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54-536: The Bürgenstock ( German pronunciation: [ˈbʏʁɡn̩ʃtɔk] ) is a mountain in Switzerland with an elevation of 1,128 m (3,701 ft) above sea level , situated beside Lake Lucerne . Since the late 19th century, the Bürgenstock is the site of a large hotel and conference centre, today known as Bürgenstock Resort , situated some 600 m (2,000 ft) above Lake Lucerne. When viewed from Lucerne ,

108-454: A plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher than a hill , typically rising at least 300 metres (980  ft ) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits , but most occur in mountain ranges . Mountains are formed through tectonic forces , erosion , or volcanism , which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through

162-428: A biotemperature below 1.5 °C (34.7 °F). Mountain environments are particularly sensitive to anthropogenic climate change and are currently undergoing alterations unprecedented in last 10,000 years. The effect of global warming on mountain regions (relative to lowlands) is still an active area of study. Observational studies show that highlands are warming faster than nearby lowlands, but when compared globally,

216-458: A mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometres (45 miles or 0.75° of latitude ) towards the nearest pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans (such as the Arctic Ocean) can drastically modify the climate. As the altitude increases, the main form of precipitation becomes snow and the winds increase. The effect of

270-634: A significant role in religion. There are for example a number of sacred mountains within Greece such as Mount Olympus which was held to be the home of the gods. In Japanese culture, the 3,776.24 m (12,389.2 ft) volcano of Mount Fuji is also held to be sacred with tens of thousands of Japanese ascending it each year. Mount Kailash , in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, is considered to be sacred in four religions: Hinduism, Bon , Buddhism, and Jainism . In Ireland, pilgrimages are made up

324-467: A whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous. There are three main types of mountains: volcanic , fold , and block . All three types are formed from plate tectonics : when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of

378-452: Is El Alto , Bolivia, at 4,150 metres (13,620 ft), which has a highly diverse service and manufacturing economy and a population of nearly 1 million. Traditional mountain societies rely on agriculture, with higher risk of crop failure than at lower elevations. Minerals often occur in mountains, with mining being an important component of the economics of some mountain-based societies. More recently, tourism has become more important to

432-556: Is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia , whose summit is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft). The tallest mountain including submarine terrain is Mauna Kea in Hawaii from its underwater base at 9,330 m (30,610 ft) and some scientists consider it to be

486-478: Is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process , which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate , which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F (3.0 °C) per 1000 feet) of altitude. The presence of water in

540-419: Is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains . Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing , skiing , and traversing via ferratas that have become sports in their own right. Indoor climbing , sport climbing , and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some, but are part of a wide group of mountain sports . Mountains often play

594-556: Is not enough oxygen to support human life. This is sometimes referred to as the " death zone ". The summits of Mount Everest and K2 are in the death zone. Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands, because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for agriculture . While 7% of the land area of Earth is above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), only 140 million people live above that altitude and only 20-30 million people above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) elevation. About half of mountain dwellers live in

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648-457: Is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over 7,200 metres (23,622 ft) above sea level, all of which are located in central and southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but Denali , Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for

702-525: Is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km ) and volume (about 18,000 cu mi or 75,000 km ). Mount Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km ) and volume (1,150 cu mi or 4,793 km ). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (120 sq mi or 311 km ). The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from

756-522: The Andes , Central Asia, and Africa. With limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) of elevation. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on industries such as agriculture, mining, and tourism. An example of such a specialized town is La Rinconada, Peru , a gold-mining town and the highest elevation human habitation at 5,100 metres (16,700 ft). A counterexample

810-645: The Basin and Range Province of Western North America. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned. During and following uplift, mountains are subjected to the agents of erosion (water, wind, ice, and gravity) which gradually wear the uplifted area down. Erosion causes the surface of mountains to be younger than the rocks that form the mountains themselves. Glacial processes produce characteristic landforms, such as pyramidal peaks , knife-edge arêtes , and bowl-shaped cirques that can contain lakes. Plateau mountains, such as

864-463: The Catskills , are formed from the erosion of an uplifted plateau. Climate in the mountains becomes colder at high elevations , due to an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in

918-613: The 952 metres (3,123 ft) Mount Brandon by Irish Catholics . The Himalayan peak of Nanda Devi is associated with the Hindu goddesses Nanda and Sunanda; it has been off-limits to climbers since 1983. Mount Ararat is a sacred mountain, as it is believed to be the landing place of Noah's Ark . In Europe and especially in the Alps , summit crosses are often erected on the tops of prominent mountains. Heights of mountains are typically measured above sea level . Using this metric, Mount Everest

972-649: The Allwägli land reserve, which in 1949 was placed under protection. After the regression of the ice, the Bürgenstock was at first an island in Lake Lucerne. In the course of a few thousand years, however, the Engelberger Aa River filled up the area between the Engelberger valley entrance and the Bürgenstock with sediments, creating today's flat valley between the townships Ennetbürgen, Buochs, Stans and Stansstad. Near

