Ayahuasca is a South American psychoactive beverage, traditionally used by Indigenous cultures and folk healers in the Amazon and Orinoco basins for spiritual ceremonies, divination , and healing a variety of psychosomatic complaints.
173-580: Originally restricted to areas of Peru , Brazil , Colombia and Ecuador , in the middle of the 20th century it became widespread in Brazil in the context of the appearance of syncretic religions that use ayahuasca as a sacrament, like Santo Daime , União do Vegetal and Barquinha , which blend elements of Amazonian Shamanism , Christianity, Kardecist Spiritism , and African-Brazilian religions such as Umbanda , Candomblé and Tambor de Mina , later expanding to several countries across all continents, notably
346-830: A Panoan language spoken by approximately 26,000 people in Peru and Brazil. This language is commonly sung by the shaman in the form of a chant, called an Icaro , during the Ayahuasca ritual as a way to establish a "balance of energy" during the ritual to help protect and guide the user during their experience. Traditional ayahuasca brews are usually made with Banisteriopsis caapi as an MAOI , while dimethyltryptamine sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi , often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses. DMT admixtures: Other common admixtures: Common admixtures with their associated ceremonial values and spirits: In
519-439: A constitutional monarchy , a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity
692-400: A "devilish potion" cooked from bitter herbs and lianas (called ayaguasca ) and its rituals: "[...] In other nations, they set aside an entire night for divination. For this purpose, they select the most capable house in the vicinity because many people are expected to attend the event. The diviner hangs his bed in the middle and places an infernal potion, known as ayahuasca, by his side, which
865-453: A $ 900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA , which caused great havoc throughout the country. The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted
1038-415: A Landscape: People and Places ), and NFL quarterback Aaron Rodgers . Sections of Banisteriopsis caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including Psychotria viridis ( chacruna ), Diplopterys cabrerana (also known as chaliponga and chacropanga ), and Mimosa tenuiflora , among other ingredients which can vary greatly from one shaman to
1211-697: A bitter liana used for precognition and sorcery. All these reports were written in context of Jesuit missions in South America, specially the Mainas missions , in Latin and sent only to Rome, so their audience wasn't very large and they were promptly lost in the archives. For this reason, ayahuasca didn't receive interest for the entire subsequent century. In academic discourse, the initial mention of ayahuasca dates back to Manuel Villavicencio 's 1848 book, " Geografía de la República del Ecuador. " This work vividly delineates
1384-435: A critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials. Drug discovery is different from Drug Development. Drug Discovery is often considered the process of identifying new medicine. At the same time, Drug development is delivering a new drug molecule into clinical practice. In its broad definition, this encompasses all steps from the basic research process of finding
1557-575: A group of 2245 elderly Americans (average age of 71) surveyed over the period 2010 – 2011, those percentages were 88%, 38%, and 64%. One of the key classifications is between traditional small molecule drugs; usually derived from chemical synthesis and biological medical products ; which include recombinant proteins , vaccines , blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG ), gene therapy , and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Pharmaceuticals or drugs or medicines are classified into various other groups besides their origin on
1730-618: A high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic , and is one of the megadiverse countries. Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic ), over 500 species of mammals , over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes . The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma , jaguar and spectacled bear . The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano , an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass , flounder , anchovies , tuna , crustaceans , and shellfish , and
1903-524: A large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas. Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In
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#17328691807972076-449: A lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day. The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities , exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and the COVID-19 pandemic , precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022 . The sovereign state of Peru
2249-505: A list of essential medicines . A sampling of classes of medicine includes: Pharmaceuticals may also be described as "specialty", independent of other classifications, which is an ill-defined class of drugs that might be difficult to administer, require special handling during administration, require patient monitoring during and immediately after administration, have particular regulatory requirements restricting their use, and are generally expensive relative to other drugs. Drugs affecting
2422-569: A mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around
2595-499: A powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco . The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas . Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of
2768-452: A process known as reverse pharmacology . Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy . Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design ) drug candidates. Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry , and optimization of those hits to increase
2941-411: A process of identifying a new medicine. Development: Chemicals extracted from natural products are used to make pills, capsules, or syrups for oral use. Injections for direct infusion into the blood drops for eyes or ears. Preclinical research : Drugs go under laboratory or animal testing, to ensure that they can be used on Humans. Clinical testing: The drug is used on people to confirm that it
3114-566: A result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal . The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to
3287-631: A reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Dietary restrictions are not used by the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal , suggesting the risk is much lower than perceived and probably non-existent. Shamans , curanderos and experienced users of ayahuasca advise against consuming ayahuasca when not in the presence of one or several well-trained shamans. In some areas, there are purported brujos (Spanish for " witches ") who masquerade as real shamans and who entice tourists to drink ayahuasca in their presence. Shamans believe one of
3460-399: A self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century, though Fujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which
