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105-478: After the tribes of Gallia Belgica were defeated by Caesar in 57 BC, 4,000 Atrebates participated in the Battle of Alesia in 53, led by their chief Commius . They revolted again in 51 BC, after which they maintained a friendly relationship with Rome, as Commius received sovereignty over the neighbouring Morini . The quality of their woollens is still mentioned in 301 AD by Diocletian 's Price Edict . An offshoot of

210-658: A Roman scorched earth policy. The campaigning season was now nearly over, and the legions were in no condition to winter on the coast of Kent. Caesar withdrew back across the Channel with as many of the ships as could be repaired with flotsam from the wrecked ships. Caesar once again narrowly escaped disaster. Taking an understrength army with few provisions to a far-off land was a poor tactical decision, which easily could have led to Caesar's defeat, yet he survived. While he had achieved no significant gains in Britain, he had accomplished

315-575: A balance between Romanizing the people of Gallia Belgica and allowing pre-existing culture to survive. The Romans divided the province into four civitates , corresponding generally to ancient tribal boundaries. The capital cities of these districts included modern Cassel (replaced by Tournai as Menapian civitas ), Bavay (replaced by Cambrai as Nervian civitas ), Thérouanne , Arras , Saint-Quentin , Soissons , Reims , Beauvais , Amiens , Tongeren , Trier , Toul and Metz . These civitates were in turn were divided into smaller units, pagi,

420-723: A capital at Noviomagus Reginorum ( Chichester ). In 57 BC, they were part of a Belgic military alliance in response to Julius Caesar 's conquests elsewhere in Gaul, contributing 15,000 men. Caesar took this build-up as a threat and marched against it, but the Belgae had the advantage of position and the result was a stand-off. When no battle was forthcoming, the Belgic alliance broke up, determining to gather to defend whichever tribe Caesar attacked. Caesar subsequently marched against several tribes and achieved their submission. The Atrebates then joined with

525-444: A census of the region in 27 BC, Augustus ordered a restructuring of the provinces in Gaul. Therefore, in 22 BC, Marcus Agrippa split Gaul (or Gallia Comata) into three regions ( Gallia Aquitania , Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Belgica). Agrippa made the divisions on what he perceived to be distinctions in language, race and community – Gallia Belgica was meant to be a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples. The capital of this territory

630-563: A complicated pattern of intrusion. The earliest Gallo-Belgic coins that have been found in Britain date to before 100 BC, perhaps as early as 150 BC, were struck in Gaul, and have been found mainly in Kent. Later coins of a similar type were struck in Britain and are found all along the south coast as far west as Dorset. It appears that Belgic power was concentrated on the southeastern coast, although their influence spread further west and inland, perhaps through chieftains establishing political control over

735-453: A cover for investigating Britain's mineral resources and economic potential: afterwards, Cicero refers to the disappointing discovery that there was no gold or silver in the island; and Suetonius reports that Caesar was said to have gone to Britain in search of pearls. However, it may have been an excuse to gain stature in the eyes of the Roman people, due to Pompey and Crassus' consulship. On

840-448: A different port, probably Ambleteuse . These ships may have been triremes or biremes , or may have been adapted from Venetic designs Caesar had seen previously, or may even have been requisitioned from the Veneti and other coastal tribes. In late summer 55 BC, even though it was late in the campaigning season, Caesar decided to embark for Britain. Clearly in a hurry, Caesar himself left

945-413: A garrison at the port and set out "at the third watch" (well after midnight) on 23 August with the legions so that they would arrive at dawn, leaving the cavalry to march to their ships, embark, and join him as soon as possible. In light of later events, leaving without the cavalry was either a tactical mistake or (along with the fact that the legions came over without baggage or heavy siege gear) confirms

1050-485: A good number of Gallic chiefs whom he considered untrustworthy so he could keep an eye on them. This time he named Portus Itius as the departure point. Titus Labienus was left at Portus Itius to oversee regular food transports from there to the British beachhead. The military ships were joined by a flotilla of trading ships captained by Romans and provincials from across the empire, and local Gauls, hoping to cash in on

1155-568: A monumental feat simply by landing there. It was a fabulous propaganda victory as well, which was chronicled in Caesar's ongoing Commentarii de Bello Gallico . The writings in the Commentarii fed Rome a steady update of Caesar's exploits (with his own personal spin on events). Caesar's goal of prestige and publicity succeeded enormously: upon his return to Rome, he was hailed as a hero and given an unprecedented 20-day thanksgiving. Caesar's approach in

