. It was during his time in the Garden of Ridván that Baháʼu'lláh declared to his companions his perceived mission and station as

4158-532: The Persian , Turkish , Arabic and French languages in which he was already fluent—so that he could translate the letters of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and serve as his secretary. Shoghi Effendi was protected from World War I due to the neutrality of the Syrian Protestant College. Though political tensions in 1917 meant the college was closed briefly, student life continued. In the summer of 1918 ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's life

4284-481: The Swiss Alps . In 1929 and 1940 he also travelled through Africa from south to north. In public, Shoghi Effendi was variously described as composed and highly informed in international affairs. In private, his contemporaries remembered him as warm, informal and humorous. Shoghi Effendi would sleep very little and usually ate only once a day. He was short in stature, with dark hair, an olive complexion and hazel eyes. He

4410-685: The 1950s. Starting in the late 1940s, after the establishment of the State of Israel , he started to develop the Baháʼí World Centre in Haifa , including the construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Báb , the International Archives , and the gardens at the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh . In 1951 he appointed the International Baháʼí Council to act as a precursor to the Universal House of Justice, and appointed 32 living Hands of

4536-461: The Baháʼí Faith, leading many Baháʼís to describe her as the first Crowned Head to accept Baháʼu'lláh 's teachings. She was especially drawn to the Baháʼí teaching of the unity of religion given the religious divide within her family. That said, while Marie prayed "better at home with [Baháʼu'lláh's] books and teachings," she continued to attend a Protestant church and her daughter denied that she ever converted. In 1953, Shoghi Effendi launched

4662-536: The Baháʼí scripture by appointment from one to the next. Each Guardian was to be appointed by the previous from among the male descendants of Baháʼu'lláh , preferably according to primogeniture . The appointment was to be made during the Guardian's lifetime and clearly assented to by a group of Hands of the Cause . At the time of Shoghi Effendi's death, all living male descendants of Baháʼu'lláh had been declared Covenant-breakers by either ʻAbdu'l-Bahá or Shoghi Effendi, leaving no suitable living candidates. This created

4788-522: The Baháʼís as "your true brother", and he did not refer to his own personal role, but instead to the institution of the guardianship. He requested that he be referred in letters and verbal addresses always as Shoghi Effendi, as opposed to any other appellation. He also distanced himself as a local notable. He was critical of the Baháʼís referring to him as a holy personage, asking them not to celebrate his birthday or have his picture on display. In his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi translated into English many of

4914-562: The Báb as a Manifestation of God. These eighteen disciples were later known as the Letters of the Living and were given the task of spreading the new faith across Iran and Iraq. The Báb initially attracted most of the followers of the Shaykhí movement, but soon his teachings went far beyond those roots and attracted prominent followers across Iran. His followers were known as Bábís. The first accounts in

5040-482: The Báb on behalf of the king, who wished to secure reliable firsthand information about the movement that was sweeping his land. Upon learning of Vahid's conversion, the Shah called for the Báb to be brought to Tehran. The Prime Minister—fearing that his own position might be fatally undermined should the Shah also fall under the Báb’s influence—halted the Báb’s escort outside Tehran, then ordered instead that he be imprisoned in

5166-763: The Báb's teachings. He published many books and verses including the Book of Certitude and the Hidden Words . Baháʼu'lláh's gatherings attracted many notables, both locals and Iranian pilgrims, giving him greater influence in Baghdad and in Iran. His rising influence in the city, and the revival of the Persian Bábí community gained the attention of his enemies in Islamic clergy and the Persian government . They were eventually successful in having

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5292-550: The Bábís. Communities of Bábís established themselves in Iran and Iraq, and in 1850 reached several cities of Azarbaijan. Coverage in newspapers in the West reoccurred in 1849 including in the French journal Revue de l'Orient . In the fall of 1850 newspaper coverage fell behind quickly unfolding events. Though the Báb was named for the first time he had in fact already been executed. In mid-1850

5418-408: The Cause — the highest rank of service available, whose main function was to propagate and protect the religion. From the time of his appointment as Guardian until his death the Baháʼí Faith grew from 100,000 to 400,000 members, capitalizing on prior growth and setting the stage for more . The countries and territories in which Baháʼís had representation went from 35 to 250. As Guardian and head of

5544-416: The Cause , who elected among themselves nine " Custodians " to serve in Haifa as the head of the Faith. They oversaw the transition of the International Baháʼí Council into the Universal House of Justice . This stewardship oversaw the execution of the final years of Shoghi Effendi's ordinances of the ten year crusade (which lasted until 1963) culminating and transitioning to the election and establishment of