3633-550: A social category formed by people with mixture of European and native ancestry, who were an important part of the economy and culture of the region. According to Peter Gow, the ayahuasca shamanism (the use of ayahuasca by a trained shaman to diagnose and cure illnesses) was developed by these mestizos in the processes of colonial transformation. The Amazon rubber cycles (1879–1912 and 1945–1945) sped up these transformations, due to slavery, genocide and brutality against indigenous populations and large migratory movements, specially from
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#17328691807973806-465: A substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chacruna . Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia . The name "ayahuasca" specifically refers to a botanical decoction that contains Banisteriopsis caapi . A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca ,
3979-499: A suitable molecular target to supporting the drug's commercial launch. Drug development is the process of bringing a new drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery . It includes pre-clinical research (microorganisms/animals) and clinical trials (on humans) and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval to market the drug. Drug Development Process Discovery: The Drug Development process starts with Discovery,
4152-595: A vein , or by drops put into the ear or eye . A medication that does not contain an active ingredient and is used in research studies is called a placebo . In Europe, the term is "medicinal product", and it is defined by EU law as: In the US, a "drug" is: Drug use among elderly Americans has been studied; in a group of 2,377 people with an average age of 71 surveyed between 2005 and 2006, 84% took at least one prescription drug, 44% took at least one over-the-counter (OTC) drug, and 52% took at least one dietary supplement ; in
4325-589: A wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art , cuisine , literature , and music . The name of the country may be derived from Birú , the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel , Panama City, in the early 16th century. Spanish conquistadors , who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World . When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú . An alternative history
4498-670: A word that originates from the Quechuan languages , which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador , Bolivia , Peru , and Colombia . Speakers of Quechuan languages who use modern Quechuan orthography spell it ayawaska . The word refers both to the liana Banisteriopsis caapi , and to the brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, aya means "spirit, soul", or "corpse, dead body", and waska means "rope" or "woody vine", " liana ". The word ayahuasca has been variously translated as "liana of
4671-600: Is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions . Its main economic activities include mining , manufacturing , agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology . The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas , a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom ; it
4844-492: Is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. In contrast, traditionally among Amazonian tribes, the B. Caapi vine is considered to be
5017-493: Is a medicine or a chemical compound used to treat or cure illness. According to Encyclopædia Britannica , medication is "a substance used in treating a disease or relieving pain ". As defined by the National Cancer Institute , dosage forms of medication can include tablets , capsules , liquids, creams , and patches. Medications can be administered in different ways, such as by mouth , by infusion into
5190-792: Is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Pacific Alliance , the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization ; and is considered as a middle power . Peru's population includes Mestizos , Amerindians , Europeans , Africans and Asians . The main spoken language is Spanish , although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages , Aymara , or other Indigenous languages . This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in
5363-509: Is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management. Drugs are classified in many ways. One of the key divisions is by level of control , which distinguishes prescription drugs (those that a pharmacist dispenses only on the order of a physician, physician assistant , or qualified nurse ) from over-the-counter drugs (those that consumers can order for themselves). Another key distinction
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5536-501: Is an important precedent. Since then groups that are not affiliated to the Santo Daime have used ayahuasca, and a number of different "styles" have been developed, including non-religious approaches. In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogs are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant can be used as
5709-511: Is between traditional small molecule drugs, usually derived from chemical synthesis , and biopharmaceuticals , which include recombinant proteins , vaccines , blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG ), gene therapy , monoclonal antibodies and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration , biological system affected, or therapeutic effects . An elaborate and widely used classification system
5882-559: Is consumed socially among friends, in order to learn more about the natural environment, and even in order to visit friends and family who are far away. Nonetheless, people who work with ayahuasca in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism , as practiced among Indigenous peoples like the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon . Dietary taboos are often associated with
6055-510: Is home to many sharks, sperm whales , and whales. The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru. Peru also has an equally diverse flora . The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti , apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life. The Highlands above
6228-862: Is no unequivocal evidence of this date referring directly to ayahuasca. Banisteriopsis caapi use is suggested from a pouch containing carved snuffing trays, bone spatulas and other paraphernalia with traces of harmine and DMT , discovered in a cave in southwestern Bolivia in 2008, and chemical traces of harmine in the hair of two mummies found in northern Chile. Both cases are linked to Tiwanaku people, circa 900 CE. There are several reports of oral and nasal use of Anadenanthera spp. (rich in bufotenin ) ritualistically and therapeutically during labor and infancy, and researchers suggest that addition of Banisteriopsis spp. to catalyze its psychoactivity emerged later, due to contact between different groups of Amazon and Altiplano . Despite claims by numerous anthropologists and ethnologists, such as Plutarco Naranjo, regarding
6401-446: Is particularly effective at altering one's senses. They prepare a brew from bitter vines or herbs, which, when boiled sufficiently, must become quite potent. Since it's so strong at altering one's judgment in small quantities, the precaution is not excessive, and it fits into two small pots. The witch doctor drinks a very small amount each time and knows well how many times he can sample the brew without losing his senses to properly conduct