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1260-598: A pretext for the Roman conquest of Britain . After the Roman conquest, part of the Atrebates' lands were organized into the pro-Roman kingdom of the Regni under Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus , who may have been Verica's son. The tribal territory was later organised as the civitates (administrative districts within a Roman province) of the Atrebates, Regni and possibly the Belgae. Gallia Belgica Gallia Belgica ("Belgic Gaul")

1365-423: A series of indigenous tribes, possibly with some intrusive Belgic element, given initial coherence by Commius". It is possible that the name "Atrebates", as with many "tribal" names in this period, referred only to the ruling house or dynasty and not to an ethnic group; Commius and his followers, after arriving in Britain, may have established a power-base and gradually expanded their sphere of influence, creating what

1470-460: A son of Commius. As well as noting elements of British warfare, particularly the use of chariots, which were unfamiliar to his Roman audience, Caesar also aimed to impress them by making further geographical, meteorological and ethnographic investigations of Britain. He probably gained these by enquiry and hearsay rather than direct experience, as he did not penetrate that far into the interior, and most historians would be wary of applying them beyond

1575-614: A term that became the French word "pays". Roman government was run by Concilia in Reims or Trier . Additionally, local notables from Gallia Belgica were required to participate in a festival in Lugdunum (modern Lyon ), which typically celebrated or worshipped the emperor's genius . The gradual adoption of Romanized names by local elites and the Romanization of laws under local authority demonstrate

1680-500: A warlord from north of the Thames , had previously been at war with most of the British tribes. He had recently overthrown the king of the powerful Trinovantes and forced his son, Mandubracius , into exile. But now, facing invasion, the Britons had appointed Cassivellaunus to lead their combined forces. After several indecisive skirmishes, during which a Roman tribune, Quintus Laberius Durus ,

1785-404: Is a defensive enclosure today about 1 km from the sea due to siltation of the former Wantsum Channel but in ancient times was on peninsula projecting into the channel. The defensive ditch enclosed an area of over 20 ha on the shore. The Romans established a camp and received ambassadors and had Commius , who had been arrested as soon as he had arrived in Britain, returned to them. Caesar claims he

1890-506: Is damaged, but one is probably Tincomarus (the other is Dubnovellaunus , of either the Trinovantes or the Cantiaci ). It appears Tincomarus was ousted by his brother, and from this point Eppillus's coins are marked " Rex ", indicating that he was recognised as king by Rome. In about 15, Eppillus was succeeded by Verica (at about the same time, a king by the name of Eppillus appears as ruler of

1995-523: Is effectively the start of the written history, or at least the protohistory , of Great Britain. Britain had long been known to the classical world as a source of tin . The coastline had been explored by the Greek geographer Pytheas in the 4th century BC, and may have been explored even earlier, in the 5th century, by the Carthaginian sailor Himilco . But to many Romans, the island, lying as it did beyond

2100-468: Is that he had beaten the Britons and extracted tribute; they were now effectively Roman subjects. Caesar was lenient towards the tribes as he needed to leave before the stormy season set in, which would make crossing the channel impossible. However, another interpretation of the details, is Caesar had made a weakly enforced treaty with the Catuvellauni, suggesting that a decisive victory did not occur upon

2205-579: The Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD). The ethnonym Atrebates is a latinized form of the Gaulish * Atrebatis ( sing. Atrebas ), which literally means 'dwellers, land-owners, possessors of the soil'. It derives from the Proto-Celtic stem *attreb- ('settlement') attached to the suffix -atis ('belonging to'), the former descending, as a result of an assimilation from an earlier * ad-treb -, from

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2310-501: The Belgae , as the largest tribal confederation in the area. However, it also included the territories of the Treveri , Mediomatrici , Leuci , Sequani , and others who Caesar did not explictly designate as Belgic. The province was re-organised several times, first increased and later decreased in size. Diocletian brought the northeastern Civitas Tungrorum into Germania Inferior , joining

2415-490: The Kent coast between Hythe and Sandwich , but was unable to land, since he "did not dare leave his ship and entrust himself to the barbarians", and after five days returned to give Caesar what intelligence he had managed to gather. By then, ambassadors from some of the British states, warned by merchants of the impending invasion, had arrived promising their submission. Caesar sent them back, along with his ally Commius , king of

2520-748: The Low Countries as the Latin language name of the entire territory until the modern period. In the 1500s, the Seventeen Provinces were then divided into the independent Belgica Foederata or the federal Dutch Republic and the Belgica Regia or the royal Southern Netherlands under the Habsburgian crown . Belgica Foederata continued to be used from 1581 up to the French Revolution. Even after that,