5670-628: The Governor of Kirmánsháh protesting the arrest in Ottoman lands of a Persian mullá. Follow-up exchanges continued from January into April where diplomatic records of events end. Ottoman state archives affirm his arrival in Istanbul where he is then sentenced to serve in the naval ship yards at hard labor – the Ottoman ruler refusing to banishment him as it would be "difficult to control his activities and prevent him spreading his false ideas." The first public account

5796-524: The Governor of Shiraz to order the Báb's arrest. After being under house arrest in Shiraz from June 1845 to September 1846, the Báb spent several months in Isfahan debating clergy, many of whom became sympathetic. Among the most unexpected of those who embraced the Cause of the Báb was a brilliant theologian who bore the title of Vahid—meaning “unique”. A trusted advisor to the Shah, Vahid had been sent to interrogate

5922-415: The Guardian's correspondence". Further it “should become a great factor in promoting understanding, providing information on Baháʼí activity, both local and foreign, in stimulating interest, in combating evil influences, and in upholding and safeguarding the institutions of the Cause. It should be made as representative as possible, should be replete with news, up-to-date in its information, and should arouse

6048-633: The House of Mírzá Buzurg , Baháʼu'lláh's father. The House of the Báb in Shiraz , one of three sites to which Baháʼís perform pilgrimage, has been destroyed twice. The Iranian government forbids Baháʼís from attending university unless they identify themselves as Muslims on entrance exams, but the Baháʼí teachings forbid Baháʼís to dissimulate their religious beliefs. In 1987, the Baháʼí community established its own program of higher education whose classes were held in private homes and had an enrolment of approximately 900 students, which evolved to become known as

6174-537: The Imams and the believers, and is the one who can visualize the consciousness of the Hidden Imam. In 1822 he left Iran and went to Iraq due to the controversy that his teachings had brought. There he also found himself at the centre of debate, thus deciding to move to Mecca , he died in 1826 on his way there. Before the death of Shaykh Ahmad, he appointed Siyyid Kázim of Rasht to lead the Shaykhí movement, which he did until his death in 1843. Siyyid Kázim formulated many of

6300-461: The Middle East , coordinating teaching efforts, and building up the Baháʼí World Centre in and around Haifa. He appointed 32 living individuals (and 10 posthumously) as prestigious Hands of the Cause, and also presided over the community's enlargement from 1,034 localities in 1935 to 2,700 localities in 1953 and further to 14,437 localities in 1963. From the beginning to the end of his leadership,

6426-715: The Persian Bayan was that of the great Promised One, the next embodiment of the Primal Will, whom the Báb termed He whom God shall make manifest , promised in the sacred writings of previous religions would soon establish the Kingdom of God on the Earth. The Báb's writings have an emphasis on recognizing a future prophet, "He whom God shall make manifest", when he arrives. Baháʼu'lláh was born on November 12, 1817, in Tehran . Baháʼu'lláh's father

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6552-647: The Persian Empire and the rulers of America . The disagreements between the Baháʼís and the Azalís allowed the Ottoman and Persian authorities to exile Baháʼu'lláh once again. Baháʼu'lláh and his family left Adrianople on August 12, 1868, and after a journey by land and sea arrived in Acre on August 31. The first years in Acre imposed very harsh conditions on, and held very trying times for, Baháʼu'lláh. Mirzá Mihdí , Baháʼu'lláh's son,

6678-668: The Three-Year Plan (1993–1996), and the Four-Year Plan (1996–2000). Starting with the Nine-Year Plan that began in 1964, the Baháʼí leadership sought to continue the expansion of the religion but also to "consolidate" new members, meaning increase their knowledge of the Baháʼí teachings . In this vein, in the 1970s, the Ruhi Institute was founded by Baháʼís in Colombia to offer short courses on Baháʼí beliefs, ranging in length from

6804-408: The Universal House of Justice evaluated the situation caused by the fact that the Guardian had not appointed a successor. It determined that under the circumstances, given the criteria for succession described in the Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , there was no legitimate way for another Guardian to be appointed. Therefore, although the Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá leaves provisions for

6930-400: The Universal House of Justice, at the first Baha'i World Congress in 1963. As early as January 1959, Mason Remey , one of the custodial Hands, believed that he was the second Guardian and successor to Shoghi Effendi. That summer after a conclave of the Hands in Haifa, Remey abandoned his position and moved to Washington D.C., then soon after announced his claim to absolute leadership, causing

7056-573: The West of events related to the history of the Báb and his followers appears January 8, 1845, as an exchange of diplomatic reports not published in the newspapers. This was an account of the first Letter of the Living to be dispatched from the presence of the Báb – the second Letter of the Living and first Babi martyr, Mullá ʻAlí-i-Bastámí . The British diplomat who recorded these events was Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet who wrote first to Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe , then Ambassador to Istanbul, and it included an enclosure from