1026-532: The Bürgenstock Chapel from 1897, made famous in 1954 when actors Audrey Hepburn and Mel Ferrer were married there. The resort has also been the place for several important international conferences through the years. Mountain A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust , generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock . Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from

1080-505: The Bürgenstock has the typical mountain shape of a Stock . In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the term Stock is used for a number of mountains whose shape of summits are clearly set off from the bulk. The term Bürgenstock , composed of the descriptive words "Bürgen" and "Stock", has evolved since the mid-19th century into the geographical name for the distinctive mountain on the "Bürgen" peninsula as seen from Lucerne. From

1134-568: The Cretaceous and Tertiary. Below the Hammetschwand, the following layers can be distinguished on the north side: siliceous limestone , Drusberg layers (forming a forest belt), bright Schrattenkalk limestone with orbitolina layers overlaid by Seewerkalk limestone. Above this, there is a transgression of Assilina Greensand and Nummulitic limestone of Lutetian age, which is found mainly on the southern downward slope with its gentler incline. During

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1188-646: The Kieselkalk is much less susceptible to karstification than the overlying Schrattenkalk. In the Siebenhengste-Hohgant-Höhle cave system in Switzerland , large galleries, easily developing in the Schrattenkalk, become impenetrable fissures networks when water disappears in the Kieselkalk. Siliceous limestones can be very prone to the Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and their use as aggregate

1242-616: The Siegfried Map and dates back to 1896. Around 1900, the designation Bürgenstock established itself as a general colloquial term for the entire mountain ridge, from Stansstad in the West to "Untere Nase" in the East. A corresponding entry in the "Geographischen Lexikon der Schweiz" (Geographical Dictionary of Switzerland) can be found in 1910. In the Swiss maps of our days, the name Bürgenstock designates

1296-452: The US. Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust faults and the crust is overthickened. Since the less dense continental crust "floats" on the denser mantle rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills, plateaus or mountains must be balanced by the buoyancy force of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus

1350-622: The action of weathering , through slumping and other forms of mass wasting , as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers . High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as mining and logging , along with recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing . The highest mountain on Earth

1404-569: The adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable." Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. John Whittow's Dictionary of Physical Geography states "Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres (1,969 ft) as mountains, those below being referred to as hills." In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a mountain is usually defined as any summit at least 2,000 feet (610 m) high, which accords with

1458-553: The atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization . As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses to form clouds and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F (1.7 °C) per 1000 feet) The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location. Therefore, moving up 100 m (330 ft) on

1512-429: The atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height. However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection . Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air

1566-554: The centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of Chimborazo , Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán , is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 kilometres (6,600 ft) less than that of Everest. Siliceous limestone Because of its high silica content,

1620-459: The climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the biotemperature , as described by Leslie Holdridge in 1947. Biotemperature is the mean temperature; all temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are considered to be 0 °C. When the temperature is below 0 °C, plants are dormant, so the exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent snow can have

1674-534: The conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or dispersal . These isolated ecological systems are known as sky islands . Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the alpine type, resembling tundra . Just below the tree line , one may find subalpine forests of needleleaf trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below that, montane forests grow. In

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1728-469: The continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines : in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The Balkan Mountains and the Jura Mountains are examples of fold mountains. Block mountains are caused by faults in

1782-503: The crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts . The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben : these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This kind of landscape can be seen in East Africa , the Vosges and Rhine valley, and

1836-535: The definition since the 1970s. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US. The UN Environmental Programme 's definition of "mountainous environment" includes any of the following: Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As

1890-460: The dry season and in semiarid areas such as in central Asia. Alpine ecosystems can be particularly climatically sensitive. Many mid-latitude mountains act as cold climate refugia, with the ecosystems occupying small environmental niches. As well as the direct influence that the change in climate can have on an ecosystem, there is also the indirect one on the soils from changes in stability and soil development. The colder climate on mountains affects

1944-510: The early Middle Ages on, the mountain on this peninsula was called Bürgenberg , an arbitral settlement from the year 1378, putting an end to over 38 years of dispute between the Lucerne and Nidwalden estates about the affiliation of the region extending from Kehrsiten to Mattgrat, uses the name Bürgenberg in its records. Old maps and frontier records of the Corporation of Lucerne, which mention

1998-523: The economies of mountain communities, with developments focused around attractions such as national parks and ski resorts . Approximately 80% of mountain people live below the poverty line. Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as a storage mechanism for downstream users. More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water. In geopolitics , mountains are often seen as natural boundaries between polities. Mountaineering , mountain climbing, or alpinism