2625-617: The Nervians were either burnt down (Nemetacum ( Arras )) or had to be rebuilt in the last quarter of the second century, Colonia Morinorum ( Thérouanne ) and Bagacum Nerviorum ( Bavay ). With the Crisis of the Third Century and the partition of the Empire , Roman control over Gaul deteriorated in the 3rd century. In 260, Postumus became emperor of a breakaway Gallic Empire . He proved able to stop

2730-586: The Nervii and Viromandui and attacked Caesar at the battle of the Sabis , but were there defeated. After thus conquering the Atrebates, Caesar appointed one of their countrymen, Commius , as their king. Commius was involved in Caesar's two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC and negotiated the surrender of Cassivellaunus . In return for his loyalty, he was also given authority over the Morini . However, he later turned against

2835-483: The Ocean at what was to them the edge of the known world, was a land of great mystery. Some Roman writers even insisted that it did not exist, and dismissed reports of Pytheas's voyage as a hoax. Britain during the reign of Julius Caesar had an Iron Age culture, with an estimated population of between one and four million. Archaeological research shows that its economy was broadly divided into lowland and highland zones. In

2940-683: The Proto-Indo-European root for 'settlement', *treb- (cf. Osc. trííbúm , Germ. *Þurpa , Lith. trobà 'house'). The ethnic name is cognate with the Old Irish ad-treba ('he dwells, cultivates') and attrab ('possession, the act of occupying, a dwelling'), the Modern Irish áitreabhach ('inhabitant'), and the Middle Welsh athref ('dwelling-place, abode'). The city of Arras , attested ca. 400 AD as civitas Atrabatum (' civitas of

3045-597: The Scheldt river) a part of which ( Ile de France ), from the middle of the 10th century became the kernel of modern France , and Middle Francia which was succeeded by Lotharingia . Though often presented as the dissolution of the Frankish empire, it was in fact the continued adherence to Salic patrimony . Lotharingia was divided in 870 by the Treaty of Meerssen under West and East Francia. The name Belgica continued to be used in

3150-435: The Thames , forcing the British warlord Cassivellaunus to pay tribute to Rome and setting up Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a client king . The Romans then returned to Gaul without conquering any territory. Caesar included accounts of both invasions in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico , which contains the earliest surviving significant eyewitness descriptions of the island's people, culture and geography. This

3255-639: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands , created in 1815 was still known as Royaume des Belgiques , and it was only with the 1831 separatist revolution in the south of the country and subsequent creation of modern Belgium and Dutch recognition of the new nation in the Treaty of London (1839) that the name became reserved for Belgium to the exclusion of the Netherlands . Julius Caesar%27s invasions of Britain In

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3360-638: The Western Roman Empire had already collapsed in Galla Belgica for some time the Gallo-Roman " Kingdom of Soissons " (457–486) managed to maintain control over the area around Soissons . The Franks however emerged victorious and Belgica Secunda in the 5th century became the center of Clovis ' Merovingian kingdom. During the 8th century in the Carolingian Empire the former area of Gallia Belgica

3465-522: The civil war , Caesar made use of a kind of boat he had seen used in Britain, similar to the Irish currach or Welsh coracle . He describes them thus: Caesar not only investigates this for the sake of it, but also to justify Britain as a rich source of tribute and trade: This reference to the 'midland' is inaccurate as tin production and trade occurred in the southwest of England, in Cornwall and Devon , and

3570-426: The "four kings of Cantium ", to stage a diversionary attack on the Roman beach-head to draw Caesar off, but this attack failed, and Cassivellaunus sent ambassadors to negotiate a surrender. Caesar was eager to return to Gaul for the winter due to growing unrest there, and an agreement was mediated by Commius. Cassivellaunus gave hostages, agreed to an annual tribute, and undertook not to make war against Mandubracius or

3675-502: The 57 BC conquest. The largest revolt was led by the Bellovaci in 52 BC, after the defeat of Vercingetorix . During this rebellion, it was the Belgae who avoided direct conflict. They harassed the Roman legions, led personally by Caesar, with cavalry detachments and archers. The rebellion was put down after a Bellovaci ambush of the Romans failed. The revolting party was slaughtered. Following

3780-543: The Atrebates'; Atrebatis in 881, Arras in 1137), the region of Artois , attested in 799 as pago Atratinse (' pagus of the Abrates'; Atrebatense castrum in 899, later Arteis ), and the Arrouaise Forest  [ fr ] , attested ca. 1050 as Atravasia silva ('forest of the Atrebates'; Arwasia in 1202), are all named after the Belgic tribe. The Belgic Atrebates dwelled in the present-day region of Artois , in