6574-422: Is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega , son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Birú was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language. The Spanish crown gave the name legal status with
6747-451: Is rich with harmala alkaloids , such as harmine , harmaline and tetrahydroharmine (THH), which can act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOi). This halts the liver and gastrointestinal metabolism of DMT, allowing it to reach the systemic circulation and the brain, where it activates 5-HT 1A/2A/2C receptors in frontal and paralimbic areas. Ayahuasca is the hispanicized spelling (i.e., spelled according to Spanish orthography) of
6920-478: Is safe to use. FDA Review: drug is sent to FDA before launching the drug into the market. FDA post-Market Review: The drug is reviewed and monitored by FDA for the safety once it is available to the public. The regulation of drugs varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the national level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions, they are regulated at
7093-523: Is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with a low rate of new therapeutic discovery. In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity (NME) was approximately US$ 1.8 billion. Drug discovery is done by pharmaceutical companies, sometimes with research assistance from universities. The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. The drug requires very expensive Phase I, II, and III clinical trials, and most of them fail. Small companies have
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7266-535: Is suspected of triggering psychosis in people with a predisposition to the condition, and there is a lack of safety information for Ayahuasca's possible effects on pregnancy and breastfeeding. People who have consumed ayahuasca report having mystical experiences and spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe , and deep insight into how to be the best person they possibly can. Many people also report therapeutic effects, especially around depression and personal traumas. This
7439-778: Is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System . The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines . Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies , academic scientists, and governments. As a result of this complex path from discovery to commercialization, partnering has become a standard practice for advancing drug candidates through development pipelines. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed , and in some jurisdictions, drug pricing . Controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used Medicine . Medication
7612-579: Is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region. The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca , and the Amazon basin, which empties into
7785-406: Is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide . Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently, medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. A single drug may contain single or multiple active ingredients . The administration is the process by which a patient takes medicine. There are three major categories of drug administration: enteral (via
7958-469: Is used per day (e.g., four times a day). It may include event-related information (e.g., 1 hour before meals, in the morning, at bedtime), or complimentary to an interval, although equivalent expressions may have different implications (e.g., every 8 hours versus 3 times a day). In the fields of medicine, biotechnology , and pharmacology , drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered. Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying
8131-517: Is usually accompanied with purging which include vomiting and diarrhea, which is believed to release built-up emotions and negative energy . It is believed that the Shipibo-Konibo are among the earliest practitioners of Ayahuasca ceremonies, with their connection to the brew and ceremonies surrounding it dating back centuries, perhaps a millennium. Some members of the Shipibo community have taken to
8304-511: Is viewed by many as a spiritual awakening and what is often described as a near-death experience or rebirth. It is often reported that individuals feel they gain access to higher spiritual dimensions and make contact with various spiritual or extra-dimensional beings who can act as guides or healers. The experiences that people have while under the influence of ayahuasca are also culturally influenced. Westerners typically describe experiences with psychological terms like " ego death " and understand
8477-466: The auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements. Fujimori's administration
8650-464: The 2006 elections . In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori , entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations . In April 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by
8823-537: The Amsterdam Santo Daime community). Bogers and Fijneman were charged with distributing a controlled substance (DMT); however, the prosecution was unable to prove that the use of ayahuasca by members of the Santo Daime constituted a sufficient threat to public health and order such that it warranted denying their rights to religious freedom under ECHR Article 9 . The 2001 verdict of the Amsterdam district court
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#17328691807978996-510: The Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades. The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government . Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in
9169-467: The Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala , Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra , the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president, with his cabinet being successfully censured by
9342-523: The Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing ; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral/Norte Chico civilization , flourished along the coast of
9515-781: The Inca Empire , the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima . Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551. Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following
9688-638: The International Petroleum Corporation (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the latifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land
9861-567: The Plan Verde , which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the media in Peru , and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta . Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, Vladimiro Montesinos , and some of
10034-570: The Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America . It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia , in the east by Brazil , in the southeast by Bolivia , in the south by Chile , and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country , with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from