7182-411: The World Order of Baháʼu'lláh would be "mutilated." In its legislation the Universal House of Justice turns to the mass of interpretation left by Shoghi Effendi. History of the Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD Faith The Baháʼí Faith has its background in two earlier movements in the nineteenth century, Shaykhism and Bábism . Shaykhism centred on theosophical doctrines and many Shaykhis expected

7308-405: The assassination plot, and he was released from the Síyáh-Chál, but the government exiled him from Iran. Baháʼu'lláh chose to go to Iraq in the Ottoman Empire and arrived in Baghdad in early 1853. A small number of Bábís, including his half-brother Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, followed Baháʼu'lláh to Baghdad. An increasing number of Bábís considered Baghdad the new centre for leadership of the Bábí religion, and

7434-419: The authority to expel its members. He would also be responsible for the receipt of Huqúqu'lláh , appoint new Hands of the Cause , provide "authoritative and binding" interpretations of the Baháʼí writings, and excommunicate Covenant-breakers . The issue of successorship to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was in the minds of early Baháʼís, and although the Universal House of Justice was an institution mentioned by Baháʼu'lláh,

7560-422: The child as "Shoghi Effendi", ("Effendi" signifies "Sir"), rather than simply as "Shoghi", as a mark of respect towards him. From his early years, Shoghi Effendi was introduced to the suffering which accompanied the Baháʼís in ʻAkká, including the attacks by Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí against ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. As a young boy, he was aware of the desire of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (reigned 1876–1909) to banish ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to

7686-530: The city of London . Born in ʻAkká in the Acre Sanjak of the Ottoman Empire in March 1897, Shoghi Effendi was related to the Báb through his father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází, and to Baháʼu'lláh through his mother, Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, the eldest daughter of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá . ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, who provided much of his initial training, greatly influenced Shoghi Effendi from the early years of his life. Shoghi Effendi learned prayers from his grandfather, who encouraged him to chant. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also insisted that people address

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7812-427: The current worldwide Baháʼí population to be from five to eight million. In Islam , the Mahdi is a messianic figure who is believed to be a descendant of Muhammad who will return near the end of time to restore the world and the religion of God. While both Sunni and Shiʻa groups believe in the Mahdi, the largest Shiʻa group, the Twelvers , believe that the Mahdi is the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi , who

7938-509: The death of his grandfather to whom he had great attachment. The trauma of this culminated in him making retreats to the Swiss Alps . However, despite his youth, Shoghi Effendi had a clear idea of the goal he had for the religion. Oxford educated and Western in his style of dress, Shoghi Effendi was a stark contrast to his grandfather ʻAbdu'l-Bahá . He distanced himself from the local clergy and notability, and travelled little to visit Baháʼís unlike his grandfather. Correspondence and pilgrims were

8064-402: The death of many prominent disciples, emerged as the mostly likely leaders. In a letter sent to Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, then aged around nineteen, the Báb appears to have indicated a high station or leadership position. The letter also orders Ṣubḥ-i-Azal to obey the Promised One when he appears; in practise, Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, however, seems to have had little widespread legitimacy and authority. Baháʼu'lláh in

8190-439: The deserts of North Africa , where he was expected to perish. At one point, Shoghi Effendi was warned not to drink coffee in the homes of any of the Baháʼís in the fear that he would be poisoned. Being ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's eldest grandson, the first son of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's eldest daughter Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, Shoghi Effendi had a special relationship with his grandfather. Zia Baghdadi, a contemporary Baháʼí, relates that when Shoghi Effendi

8316-411: The election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963, it then ruled that given the unique situation and the provisions of the Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , it was not possible to appoint another Guardian. The Universal House of Justice today remains the supreme governing body of the Baháʼí Faith, and its nine members are elected every five years. The Universal House of Justice is supported by

8442-472: The expansion of the Baháʼí community; developed the Baháʼí World Centre ; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the Faith, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice. During this time, Marie of Romania , former queen-consort of Romania, was introduced to the Baháʼí Faith by Martha Root . Marie corresponded with Shoghi Effendi and praised

8568-437: The followers of the Báb, Baháʼu'lláh was imprisoned during a subsequent wave of massacre by the Persian government against Bábís in 1852, was exiled to Iraq, and then to Constantinople and Adrianople in the Ottoman Empire . Amidst these banishments, in 1863 in Baghdad, Baháʼu'lláh claimed to be the messianic figure expected by the Báb's writings, and the majority of Bábís eventually converted to become known as Baháʼís. At