3885-488: The Belgae Atrebates , to use their influence to win over as many other states as possible. He gathered a fleet consisting of eighty transport ships , sufficient to carry two legions ( Legio VII and Legio X ), and an unknown number of warships under a quaestor , at an unnamed port in the territory of the Morini , almost certainly Portus Itius ( Saint-Omer ). Another eighteen transports of cavalry were to sail from

3990-598: The Belgae had some ancestry from east of the Rhine, which he referred to as Germania. Indeed, the Belgian tribes closest to the Rhine he distinguished as the Germani cisrhenani . ( Strabo stated that the differences between the Celts and Belgae, in language, politics and way of life was a small one. ) Modern historians interpret Caesar and the archaeological evidence as indicating that the core of

4095-520: The Belgian alliance was in the present-day northernmost corner of France; the Suessiones , Viromandui and Ambiani as well perhaps as some of their neighbours who lived in the area, Caesar identified as Belgium or Belgica. These were the leaders of the initial military alliance he confronted, and they were also more economically advanced (and therefore less "Germanic" according to Caesar's way of seeing things) than many of their more northerly allies such as

4200-544: The Belgic tribe probably entered Britain before 54 BC, where it was successively ruled by kings Commius, Tincommius , Eppillus and Verica . After 43 AD, only parts of the area were still controlled by king Claudius Cogidubnus , after which they fell under Roman power. They are mentioned as Atrebates by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Pliny (1st c. AD), Atrebátioi (Ἀτρεβάτιοι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Atribátioi (Ἀτριβάτιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), Atrébas (Ἀτρέβας) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD), and as Atrabatis in

4305-589: The British Atrebates, a kingdom he may have founded. Their territory comprised modern Hampshire , West Sussex and Berkshire , centred on the capital Calleva Atrebatum (modern Silchester ). They were bordered to the north by the Dobunni and Catuvellauni ; to the east by the Regni ; and to the south by the Belgae . The settlement of the Atrebates in Britain was not a mass population movement. Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe argues that they "seem to have comprised

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4410-465: The Britons army. Upon landing, Caesar left Quintus Atrius in charge of the beach-head with an equivalent of a legion to build and defend the base. He then made an immediate night march 12 mi (19 km) inland, where he encountered the British forces at a river crossing, probably somewhere on the River Stour . The Britons attacked but were repulsed, and attempted to regroup at a fortified place in

4515-424: The Britons renewed the attack, ambushing one of the legions as it foraged near the Roman camp. The foraging party was relieved by the remainder of the Roman force and the Britons were again driven off, only to regroup after several days of storms with a larger force to attack the Roman camp. This attack was driven off fully, in a bloody rout, with improvised cavalry that Commius had gathered from pro-Roman Britons and

4620-557: The Britons. Recent archaeology by the University of Leicester indicates that the likely landing beach was at Ebbsfleet in Pegwell Bay where artefacts and massive earthworks dating from this period have been exposed. If Caesar had as large a fleet with him as has been suggested, then it is possible that the beaching of ships would have been spread out over a number of miles stretching from Walmer towards Pegwell Bay. The site at Ebbsfleet

4725-511: The Britons. Caesar achieving popularity with the Roman peoples, and Cassivellaunus' achievement of the maintained autonomy of the Britons. This is evidenced via the next identifiable king of the Trinovantes, known from numismatic evidence, was Addedomarus , who took power c. 20–15 BC, and moved the tribe's capital to Camulodunum. For a brief period c. 10 BC Tasciovanus of the Catuvellauni issued coins from Camulodunum, suggesting that he conquered

4830-525: The Cantiaci in Kent ). But Verica's kingdom was being pressed by the expansion of the Catuvellauni under Cunobelinus . Calleva fell to Cunobelinus's brother Epaticcus by about 25. Verica regained some territory following Epaticcus's death in about 35, but Cunobelinus's son Caratacus took over the campaign and by the early 40s the Atrebates were conquered. Verica fled to Rome, giving the new emperor Claudius

4935-616: The Moselle valley. They subsequently destroyed large parts of Gallia Belgica, before eventually moving on to Hispania (present-day Spain ). This invasion and the accompanying widespread destruction broke the backbone of Roman power in at least the northern part of Gallia Belgica. After this invasion the Franks were able to conquer valuable agricultural land south of the Via Belgica , the very important main road between Cologne and Boulogne, that had been

5040-529: The Nervii and Germani Cisrhenani. Apart from the southern Remi, all the Belgic tribes allied against the Romans, angry at the Roman decision to garrison legions in their territory during the winter. At the beginning of the conflict, Caesar reported the allies' combined strength at 288,000, led by the Suessione king, Galba . Due to the Belgic coalition's size and reputation for uncommon bravery, Caesar avoided meeting