10207-540: The Sapa Inca , to be the " child of the sun ." Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca , became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the Chankas , Huancas , Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries ) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured
10380-473: The Southern Hemisphere , its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator , covers 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to
10553-509: The Vaupés River . Subsequently, Spruce uncovered the usage and cultivation of B. caapi among various indigenous groups dispersed across the Amazon and Orinoco basins, like the Guahibo and Sápara . These multifarious encounters, together with Spruce's personal accounts of subjective ayahuasca experiences, were collated in his 1873 work, "Notes of a Botanist On The Amazon and Andes.". By the end of
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#173286918079710726-498: The War of the Pacific , which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over
10899-506: The affinity , selectivity (to reduce the potential of side effects), efficacy/ potency , metabolic stability (to increase the half-life ), and oral bioavailability . Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials . One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design . Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery
11072-3535: The central nervous system include psychedelics , hypnotics , anaesthetics , antipsychotics , eugeroics , antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants , monoamine oxidase inhibitors , lithium salts , and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics , anticonvulsants /antiepileptics, anxiolytics , barbiturates , movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease ) drugs, nootropics , stimulants (including amphetamines ), benzodiazepines , cyclopyrrolones , dopamine antagonists , antihistamines , cholinergics , anticholinergics , emetics , cannabinoids , and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists . The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs , opioids , and local anesthetics . For consciousness (anesthetic drugs) Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates . The main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors ), muscle relaxants , neuromuscular drugs , and anticholinesterases . Antibiotics , sympathomimetics , antihistamines , anticholinergics , NSAIDs , corticosteroids , antiseptics , local anesthetics , antifungals , and cerumenolytics. Bronchodilators , antitussives , mucolytics , decongestants , inhaled and systemic corticosteroids , beta2-adrenergic agonists , anticholinergics , mast cell stabilizers , leukotriene antagonists . Androgens , antiandrogens , estrogens , gonadotropin , corticosteroids , human growth hormone , insulin , antidiabetics ( sulfonylureas , biguanides / metformin , thiazolidinediones , insulin ), thyroid hormones , antithyroid drugs, calcitonin , diphosphonate , vasopressin analogues . Antifungal , alkalinizing agents , quinolones , antibiotics , cholinergics , anticholinergics , antispasmodics , 5-alpha reductase inhibitor , selective alpha-1 blockers , sildenafils , fertility medications . NSAIDs , anticholinergics , haemostatic drugs , antifibrinolytics , Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), bone regulators, beta-receptor agonists , follicle stimulating hormone , luteinising hormone , LHRH , gamolenic acid , gonadotropin release inhibitor , progestogen , dopamine agonists , oestrogen , prostaglandins , gonadorelin , clomiphene , tamoxifen , diethylstilbestrol . Emollients , anti-pruritics , antifungals , antiseptics , scabicides , pediculicides , tar products, vitamin A derivatives , vitamin D analogues , keratolytics , abrasives , systemic antibiotics , topical antibiotics , hormones , desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, fibrinolytics , proteolytics , sunscreens , antiperspirants , corticosteroids , immune modulators. Antibiotics , antifungals , antileprotics , antituberculous drugs , antimalarials , anthelmintics , amoebicides , antivirals , antiprotozoals , probiotics, prebiotics, antitoxins , and antivenoms. Vaccines , immunoglobulins , immunosuppressants , interferons , and monoclonal antibodies . Anti-allergics , antihistamines , NSAIDs , corticosteroids . Tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations ), parenteral nutrition , vitamins , anti-obesity drugs , anabolic drugs , haematopoietic drugs, food product drugs. Cytotoxic drugs , therapeutic antibodies , sex hormones , aromatase inhibitors , somatostatin inhibitors, recombinant interleukins , G-CSF , erythropoietin . Contrast media . A euthanaticum
11245-410: The human gastrointestinal tract ), injection into the body, and by other routes ( dermal , nasal , ophthalmic , otologic , and urogenital ). Oral administration , the most common form of enteral administration, can be performed using various dosage forms including tablets or capsules and liquid such as syrup or suspension. Other ways to take the medication include buccally (placed inside
11418-523: The human rights violations committed in the last years of violence. His Programa Nacional de Población also resulted with the forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women. In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War , but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into
11591-630: The war of independence in North America , and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the C riollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of
11764-536: The "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper, and guide to the otherworldly realms. Brews similar to ayahuasca may be prepared using several plants not traditionally used in South America: DMT admixtures: MAOI admixtures: Ingesting Ayahuasca can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea in the short term. Other short-term side effects include increased blood pressure and tachycardia . Rarer side effects include dyspnea , seizures and serotonin syndrome . Ayahuasca
11937-642: The 1529 Capitulación de Toledo , which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru , which became the Peruvian Republic from its independence until 1979 , when it adopted its current name of Republic of Peru . The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in
12110-474: The 1860s Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla , through increased state revenues from guano exports. In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against President Juan Antonio Pezet , Mariano's government. Peru, with
12283-422: The 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of Plan Verde shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under the authoritarian rule of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of Fujimorism leaving
12456-560: The Amazon. The largest lake in Peru , Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America. The largest reservoirs , all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos , Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs. Although Peru is located entirely in the tropics , the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents ( Humboldt and El Niño ) gives Peru
12629-526: The Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins . Those that drain toward