8694-463: The fortress of Chihríq in April 1848. In that place as well, the Báb's popularity grew and his jailors relaxed restrictions on him. Hence the Prime Minister ordered the Báb back to Tabriz where the government called on religious authorities to put the Báb on trial for blasphemy and apostasy. Bábism was also spreading across the country, and the Islamic government saw it as a threat to state religion, even going so far as to send military forces against

8820-491: The general violence some Bábís were imprisoned in the Síyáh-Chál (Black Pit), an underground dungeon of Tehran. According to Baháʼu'lláh, perhaps the lone survivor, it was during his imprisonment in the Síyáh-Chál that he had several mystical experiences, and that he received a vision of a Maiden from God, through whom he received his mission as a Messenger of God and as the One whose coming the Báb had prophesied. The government later found Baháʼu'lláh innocent of complicity in

8946-439: The government and advance the Bábí cause by persuasion and the example of virtuous living. The militant group of Bábís was between thirty and seventy persons, only a small number of the total Bábí population of perhaps 100,000. Their meetings appear to have come under the control of a "Husayn Jan", an emotive and magnetic figure who obtained a high degree of personal devotion to himself from the group. Baháʼu'lláh met briefly with

9072-438: The head of the Baháʼí Faith, and the sole authoritative interpreter of Baháʼu'lláh's writings. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment. This imprisonment continued until ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the " Young Turk " revolution in 1908. Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, teaching, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding

9198-476: The highest number of locations. Sociologist Margit Warburg argues that this is due to the Baháʼí strategy of establishing a presence everywhere possible even if sometimes only a very small one. The only countries with no Baháʼís documented as of 2008 are Vatican City and North Korea. Also, while Israel is a destination for Baháʼí pilgrimage , Baháʼí staff in Israel do not teach their religion to Israelis following

9324-563: The house of Mazra'ih . The final years of Baháʼu'lláh's life were spent in the Mansion of Bahjí , just outside Acre, even though he was still formally a prisoner of the Ottoman Empire. During his years in Acre and Bahjí, Baháʼu'lláh produced many volumes of work including the Kitáb-i-Aqdas . On May 9, 1892, Baháʼu'lláh contracted a slight fever which grew steadily over the following days, abated, and then finally took his life on May 29, 1892. He

9450-504: The institution of the Guardianship was not clearly introduced until the Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was publicly read after his death. In the will, Shoghi Effendi found that he had been designated as "the Sign of God, the chosen branch, the Guardian of the Cause of God". He also learned that he had been designated as this when he was still a small child. As Guardian, he was appointed as head of

9576-429: The institutions are interdependent and had their own specific spheres of jurisdiction. For example, the Guardian could define the sphere of legislative action and request that a particular decision be reconsidered, but could not dictate the constitution, override the decisions, or influence the election of the Universal House of Justice. In explaining the importance of the Guardianship, Shoghi Effendi wrote that without it

9702-443: The keenest interest among believers ... in every corner of the globe.” Another periodical, Star of the West , was initially named Baháʼí News as well, and its dates of publication (from 1910 to 1935) overlapped with Baháʼí News . Shoghi Effendi Shoghí Effendi ( / ˈ ʃ oʊ ɡ iː ɛ ˈ f ɛ n d i / ; Persian : شوقی افندی ; 1 March 1897 – 4 November 1957) was an Ottoman -born Iranian religious figure and

9828-417: The meantime, while in private hinted at his own high station, in public kept his messianic secret from most and supported Ṣubḥ-i-Azal in the interest of unity. In 1852, two years after the execution of the Bábí, the Bábís were polarized with one group speaking of violent retribution against the Shah, Nasser-al-Din Shah while the other, under the leadership of Bahaʼu'lláh, looked to rebuild relationships with

9954-460: The news of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death reached Shoghi Effendi, which, according to Wellesley Tudor Pole , the deliverer of the cable, left him "in a state of collapse". After spending a couple of days with John Esslemont , and after some passport difficulties, he sailed from England accompanied with Sara Blomfield and his sister Ruhangiz on 16 December and arrived in Haifa on 29 December. A few days later he opened ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament , which

10080-555: The penal colony of Akká, Ottomon Empire's Palestine (now Acre, Israel ). Baháʼu'lláh and his family , along with a small group of Bábís , stayed in Constantinople for only four months. Due to his refusal to build alliances with the Ottoman politicians, Baháʼu'lláh had no means of resisting pressure from the Iranian ambassador to exile him further away, and Sultan Abdulaziz banished Baháʼu'lláh to Adrianople (current-day Edirne ), which