5145-472: The Rhine and the English Channel . Caesar summoned merchants who traded with the island, but they were unable or unwilling to give him any useful information about the inhabitants and their military tactics, or about harbours he could use, presumably not wanting to lose their monopoly on cross-channel trade. He sent a tribune , Gaius Volusenus , to scout the coast in a single warship. He probably examined

5250-597: The Rhineland colonies. The remaining part of Gallia Belgica was divided into Belgica Prima (in the eastern area of the Treveri, Mediomatrici and Leuci, around Luxembourg and the Ardennes), and Belgica Secunda (between the English Channel and the upper Meuse ). The capital of Belgica Prima, Trier , became an important late western Roman capital. In 57 BC, Julius Caesar led the conquest of northern Gaul, and already specified that

5355-626: The Romans and joined in the revolt led by Vercingetorix in 52 BC. After Vercingetorix's defeat at the Siege of Alesia , Commius had further confrontations with the Romans, negotiated a truce with Mark Antony , and ended up fleeing to Britain with a group of followers. However, he appears to have retained some influence in Gaul: coins of post-conquest date have been found stamped with his name, paired with either Garmanos or Carsicios , who may have been his sons or regents. Commius soon established himself as king of

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5460-546: The Trinobantes in direct violation of the treaty. Commius later switched sides, fighting in Vercingetorix 's rebellion. After a number of unsuccessful engagements with Caesar's forces, he cut his losses and fled to Britain. Sextus Julius Frontinus , in his Strategemata , describes how Commius and his followers, with Caesar in pursuit, boarded their ships. Although the tide was out and the ships still beached, Commius ordered

5565-403: The Trinovantes. Caesar wrote to Cicero on 26 September, confirming the result of the campaign, with hostages but no booty taken, and that his army was about to return to Gaul. He then left, leaving not a single Roman soldier in Britain to enforce his settlement. Whether the tribute was ever paid is unknown. Caesar extracted payment of grain, slaves, and an annual tribute to Rome. However, Britain

5670-478: The Veneti of Armorica , who controlled seaborne trade to the island, calling in aid from their British allies to fight for them against Caesar in 56 BC. Strabo says that the Venetic rebellion in 56 BC had been intended to prevent Caesar from travelling to Britain and disrupting their commercial activity, suggesting that the possibility of a British expedition had already been considered by then. It may also have been

5775-681: The backbone of Roman defense strategy between 260 and 406. In 452, a major battle was fought at the Catalaunian fields (between the Seine and the Moselle). A coalition of Romans, Visigoths and Franks fought an army led by the legendary Hunnic leader Attila . The outcome of this battle itself was inconclusive, but as a consequence of this battle the Huns and their allies left the area of Gallia Belgica, where they had plundered nearly all major cities, except Paris. After

5880-669: The catchment area of the Scarpe river. They commanded two hill forts: a large and central one near Arras, and a frontier one on the Escaut river . The Atrebates were separated from the Ambiani by the Canche river. In the mid-first century BC, an offshoot of the tribe lived in Britain, where they occupied a region stretching between the Thames , the Test , and West Sussex . During the Roman period , their centre

5985-441: The combined forces of the tribes in battle. Instead, he used cavalry to skirmish with smaller contingents of tribesmen. Only when Caesar managed to isolate one of the tribes did he risk conventional battle. The tribes fell in a piecemeal fashion and Caesar claimed to offer lenient terms to the defeated, including Roman protection from the threat of surrounding tribes. Most tribes agreed to the conditions. A series of uprisings followed

6090-482: The course of his Gallic Wars , Julius Caesar invaded Britain twice: in 55 and 54 BC. On the first occasion, Caesar took with him only two legions, and achieved little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent . The second invasion consisted of 800 ships, five legions and 2,000 cavalry. The force was so imposing that the Celtic Britons did not contest Caesar's landing, waiting instead until he began to move inland. Caesar eventually penetrated into Middlesex and crossed

6195-407: The damage he had sustained the previous year, this was poor planning on Caesar's part. However, Caesar may have exaggerated the number of ships wrecked to magnify his own achievement in rescuing the situation. He returned to the coast, recalling the legions that had gone ahead, and immediately set about repairing his fleet. His men worked day and night for approximately ten days, beaching and repairing

6300-411: The distance on their left. They managed to row and use the reversing tide to arrive at the place identified as the best landing-place the previous year. The Britons had gathered to oppose the landing but as Caesar states, intimidated by the size of the fleet, withdrew 'and concealed themselves on the high ground' perhaps to give them time to gather their forces. Caesar landed and immediately went to find