12802-630: The Brazilian Northeast Region as a workforce for the rubber plantations . The mestizo practices became deeply intertwined with the culture of rubber workers, called caucheros (in Spanish) or seringueiros (in Portuguese). Ayahuasca use with therapeutic goals is the main result of result of this Trans-cultural diffusion , with some practitioners pointing the caucheros as the main responsible for using ayahuasca to cure all sort of ailments of
12975-605: The Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo . In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho , developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as
13148-615: The Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations. It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition , making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of
13321-572: The Fujimorist Congress. Beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , Congress used broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause to place pressure on the president, forcing him to resign in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led
13494-592: The God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of
13667-608: The Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca . After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima , which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout
13840-519: The Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations. In this endeavor,
14013-522: The Jesuit and Franciscan missions in the region), no matter the linguistic background of the group, with similar language structures between different ícaros that are markedly different from other indigenous songs. Moreover, often the cosmology of ayahuasca often mirrors the Catholicism, with particular similarities in the belief that ayahuasca is thought to be the body of ayahuascamama that is imbibed as part of
14186-600: The McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations . Dennis McKenna later studied pharmacology, botany , and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he , which became the subject of his master's thesis. Richard Evans Schultes allowed Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study ayahuasca with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of
14359-517: The National Library ( in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On December 27, 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy , to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue. From the 1840s to
14532-801: The Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra . Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali , the Marañón , the Putumayo , the Yavarí , the Huallaga , the Urubamba , the Mantaro , and
14705-404: The Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre- Inca culture . The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE
14878-473: The Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán . The third region
15051-509: The Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of This war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru.92 In the first stage of the war,
15224-546: The Peruvian Amazon. In the rainforest, these taboos tend towards the purification of one's self—abstaining from spicy and heavily seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or during a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis ; however, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A , in
15397-571: The Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the Manila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, had Callao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas. In relation to this, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera , governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists. African slaves were added to
15570-582: The Santo Daime and Barquinha, in Rio Branco and the União do Vegetal (UDV) in Porto Velho , three denominations that, notwithstanding shared characteristics besides ayahuasca utilization, have several particularities regarding its practices, conceptions and processes building social legitimacy and relationships with Brazilian government, media, science and other society stances. Since the latter half of twentieth century,
15743-570: The Spanish government over its colonies. After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in
15916-466: The Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. Internal struggles after
16089-608: The United States and Western Europe, and, more incipiently, in Eastern Europe, South Africa, Australia, and Japan. More recently, new phenomena regarding ayahuasca use have evolved and moved to urban centers in North America and Europe, with the emergence of neoshamanic hybrid rituals and spiritual and recreational drug tourism . Also, anecdotal evidence, studies conducted among ayahuasca consumers and clinical trials suggest that ayahuasca has therapeutic potential, especially for
16262-417: The Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest and colony brought
16435-492: The active extract of ayahuasca as telepathine, a name latter used by the Colombian chemist Guillermo Fischer Cárdenas when he isolated the substance in 1932. Contemporaneously, Lewin and Gunn were independently studying the properties of the banisterine, extracted of the B. caapi, and its effects on animal models. Further clinical trials were being conducted, exploring the effects of banisterine on Parkinson's disease. Later it
16608-643: The active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules , natural products , or extracts were screened in intact cells or whole organisms to identify substances that have a desirable therapeutic effect in a process known as classical pharmacology . Since sequencing of the human genome which allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compound libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease-modifying in
16781-617: The ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral–Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization ), the Nazca culture , the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco , and
16954-512: The anti-corruption constitutional referendum movement. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration and triggering an economic crisis that led to Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress . Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President Manuel Merino , faced protests across
17127-572: The attention of Western ethnographers in the mid-nineteenth century" The first western references of the ayahuasca beverage dates back to seventeenth century, during the European colonization of the Americas . The earlier report is a letter from Vincente de Valverde to the Holy Office of the Inquisition . Jose Chantre y Herrera still in the seventeenth century, provided the first detailed description of
17300-608: The authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The United States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after
17473-468: The ayahuasca religious expanded to other parts of Brazil and several countries in the world, notably in the West. Beat writer William S. Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and while traveling through South America in the early 1950s sought out ayahuasca in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters ). Ayahuasca became more widely known when