10206-560: The plain below Mount Carmel in 1899. In 1909, the remains were finally interred in a special tomb, erected for this purpose by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , on Mount Carmel in the Holy Land in Haifa, Israel . The Shrine of the Báb remains an important place of pilgrimage for Baháʼís. The Shrine is a protected site and in 2008 was listed on UNESCO's World Heritage Sites. While the Báb claimed a station of revelation, he also claimed no finality for his revelation. A constant theme in his works, especially

10332-475: The policy of the Baháʼí administration. The members of the Baháʼí Faith remain nearly entirely united in a single, organized, hierarchical community. Most scholarly sources estimate that there are from five to eight million Baháʼís in the world in the early 21st century. In 2020, the Secretariat of the Universal House of Justice wrote that, "on the basis of information received from Baháʼí communities across

10458-574: The position. At the age of 28, Baháʼu'lláh received a messenger, Mullá Husayn , telling him of the Báb , whose message he accepted, becoming a Bábí. Baháʼu'lláh began to spread the new cause, especially in his native province of Núr, becoming recognized as one of its most influential believers. The accompanying government suppression of the Báb's religion resulted in Baháʼu'lláh's being imprisoned twice and enduring bastinado torture once. Baháʼu'lláh also attended

10584-441: The principles of the Baháʼí Faith. The remains of the Báb were buried on March 21, 1909, in a six-room mausoleum made of local stone. Following his release, he went on several journeys on which he spoke about the Baháʼí Faith, especially from 1910 to 1913, and maintained correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Baháʼí Faith. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá died in Haifa on November 28, 1921, and

10710-403: The religion there was a great increase in the number of Baháʼís, and he presided over the election of many National Spiritual Assemblies . The Universal House of Justice was first elected in 1963, and since that time the Universal House of Justice has been the highest body in the Baháʼí administration , with its members elected every five years. Baháʼí sources and most scholarly works estimate

10836-409: The religion, Shoghi Effendi communicated his vision to the Baháʼís of the world through his numerous letters and his meetings with pilgrims to Palestine. Starting in 1937, he set into motion a series of systematic plans to establish Baháʼí communities in all countries. A Ten Year Crusade was carried out from 1953 to 1963 with ambitious goals for expansion into almost every country and territory of

10962-430: The religion, and he strengthened and developed it over many years to support the administrative structure envisioned by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Under Shoghi Effendi's direction, National Spiritual Assemblies were formed and many thousands of Local Spiritual Assemblies were created. He coordinated plans and resources to raise several of the continental Baháʼí Houses of Worship around the world; construction of which continued into

11088-504: The religion, someone to whom the Baháʼís had to look for guidance. Building on the foundation that had been established in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will, Shoghi Effendi elaborated on the role of the Guardian in several works, including Baháʼí Administration and the World Order of Baháʼu'lláh . In those works, he went to great lengths to emphasize that he himself and any future Guardian should never be viewed as equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, or regarded as

11214-511: The remote fortress of Máh-Kú , near the Turkish border. The excuse given to the Shah was that the Báb’s arrival in the capital might lead to great public distress and disorder. During the Báb’s incarceration in the fortress of Maku in the province of Azarbaijan close to the Turkish border, he began his most important work, the Persian Bayán , which he never finished. He was then transferred to

11340-513: The return of the hidden Twelfth Imam . Many Shaykhis joined the messianic Bábí movement in the 1840s where the Báb proclaimed himself to be the return of the hidden Imam. As the Bábí movement spread in Iran , violence broke out between the ruling Shiʿa Muslim government and the Bábís, and ebbed when government troops massacred them, and executed the Báb in 1850. The Báb had spoken of another messianic figure, He whom God shall make manifest . As one of

11466-636: The role of overseeing the transfer of the religion's supreme legal authority to the Universal House of Justice , which has held elections every five years since 1963. Effendi, an Afnán , was born Shoghí Rabbání in ʻAkká (Acre) where he spent his early life, but later went on to study in Haifa and Beirut , gaining an arts degree from the Syrian Protestant College in 1918 and then serving as ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's secretary and translator. In 1920, he attended Balliol College, Oxford , where he studied political science and economics, but his second year

11592-1051: The same status with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). In 1989, the BIC developed a working relationship with the World Health Organization , and it also has a working relationship with various other United Nations agencies and enterprises including the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iranian Baháʼís have regularly had their homes ransacked or been banned from holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, for instance for participating in Baháʼí study circles. Baháʼí cemeteries have been desecrated and property has been seized and occasionally demolished, including