2052-428: The effect disappears. Precipitation in highland areas is not increasing as quickly as in lowland areas. Climate modeling give mixed signals about whether a particular highland area will have increased or decreased precipitation. Climate change has started to affect the physical and ecological systems of mountains. In recent decades mountain ice caps and glaciers have experienced accelerating ice loss. The melting of

2106-516: The entire Bürgen peninsula the Bürgenberg. However, he refers to the highest elevation both as Hammetschwand and Bürgenstock . In addition, the director of the Lucerne Teachers' Training College, Niklaus Rietschi, published a private map in 1850, in which the terms Bürgenstock together with the term Hammetschwand are recorded for the summit. In 1872, the company Bucher & Durrer laid

2160-433: The entire mountain ridge, carry the name Bürgenstockstrasse . Bürgenstock stretches over 10 km (6.2 mi) and is surrounded to the north, east and southeast by Lake Lucerne . The northern slope drops steeply into the lake, 685 m (2,247 ft) below the peak. At the bottom of its southern slope is the municipality of Ennetbürgen ; The municipality Stansstad is situated at the bottom of its western end. For

2214-433: The feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate , or at a mid-ocean ridge or hotspot . At a depth of around 100 km (60 mi), melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that reaches

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2268-625: The foundation for the hotel complex on the Alp Tritt. For this purpose, it chose the already existing geographical name of Bürgenstock , also documented in 1836 by Aloys Businger in his book “Der Kanton Unterwalden”. The first official map to use the geographical name Bürgenstock was the so-called "Siegfriedkarte" Siegfried Map , whose publication, started by the Federal Topographic Bureau under Hermann Siegfried, continued from 1870 until 1926. The name Bürgenstock appears on sheet 377 of

2322-498: The glaciers, permafrost and snow has caused underlying surfaces to become increasingly unstable. Landslip hazards have increased in both number and magnitude due to climate change. Patterns of river discharge will also be significantly affected by climate change, which in turn will have significant impacts on communities that rely on water fed from alpine sources. Nearly half of mountain areas provide essential or supportive water resources for mainly urban populations, in particular during

2376-508: The last ice age , the Bürgenstock was completely covered by an ice stream flowing from the Gotthard into the foothills of the Alps. Abrasion marks left by the ice on the limestone are found including in the highest altitudes. Large granite boulders which were transported by the ice from the Gotthard, are distributed over the whole mountain, as for example an 18 m3 large, round specimen on a steep slope on

2430-502: The most part, the mountain belongs to the municipality of Ennetbürgen in the canton of Nidwalden . The western part belongs to the municipality of Stansstad. A part of the northern steep drop into the lake is an exclave of the city of Lucerne and is called Bürgenberg (aka citizen's mountain). Bürgenstock belongs to the foothills of the Pilatus and the Helvetic border chain. The rocks are from

2484-441: The mountain ridge – with the term Hammetschwand as an alternative – as well as the location of the hotel and residential complex. Bürgenstock, as a geographical name, can be found twice in the official Swiss index of cities and towns. The locality Bürgenstock is listed in the postal code listing of Switzerland under the postal code 6363. Today, the residential streets of the valley communities Stansstad and Ennetbürgen, connecting

2538-511: The official UK government's definition that a mountain, for the purposes of access, is a summit of 2,000 feet (610 m) or higher. In addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, such as that the mountain rises 300 metres (984 ft) above the surrounding terrain. At one time, the United States Board on Geographic Names defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet (305 m) or taller, but has abandoned

2592-527: The plants and animals residing on mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal zonation . In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation. Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated since

2646-504: The surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano . Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains , such as Navajo Mountain in

2700-470: The tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea (4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa (4,169 m or 13,678 ft)

2754-470: The tallest on earth. There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain. In the Oxford English Dictionary a mountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to

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2808-473: The temperate portions of the earth, those forests tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf trees growing in a rainforest . The highest known permanently tolerable altitude is at 5,950 metres (19,520 ft). At very high altitudes, the decreasing atmospheric pressure means that less oxygen is available for breathing, and there is less protection against solar radiation ( UV ). Above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) elevation, there

2862-537: The top that has been a large hotel and conference area since 1872. Today that area is known as Bürgenstock Resort . Beside several hotels, it includes Europe 's tallest outdoor lift, the Hammetschwand Lift , which connects the scenic cliff path with the Hammetschwand vantage point, the Bürgenstock Funicular , which since 1888 has taken passengers from a steam boat pier on Lake Lucerne up to the hotels, and

2916-625: The – in those times – disputed forest call it the Stadtwald am Bürgenberg (town forest on the Bürgenberg) or Bürgenbergwald (Bürgenberg forest). On the Dufourkarte (Dufour Map), the topographic map of Switzerland from 1844 to 1864, the mountain ridge as a whole had no name. The highest crest was referred to as Hametschwand . Aloys Businger first documented the geographical name Bürgenstock in 1836 in his book Der Kanton Unterwalden . Businger calls

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