6405-448: The effectiveness of this concilium Galliarum . With that said, the concept and community of Gallia Belgica did not predate the Roman province, but developed from it. During the 1st century AD (estimated date 90 AD), the provinces of Gaul were restructured. Emperor Domitian reorganized the provinces in order to separate the militarized zones of the Rhine from the civilian populations of the region. The northeastern part of Gallia Belgica

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6510-406: The fleet to sail north-east along the coast to an open beach probably at Ebbsfleet . The Britons had kept pace and fielded an impressive force, including cavalry and chariots, and the legions were hesitant to go ashore. To make matters worse, the loaded Roman ships were too low in the water to go close inshore and the troops had to disembark in deep water, all the while attacked by the enemy from

6615-553: The forests, possibly the hillfort at Bigbury Wood, Kent , but were again defeated and scattered. As it was late in the day and Caesar was unsure of the territory, he called off the pursuit and made camp. However, the next morning, as he prepared to advance further, Caesar received word from Atrius that, once again, his ships at anchor had been dashed against each other in a storm and suffered considerable damage. About forty, he says, were lost. The Romans were unused to Atlantic and Channel tides and storms, but nevertheless, considering

6720-424: The former province of Gallia Belgica and start the Merovingian kingdom , the first immediate forerunner state of Western civilization. Emperor Diocletian restructured the provinces around 300, and split Belgica into two provinces: Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda. Belgica Prima had Augusta Treverorum (Trier) as its main city, and consisted of the eastern part. The border between Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda

6825-412: The incursions from the Franks. Only in 274 was Roman control restored by the new emperor Aurelian in the Battle of Châlons . The cost of this defeat in the long run proved very high indeed. With the Gallic army defeated and not returning to the Rhine border , the Franks overran the neighbouring province of Germania Inferior . The Rhineland (to the Ripuarian Franks ) and the area between the Rhine and

6930-404: The invasion was not intended for complete conquest. Caesar initially tried to land but when he came in sight of shore, the massed forces of the Britons gathered on the overlooking hills dissuaded him from landing there. After waiting there at anchor "until the ninth hour" (about 3pm) waiting for his supply ships from the second port to come up and meanwhile convening a council of war, he ordered

7035-484: The kingdom from Calleva, while Eppillus ruled the southern half from Noviomagus ( Chichester ). Numismatic and other archeological evidence suggests that Tincomarus took a more pro-Roman stance than his father, and John Creighton argues from the imagery on his coins that he was brought up as an obses (diplomatic hostage) in Rome under Augustus . Augustus's Res Gestae mentions two British kings presenting themselves to him as supplicants, probably ca. 7 AD. The passage

7140-415: The length of his apparent floruit , some have concluded that there were two kings, father and son, of the same name. Three later kings of the British Atrebates name themselves on their coins as sons of Commius: Tincomarus , Eppillus and Verica . Tincomarus seems to have ruled jointly with his father from about 25 BC until Commius's death in about 20 BC. After that, Tincomarus ruled the northern part of

7245-427: The lowland southeast, large areas of fertile soil made possible extensive arable farming, and communication developed along trackways , such as the Icknield Way , the Pilgrims' Way and the Jurassic Way , and navigable rivers such as the Thames . In the highlands, north of the line between Gloucester and Lincoln , arable land was available only in isolated pockets, so pastoralism , supported by garden cultivation,

7350-416: The main road between Boulogne and Cologne, present-day South Holland, Zeeland, Flanders, Brabant and Limburg, the last three in both the present-day Netherlands and Belgium (to the Salian Franks ) were de facto lost forever for the Roman empire. This gave the Salian Franks a base from which they could expand some 130 years later, beginning after the disastrous Rhine crossing in 406, to conquer the whole area of

7455-419: The native population. Caesar had been conquering Gaul since 58 BC and in 56 BC he took most of northwest Gaul after defeating the Veneti in the naval Battle of Morbihan . Caesar's pretext for the invasion was that "in almost all the wars with the Gauls succours had been furnished to our enemy from that country" with fugitives from among the Gallic Belgae fleeing to Belgic settlements in Britain, and

7560-414: The one hand, they were Caesar's political allies, and Crassus's son had fought under him the year before. But they were also his rivals, and had formidable reputations (Pompey was a great general, and Crassus was fabulously wealthy). Since the consuls could easily sway and buy public opinion, Caesar needed to stay in the public eye. His solution was to cross two water bodies no Roman army had attempted before:

7665-470: The part to the north of the Seine and Marne rivers was inhabited by a people or alliance known as the Belgae . This definition became the basis of the later Roman province of Belgica. Caesar said that the Belgae were separated from the Celtic Gauls to their south by "language, custom and laws" ( lingua, institutis, legibus ) but he did not go into detail, except to mention that he learnt from his contacts that