11718-507: The social and economic development of the communities in which they lived. Worldwide in 1979 there were 129 officially recognized Baháʼí socio-economic development projects, while by 1987 there were 1,482. As Baháʼí communities were not established in all countries and territories during the Ten Year Crusade launched by Shoghi Effendi, new national Baháʼí communities continued to be formed and those who established them continued to receive

11844-527: The source of disagreement within the Bábí community; he left with one companion to the mountains of Kurdistan , north-east of Baghdad, near the city Sulaymaniyah . For two years Baháʼu'lláh lived alone in the mountains of Kurdistan living the life of a Sufi dervish . At one point someone noticed his remarkable penmanship, which brought the curiosity of the instructors of the local Sufi orders. During his time in Kurdistan he wrote many notable books including

11970-636: The thoughts that were ambiguously expressed by Shaykh Ahmad including the doctrine of salvation history and the cycles of revelation. His teaching brought a sense of millenarian hope among the Shaykhis that the Hidden Imam may return. Siyyid Kazim did not leave a successor, but before his death in December, 1843, he had counselled his followers to leave their homes to seek the Mahdi, who according to his prophecies would soon appear. Siyyid ʻAlí-Muhammad, who later took on

12096-478: The time of Baháʼu'lláh's death the tradition was mostly confined to the Persian and Ottoman empires, at which time he had followers in thirteen countries of Asia and Africa. Leadership of the religion then passed on to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , Baháʼu'lláh's son, who was appointed by Baháʼu'lláh, and was accepted by almost all Baháʼís. Under the leadership of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and

12222-1027: The time of his death, there were no living descendants of Baháʼu'lláh that remained loyal to him. Shoghi Effendi's death came unexpectedly in London , on 4 November 1957, as he was travelling to Britain and caught the Asian Flu , during the pandemic which killed two million worldwide, and he is buried there in New Southgate Cemetery . His wife sent the following cable : Shoghi Effendi beloved of all hearts sacred trust given believers by Master passed away sudden heart attack in sleep following Asiatic flu. Urge believers remain steadfast cling institution Hands lovingly reared recently reinforced emphasized by beloved Guardian. Only oneness heart oneness purpose can befittingly testify loyalty all National Assemblies believers departed Guardian who sacrificed self utterly for service Faith. Future hereditary Guardians were envisioned in

12348-473: The time of the election of the Universal House of Justice, National Spiritual Assemblies had been elected in 56 countries and territories, a considerable increase over the 12 in existence at the start of the Ten Year Crusade in 1953. All of these National Spiritual Assemblies participated in the election of the Universal House of Justice as envisioned in Shoghi Effendi's plan for the Ten Year Crusade. After

12474-476: The title of Knights of Baháʼu'lláh . With the unexpected passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957 without children, the Baháʼí world was left without any eligible successor for the role of Guardian. The Hands of the Cause, who had been appointed by Shoghi Effendi as "Stewards," took over as a collective leadership, continued the Ten Year Crusade, and organized the first election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963, making themselves ineligible for membership. By

12600-523: The title of Knights of Baháʼu'lláh. The last Knight of Baháʼu'lláh, Sean Hinton, received the title after bringing the religion to Mongolia in 1988. On May 28, 1992, during a commemoration for the centenary of the Baháʼu'lláh's death, a "Roll of Honour" with the names of the Knights of Baháʼu'lláh was deposited by Rúhíyyih Khanum at the entrance door of the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh . Malietoa Tanumafili II of Samoa , who became Baháʼí in 1968 and died in 2007,

12726-492: The title the Báb , was born on October 20, 1819, in Shiraz to a merchant of the city; his father died while he was quite young and the boy was raised by his maternal uncle Ḥájí Mírzá Siyyid ʻAlí , who was also a merchant. In May 1844 the Báb proclaimed to Mulla Husayn , one of the Shaykhis, to be the one whose coming was prophesied by Shaykh Ahmad and Siyyid Kázim and the bearer of divine knowledge. Within five months, seventeen other disciples of Siyyid Káẓim had recognized

12852-407: The total population of Baháʼís around the world grew from 100,000 to 400,000 people. Among the Baháʼí community, Effendi is commonly referred to as simply "The Guardian" in honour of his unique role as the only Guardian in the history of the Baháʼí Faith . His works are all published under his chosen title Effendi , as opposed to his birth name Rabbání. He is buried at New Southgate Cemetery in

12978-560: The untold sufferings of the War but anticipates that "this is indeed the era of service". After his time in Haifa he went to Balliol College, Oxford , in England , where he matriculated in " Economics and Social Sciences ", while still perfecting his translation skills. Shoghi Effendi was happy during his time in Balliol. Accounts from his contemporaries remember him as a cheerful and popular student. He