17646-586: The basins of Madeira , Juruá and Purus River ) within the cauchero/seringueiro cultural complex, resignifying and adapting both the vegetalista and mestizo shamanism to new urban formations, unifying essential elements to building a cosmology for the new emerging cult/faith, merging with elements of folk Catholicism, African-Brazilian religions and Kardecist spiritism. These new cults arise from charismatic leaderships, often messianic and prophetic, who came from rural areas after migration movements, sometimes called ayahuasqueiros , in semi-urban communities across
17819-399: The basis of pharmacological properties like mode of action and their pharmacological action or activity, such as by chemical properties , mode or route of administration , biological system affected, or therapeutic effects . An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps
17992-600: The beverage and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids. In recent years, the brew has been popularized by Wade Davis ( One River), English novelist Martin Goodman in I Was Carlos Castaneda , Chilean novelist Isabel Allende , writer Kira Salak , author Jeremy Narby ( The Cosmic Serpent ), author Jay Griffiths ( Wild: An Elemental Journey ), American novelist Steven Peck, radio personality Robin Quivers ,, writer Paul Theroux ( Figures in
18165-452: The body, mind and soul , with even some regions using the term Yerba de Cauchero ("rubber-worker herb"). As a result, the ayahuasca shamans in urban areas and mestizo settlements, specially in the regions of Iquitos and Pucallpa (in Peru), became the vegetalistas, folk healers who are said to gain all their knowledge from the plants and the spirits bound to it. So the vegetalist movement
18338-502: The bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents. Using the terruqueo , a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize
18511-406: The bordes of Brazil, Bolívia and Peru (a region that will later form the state of Acre ). This new configuration os these belief systems is refereed by Goulart as tradição religiosa ayahuasqueira urbana amazônica ("urban-amazonian ayahuasqueiro religious tradition") or campo ayahuasqueiro brasileiro ("brazilian ayahuasqueiro field") by Labate, emerging as three main structured religions,
18684-496: The boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio . He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At
18857-603: The brew takes several hours, often taking place over the course of more than one day. After adding the plant material, each separately at this stage, to a large pot of water, it is boiled until the water is reduced by half in volume. The individual brews are then added together and brewed until reduced significantly. This combined brew is what is taken by participants in ayahuasca ceremonies. The uses of ayahuasca in traditional societies in South America vary greatly. Some cultures do use it for shamanic purposes, but in other cases, it
19030-607: The century, other explorers and anthropologists contributed more extensive documentation concerning ayahuasca, notably the Theodor Koch-Grünberg 's documents about Tucano and Arecuna 's rituals and ceremonies, Stradelli 's first-hand reports of ayahuasca rituals and mythology along the Jurupari and Vaupés and Alfred Simson's first description of admixture of several ingredients in the making of ayahuasca in Putumayo region, published in 1886. In 1905, Rafael Zerda Bayón named
19203-400: The cheek), sublingually (placed underneath the tongue), eye and ear drops (dropped into the eye or ear), and transdermally (applied to the skin). They can be administered in one dose, as a bolus . Administration frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora . The drug frequencies are often expressed as the number of times a drug
19376-644: The church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers. By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms , a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty . The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As
19549-448: The command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful. The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of
19722-516: The condition. Ayahuasca is a hallucinogen commonly made by the prolonged decoction of the stems of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the leaves of the Psychotria viridis shrub, although hundreds of species are used in addition or substitution (See "Preparation" below). P. viridis contains N , N -Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a highly psychedelic substance. Although orally inactive, B. caapi
19895-448: The country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica , the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and
20068-579: The country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency. Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti , who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies. Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress. On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo
20241-456: The country. After the country experienced chronic inflation , the Peruvian sol was replaced by the inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $ 720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running
20414-773: The coup d'état of the general Pinochet . General Edgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships. President Alan García 's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in
20587-534: The effects run their course, and the intoxication subsides. After this, they reflect on what their imagination revealed, which occasionally remains with them for delirium. This is what they consider accomplished and propagate as an oracle." Latter reports were produced by Juan Magnin in 1740, describing ayahuasca use as a medicinal plant by the Jivaroan peoples (called ayahuessa ) and by Franz Xaver Veigl in 1768, that reports about several "dangerous plants", including
20760-500: The empire was Quechua , although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas , but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti , the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their King,
20933-502: The employment and rituals involving ayahuasca by the Jivaro people. Concurrently, Richard Spruce embarked on an Amazonian expedition in 1852 to collect and classify previously unidentified botanical specimens. During this journey, Spruce encountered and documented Banisteriopsis caapi (at time named Banisteria caapi ) and observed an ayahuasca ceremony among the Tucano community situated along
21106-461: The fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti . Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui , the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as
21279-412: The first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military. With the help of Antonio José de Sucre , they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru
21452-653: The following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima , returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia . In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War , after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize
21625-499: The fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica , in the Atacama region. Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply
21798-491: The hallucinations as repressed memories or metaphors of mental states. However, at least in Iquitos , Peru (a center of ayahuasca ceremonies), those from the area describe the experiences more in terms of the actions in the body and understand the visions as reflections of their environment, sometimes including the person who they believe caused their illness, as well as interactions with spirits. Peru Peru , officially
21971-520: The help of Bolivia , Chile and Ecuador , sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on May 2, 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway ) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country
22144-479: The highlands near Cuzco. In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence , Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar . The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe,
22317-465: The labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism , with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by
22490-516: The last decades, two new important terminologies emerged. Both are commonly used in the Western world in neoshamanic , recreative or pharmaceutical contexts to address ayahuasca-like substances created without the traditional botanical species, due to it being expensive and/or hard to find in these countries. These concepts are surrounded by some controversies involving ethnobotany , patents, commodification and biopiracy : Archaeological evidence of
22663-523: The last three centuries, as it promoted a deep reshape in traditional ways of life in the region. Many indigenous groups moved into the Missions, seeking protection from death and slavery promoted by the Bandeiras , inter-tribal violence, starvation and disease ( smallpox ). This movement resulted in an intense cultural exchange and resulted in the formation of mestizos (in Spanish) or caboclos (in Portuguese),
22836-401: The late 20th century, the practice of ayahuasca drinking began spreading to Europe, North America and elsewhere. The first ayahuasca churches, affiliated with the Brazilian Santo Daime , were established in the Netherlands . A legal case was filed against two of the Church's leaders, Hans Bogers (one of the original founders of the Dutch Santo Daime community) and Geraldine Fijneman (the head of
23009-410: The loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create
23182-427: The media to express their views on Ayahuasca entering the mainstream, with some calling it "the commercialization of ayahuasca." Some of them have even expressed their worry regarding the increased popularity, saying "the contemporary 'ayahuasca ceremony' may be understood as a substitute for former cosmogonical rituals that are nowadays not performed anymore." The Shipibo have their own language, called Shipibo ,
23355-421: The military campaigns of Bernardo O'Higgins , José de San Martín , and Simón Bolívar , as well as the decisive battle of Ayacucho , it completed its independence in 1824 . In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout
23528-473: The military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration. Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in infliation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992. When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in
23701-399: The millennial usage of ayahuasca, compelling evidence substantiating its pre-Columbian consumption is yet to be firmly established. As articulated by Dennis McKenna : "No one can say for certain where the practice may have originated, and about all that can be stated with certainty is that is already spread among numerous indigenous tribes throughout Amazon basin by the time ayahuasca came to
23874-420: The more outstanding Chimu and Moche . The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru,
24047-451: The mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon , covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall. Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has
24220-418: The naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. In 1879 Peru entered
24393-429: The next, both in potency and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the shaman or brewer, as well as other admixtures sometimes added and the intent of the ceremony. Natural variations in plant alkaloid content and profiles also affect the final concentration of alkaloids in the brew, and the physical act of cooking may also serve to modify the alkaloid profile of harmala alkaloids. The actual preparation of
24566-825: The next. The resulting brew may contain the powerful psychedelic drug dimethyltryptamine and monoamine oxidase inhibiting harmala alkaloids , which are necessary to make the DMT orally active by allowing it (DMT) to be processed by the liver . The traditional making of ayahuasca follows a ritual process that requires the user to pick the lower Chacruna leaf at sunrise, then say a prayer. The vine must be "cleaned meticulously with wooden spoons" and pounded "with wooden mallets until it's fibre." Brews can also be made with plants that do not contain DMT, Psychotria viridis being replaced by plants such as Justicia pectoralis , Brugmansia , or sacred tobacco, also known as mapacho ( Nicotiana rustica ), or sometimes left out with no replacement. This brew varies radically from one batch to
24739-442: The nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar , the main ship of the Peruvian navy, commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in
24912-411: The north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River . Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima . At 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world , and the third largest in South America . Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during
25085-417: The opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte . She became the country's first female president. Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and
25258-433: The port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martín and Thomas Cochrane , who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco . San Martín settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under
25431-426: The purposes for this is to steal one's energy and/or power, of which they believe every person has a limited stockpile. The shamans lead the ceremonial consumption of the ayahuasca beverage, in a rite that typically takes place over the entire night. During the ceremony, the effect of the drink lasts for hours. Prior to the ceremony, participants are instructed to abstain from spicy foods, red meat and sex. The ceremony
25604-407: The ritual and lead the choir". Another report produced in 1737 by the missionary Pablo Maroni , describes the use of a psychoactive liana called ayahuasca for divination in the Napo River , Ecuador: "For divination, they use a beverage, some of white datura flowers, which they also call Campana due to its shape, and others from a vine commonly known as Ayahuasca, both highly effective at numbing