7770-517: The period geomorphology of the Wantsum Channel that created that haven is limited. By Claudius's time Roman knowledge of the island would have been considerably increased by a century of trade and diplomacy, and four abortive invasion attempts. However, it is likely that the intelligence gathered in 55 and 54 BC would have been retained in the now-lost state records in Rome, and been used by Claudius in

7875-472: The planning of his landings. The Britons are defined as typical barbarians , with polygamy and other exotic social habits, similar in many ways to the Gauls, yet as brave adversaries whose crushing can bring glory to a Roman: In addition to infantry and cavalry, the Britons employed chariots in warfare, a novelty to the Romans, who used them for transport and racing. Caesar describes their use as follows: During

7980-463: The respective northern and northwestern coast of present-day Netherlands and Germany . The attack occurred in the drainage basin of the river Scheldt (present-day Flanders and Hainaut ). Archaeologists have found evidence that large farms near Tournai and the village Velzeke (near Ghent ) had to be abandoned. Further the capitals in the areas of the former tribes of the Atrebates , Morini and

8085-497: The river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over and entered Cassivellaunus' territory. This may be a confusion with Claudius 's use of elephants during his conquest of Britain in AD 43. The Trinovantes, whom Caesar describes as the most powerful tribe in the region, and who had recently suffered at Cassivellaunus' hands, sent ambassadors, promising him aid and provisions. Mandubracius, who had accompanied Caesar,

8190-502: The sails raised. Caesar, still some distance away, assumed the ships were afloat and called off the pursuit. John Creighton believes that this anecdote was a legend, and that Commius was sent to Britain as a friendly king as part of his truce with Mark Antony . Commius established a dynasty in the Hampshire area, known from coins of Gallo-Belgic type. Verica , the king whose exile prompted Claudius 's conquest of AD 43, styled himself

8295-613: The same root attached to the Gaulish suffix -acos . Before 54 BC, an offshoot of the Gallic tribe probably settled in Britain. After the Roman invasion of Britain , three civitates were created in the late 1st c. BC: one of the Atrebates, with a capital in Calleva Atrebatum ( Silchester ); one of the Belgae with its capital at Venta Belgarum ( Winchester ); and one of the Reg(i)ni, with

8400-420: The shallows. Eventually, the legion's standard bearer jumped into the sea and waded to shore. To have the legion's standard fall in combat was the greatest humiliation, and the men disembarked to protect the standard bearer. After some delay, a battle line was finally formed, and the Britons withdrew. The cavalry auxiliaries were unable to make the crossing despite several attempts and so Caesar could not chase down

8505-492: The ships, and building a fortified camp around them. Word was sent to Labienus to send more ships. Caesar was on the coast on 1 September, from where he wrote a letter to Cicero. News must have reached Caesar at this point of the death of his daughter Julia , as Cicero refrained from replying "on account of his mourning". Caesar then returned to the Stour crossing and found the Britons had massed their forces there. Cassivellaunus ,

8610-516: The south. The newer Gallia Belgica included the cities of Camaracum ( Cambrai ), Nemetacum ( Arras ), Samarobriva ( Amiens ), Durocortorum ( Reims ), Dividorum ( Metz ) and Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ). In 173, the later emperor Didius Julianus , then governor of Gallia Belgica, had to repel a serious invasion of the Chauci , a Germanic tribe that lived along the shores of the Wadden Sea at

8715-570: The three parts of Gaul (Tres Galliæ), the other two being Gallia Aquitania and Gallia Lugdunensis . Belgica stretched from the Marne and Seine rivers, which Caesar described as a cultural boundary between the Belgae and the Celtic Gauls . In the north and east it stretched all the way to the Rhine . The official Roman province of this name was later created by emperor Augustus in 22 BC, and named after

8820-449: The time Caesar reached the Thames, the one fordable place available to him had been fortified with sharpened stakes, both on the shore and under the water, and the far bank was defended. Second Century sources state that Caesar used a large war elephant, which was equipped with armour and carried archers and slingers in its tower, to put the defenders to flight. When this unknown creature entered

8925-454: The trading opportunities. It seems more likely that the figure Caesar quotes for the fleet (800 ships) include these traders and the troop-transports, rather than the troop-transports alone. The Roman fleet sailed from France in the evening so that the army could land in daylight. They hoped to use the wind to help cross the Channel but midnight the wind dropped and the channel tide carried them too far northeast and at sunrise they saw Britain in