13104-472: The way that Shoghi Effendi conveyed his messages. His talks are the subject to a great number of "pilgrim notes". He also was concerned with matters dealing with Baháʼí belief and practice — as Guardian he was empowered to interpret the writings of Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, and these were authoritative and binding, as specified in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will. His leadership style was however, quite different from that of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, in that he signed his letters to

13230-516: The world addressing specific themes. Some of his longer letters and collections of letters include World Order of Baháʼu'lláh , Advent of Divine Justice , and Promised Day is Come . Other letters included statements on Baháʼí beliefs, history, morality, principles, administration and law. He also wrote obituaries of some distinguished Baháʼís. Many of his letters to individuals and assemblies have been compiled into several books which stand out as significant sources of literature for Baháʼís around

13356-516: The world. The Shaykhi movement was a school of theology within Twelver Shiʻa Islam that was started through the teaching of Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsá'í . Shaykh Ahmad's teachings included that the Imams were spiritual beings and thus, in contrast to the widespread Shiʻa belief, that the Imams existed within spiritual bodies, and not material bodies. He also taught that there must always exist the "Perfect Shiʻa" who serves as an intermediary between

13482-407: The world. In a more secular cause, prior to World War II he supported the work of restoration-forester Richard St. Barbe Baker to reforest Palestine, introducing him to religious leaders from the major faiths of the region, from whom backing was secured for reforestation. As a young student of twenty-four, Shoghi Effendi was initially shocked at the appointment as Guardian. He was also mourning

13608-499: The world. The only actual book he ever wrote was God Passes By in 1944 to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the religion. The book, which is in English, is an interpretive history of the first century of the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths. A shorter Persian language version was also written. Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí was ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's half brother and was mentioned by Baháʼu'lláh as having a station "beneath" that of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad ʻAli later fought ʻAbdu'l-Bahá for leadership and

13734-585: The writings of the Báb , Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , including the Hidden Words in 1929, the Kitáb-i-Íqán in 1931, Gleanings in 1935 and Epistle to the Son of the Wolf in 1941. He also translated such historical texts as The Dawn-Breakers . His significance is not just that of a translator, but also that of the designated and authoritative interpreter of the Baháʼí writings. His translations, therefore, are

13860-514: Was a site for the exile of political prisoners. During the month of December 1863, Baháʼu'lláh and his family embarked on a twelve-day journey to Adrianople . Baháʼu'lláh stayed in Adrianople for four and a half years. In Adrianople Baháʼu'lláh made his claim to be Him whom God shall make manifest more public through letters and tablets . Baháʼu'lláh's assertion as an independent Manifestation of God made Ṣubḥ-i-Azal's leadership position irrelevant; Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, upon hearing Baháʼu'lláh's words in

13986-584: Was acquainted with future British prime minister Anthony Eden but they were not close friends. His studies were interspersed with occasional trips around the United Kingdom to meet Baháʼí communities. Shoghi Effendi was particularly touched meeting the small group of Baháʼís from Manchester . During this period Shoghi Effendi began what would be a life-long affinity to aspects of British culture such as reading The Times every day and his love for English literature . While studying in England, on 29 November 1921,

14112-402: Was addressed to Shoghi Effendi. In it, he was appointed as ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. Shoghi Effendi's personal life was largely subordinate to his work as Guardian of the religion. His lack of secretarial support with the mass of correspondence had left a pattern of hard work in Haifa interspersed with occasional summer breaks to Europe—in the early years often to

14238-556: Was buried in a Shrine located next to the Mansion of Bahjí in Israel. During his lifetime, communities of Baháʼís were established in Armenia , Burma , Egypt , Georgia , India , Lebanon , (what is now) Pakistan , Sudan , Syria , Turkey , and Turkmenistan . Baháʼu'lláh was succeeded by his eldest son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. In Baháʼu'lláh's will, he was designated as the "Center of the Covenant,"

14364-499: Was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution . After the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1921, the leadership of the Baháʼí community was passed on to his grandson, Shoghi Effendi , who was appointed in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will . The document appointed Shoghi Effendi as the first Guardian, and called for the election of the Universal House of Justice once the Baháʼí Faith had spread sufficiently for such elections to be meaningful. During Shoghi Effendi's time as leader of

14490-412: Was entitled Mírzá Buzurg while he served as vizier to Imám-Virdi Mírzá, the twelfth son of Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar . Mírzá Buzurg was later appointed governor of Burujird and Lorestan , a position that he was stripped of during a government purge when Muhammad Shah came to power. After his father died, Baháʼu'lláh was asked to take a government post by the new vizier Haji Mirza Aqasi, but he declined