25777-429: The ritual, like wine and bread are taken as being the body and blood of Jesus Christ during Christian Eucharist . Brabec de Mori called this “Christian camouflage” and suggested that rather than being a way for disguising the ayahuasca ritual, it suggests that practice evolved entirely within these contexts. Indeed, the colonial processes in Western Amazon are intrinsically related with the development of ayahuasca use in
25950-492: The same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche . However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a coup d'état led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy . Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde
26123-451: The senses and even at taking one's life if taken in excess. They also occasionally use these substances for the treatment of common illnesses, especially headaches. So, the person who wants to divine drinks the chosen substance with certain rituals, and while deprived of their senses from the mouth downwards, to prevent the strength of the plant from harming them, they remain in this state for many hours and sometimes even two or three days until
26296-402: The soul", "liana of the dead", and "spirit liana". In the cosmovision of its users, the ayahuasca is the vine that allows the spirit to wander detached from the body, entering the spiritual world, otherwise forbidden for the alive. Although ayahuasca is the most widely used term in Peru , Bolivia , Ecuador and Brazil, the brew is known by many names throughout northern South America: In
26469-423: The split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru ; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá , while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of
26642-464: The state level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health and safety of the population. Regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed. There
26815-456: The treatment of substance dependence, anxiety, and mood disorders. Thus, currently, despite continuing to be used in a traditional way, ayahuasca is also consumed recreationally worldwide, and is considered as a potential future treatment in modern medicine. Ayahuasca often causes nausea and vomiting and has a number of rarer more serious possible side effects including breathing difficulties and seizure; it may cause psychosis in those predisposed to
26988-424: The tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus , drought-resistant plants such as ichu , and the largest species of bromeliad – the spectacular Puya raimondii . Medication A medication (also called medicament , medicine , pharmaceutical drug , medicinal drug or simply drug ) is a drug used to diagnose , cure , treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy ( pharmacotherapy )
27161-418: The use of ayahuasca, although these seem to be specific to the culture around Iquitos , Peru , a major center of ayahuasca tourism. Ayahuasca retreats or healing centers can also be found in the Sacred Valley of Peru, in areas such as Cusco and Urubamba , where similar dietary preparations can be observed. These retreats often employ members of the Shipibo-Konibo tribe, an indigenous community native to
27334-479: The use of psychoactive plants in northeastern Amazon dates back to 1500–2000 B.C. Anthropomorphic figurines, snuffing trays and pottery vessels, often adorned with mythological figures and sacred animals, offer a glimpse of the pre-Columbian culture regarding use of the sacred plants, their preparation and ritual consumption [citar naranjo 86]. Although several botanical specimens (like tobacco, coca and Anadenanthera spp. ) were identified among these objects, there
27507-457: The viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572. The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized
27680-427: The war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party , which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía . The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for
27853-470: Was a heterogeneous mixture of Western Amazon ( mestizo shamanic practices and cauchero culture) and Andean elements (shaped by other migratory movements, like those originated from Cuzco through Urubamba Valley and from western Ecuador), influenced by Christian aspects derived from the Jesuit missions, as reflected by the mythology, rituals and moral codes related to vegetalista ayahuasca use. Although mestizo , vegetalista and indigenous ayahuasca use
28026-423: Was charged with the crime of rebellion. The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents. This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests , which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with
28199-440: Was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and
28372-486: Was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the Guayaquil Conference . Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after
28545-462: Was found that both telepathine and banisterine are the same substance, identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and given the name Harmine . Researchers like Peter Gow and Brabec de Mori argue that ayahuasca use indeed developed alongside the Jesuit missions after the 17th century. By examining the ícaros (ayahuasca-related healing chants), they found that the chants are always sung in Quechua (a lingua franca along
28718-543: Was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise. By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began. On April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing
28891-413: Was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability. Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on August 3, 1821. 74 The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of
29064-527: Was part a longer tradition, these several configurations of mestizo vegetalismo were not isolated phenomena. In the end of the nineteenth century several messianic/ millennialist cults sparkled across semi-urban areas across the entire Amazon region, merging different elements of indigenous and mestizo folk culture with Catholicism, Spiritism and Protestantism . In this context, the use of ayahuasca will take form of urban, organized non-indigenous religions in outskirts of main cities of northwest of Brazil, (along
29237-418: Was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in Chavín de Huantar . After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas , Nazca , Wari , and
29410-432: Was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. On 3 October 1968 another coup d'état led by a group of officers led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the CEPAL theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize
29583-434: Was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election. That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence . Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort , Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve
29756-431: Was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the Quechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by
29929-580: Was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning
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