14616-532: Was in critical danger until the entry of General Allenby 's troops to Haifa. With the Armistice looming and having completed his studies Shoghi Effendi was ready to return to his grandfather, and in Autumn of 1918 he went back to Haifa to assist ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in his mounting correspondence, spending nearly two years of constant companionship with him. In a private letter to a friend from late 1918 Shoghi Effendi reflects on

14742-452: Was interrupted by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death, which led to his appointment as the Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith at the age of 24. For 36 years, Effendi spearheaded the effort to grow and protect the religion globally. He sent out more than 17,500 letters, mostly in Persian and English, directing and keeping up with the progress of existing Baháʼí communities , responding to their persecution across

14868-798: Was noted as not resembling his grandfather ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (who was taller and had blue eyes) but his great-grandfather Baháʼu'lláh. Shoghi Effendi had a great love for the English language . He was an avid fan of English literature , and his style reflects his love of the language of the King James Bible . He was noted for speaking English in clipped received pronunciation , and Persian in an Isfahani dialect, inherited from his grandmother. Shoghi Effendi held Iranian (Persian) nationality throughout his life and travelled on an Iranian passport, although he never visited Iran. On March 24, 1937, Shoghi Effendi married Mary Maxwell , later known as Rúhíyyih Khánum,

14994-507: Was only five years of age, he pestered his grandfather to write a tablet for him, which ʻAbdu'l-Bahá obliged: He is God! O My Shoghi, I have no time to talk, leave me alone! You said write, I have written. What else should be done? Now is not the time for you to read and write. It is the time for jumping about and chanting O My God! Therefore, memorize the prayers of the Blessed Beauty and chant them that I may hear them. Because there

15120-505: Was placed on developing positive methods of communication between the various Baha'i administrative institutions. Special attention was given to the proper relationship between local and national assemblies as well as the desired manner of interaction between the National Convention and National Spiritual Assembly . This effort was assisted by the national publication of Baháʼí News beginning in 1924, which provided all Baháʼí access to

15246-569: Was published Nov 1, 1845, in the London Times . It was centered on events in Shiraz when the last Letter of the Living, Quddús returned after traveling with the Báb. The story was also carried from Nov 15 by the Literary Gazette which was subsequently echoed widely in other countries. After some time, preaching by the Letters of the Living led to opposition by the Islamic clergy, prompting

15372-427: Was suddenly killed at the age of twenty-two when he fell through a skylight while pacing back and forth in prayer and meditation . After some time, the people and officials began to trust and respect Baháʼu'lláh, and thus the conditions of the imprisonment were eased and eventually, after Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz's death, he was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places. From 1877 until 1879 Baháʼu'lláh lived in

15498-467: Was the first serving head of state to embrace the Baháʼí Faith. Baháʼí scholar Moojan Momen writes that as of 2006 the Baháʼí Faith was established in 191 independent countries, with 179 National Spiritual Assemblies, and that Baháʼí literature had been translated into 800 languages by that year. According to Encyclopædia Britannica , the Baháʼí Faith is the second-most geographically widespread religion after Christianity in terms of being present in

15624-497: Was tied up for execution a second time, a second firing squad was ranged in front of them, and a second order to fire was given. This time, the Báb and his companion were killed. Their remains were dumped outside the gates of the town to be eaten by animals. The remains, however, were rescued by a handful of Bábis and were hidden. Over time the remains were secretly transported by way of Isfahan , Kermanshah , Baghdad and Damascus , to Beirut and thence by sea to Acre, Israel on

15750-720: Was to accompany his grandfather on his journeys to the West but was unable to proceed after port authorities in Naples prevented Shoghi Effendi from continuing due ostensibly to health reasons. He later attended the Syrian Protestant College (later known as the American University of Beirut ) for his final years of high school and first years of university, where he earned an arts degree in 1918. He reports being very unhappy in school and often returned on vacations to Haifa to spend time with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. During his studies, he dedicated himself to mastering English —adding this language to

15876-801: Was ultimately excommunicated, along with several others in the Haifa/ʻAkká area who supported him. When Shoghi Effendi was appointed Guardian Muhammad ʻAli tried to revive his claim to leadership, suggesting that Baháʼu'lláh's mention of him in the Kitáb-i-'Ahd amounted to a succession of leadership. Throughout Shoghi Effendi's life, nearly all remaining family members and descendants of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá were expelled by him as covenant-breakers when they didn't abide by Shoghi Effendi's request to cut contact with covenant-breakers, as specified by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Other branches of Baháʼu'lláh's family had already been declared Covenant-breakers in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament. At

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