9030-456: The tribes with whom he came into direct contact. Caesar's first-hand discoveries were limited to east Kent and the Thames Valley, but he was able to provide a description of the island's geography and meteorology. Though his measurements are not wholly accurate, and may owe something to Pytheas, his general conclusions even now seem valid: No information about harbours or other landing-places

9135-420: The winter of 55–54 BC towards the invasion in 54 BC was far more comprehensive and successful than his initial expedition. New ships had been built over the winter, using experience of Venetic shipbuilding technology being broader and lower for easier beaching, and Caesar now took 800 ships, five legions (instead of two) and 2,000 cavalry. He left the rest of his army in Gaul to keep order. Caesar took with him

9240-426: Was Reims , according to the geographer Strabo, though later the capital moved to modern-day Trier . The date of this move is uncertain. Modern historians however view the term 'Gaul' and its subdivisions as a "product of faulty ethnography" and see the split of Gallia Comata into three provinces as an attempt to construct a more efficient government, as opposed to a cultural division. Successive Roman emperors struck

9345-539: Was a province of the Roman Empire located in the north-eastern part of Roman Gaul , in what is today primarily northern France , Belgium , and Luxembourg , along with parts of the Netherlands and Germany . Before the Roman province came into existence in about 50 BC, the region was conquered by Julius Caesar during his Gallic Wars . His report, the Commentarii de Bello Gallico , described Belgic Gaul as one of

9450-683: Was approximately along the Meuse . The eastern part of Gallia Belgica, especially the valley of the Moselle became very prosperous in the fourth century, particularly in the decades that Augusta Treverorum (Trier) was the capital of the Western Roman Empire . The Roman poet Ausonius wrote a famous poem on the Mosella . Around 350 Salian Franks who were already living in Batavia were settled in Texandria . Texandria

9555-418: Was available to the Romans before Caesar's expeditions, so Caesar was able to make discoveries of benefit to Roman military and trading interests. Volusenus's reconnaissance voyage before the first expedition apparently identified the natural harbour at Dubris ( Dover ), although Caesar was prevented from landing there and forced to land on an open beach, as he did again the following year, perhaps because Dover

9660-544: Was being imported via the Armorican peninsula, much of it arriving at Hengistbury Head in Dorset . Caesar's written account of Britain says that the Belgae of northeastern Gaul had previously conducted raids on Britain, establishing settlements in some of its coastal areas, and that within living memory Diviciacus , king of the Suessiones , had held power in Britain as well as in Gaul. British coinage from this period shows

9765-560: Was in effect a proto- state . However, during Caesar's first expedition to Britain in 55 BC, after the Roman cavalry had been unable to cross the Channel, Commius was able to provide a small group of horsemen from his people, suggesting that he may have already had kin in Britain at that time. After this time, the Atrebates were recognized as a client kingdom of Rome. Coins stamped with Commius's name were issued from Calleva from ca. 30 BC to 20 BC. Some coins are stamped "COM COMMIOS": interpreting this as "Commius son of Commius", and considering

9870-411: Was killed, the Britons attacked a foraging party of three legions under Gaius Trebonius , but were repulsed and routed by the pursuing Roman cavalry. Cassivellaunus realised he could not defeat Caesar in a pitched battle . Disbanding the majority of his force and relying on the mobility of his 4,000 chariots and superior knowledge of the terrain, he used guerrilla tactics to slow the Roman advance. By

9975-435: Was more common than settled farming, and communication was more difficult. Settlements were generally built on high ground and fortified, but in the southeast, oppida had begun to be established on lower ground, often at river crossings, suggesting that trade was becoming more important. Commercial contact between Britain and the continent had increased since the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul in 124 BC, and Italian wine

10080-694: Was most likely for a large part overlapping with the area now known as the Kempen . Eventually, in 406, a large alliance among the Vandals , Alans and Suebi , under great pressure from the Huns , after first having been defeated by the Ripuarian Franks in the neighbourhood of Cologne in Germania Inferior, successfully crossed the Rhine in the neighbourhood of present-day Koblenz and entered Gallia Belgica by way of

10185-431: Was negotiating from a position of strength and that the British leaders, blaming their attacks on him on the common people, were in only four days awed into giving hostages, some immediately, some as soon as they could be brought from inland, and disbanding their army. However, after his cavalry had come within sight of the beachhead but then been scattered and turned back to Gaul by storms, and with food running short, Caesar

10290-403: Was not particularly rich at the time; Marcus Cicero summed up Roman sentiment by saying, "It's also been established that there isn't a scrap of silver in the island and no hope of booty except for slaves – and I don't suppose you're expecting them to know much about literature or music!" Regardless, this second trip to Britain was a true invasion, and Caesar achieved his goals. One interpretation

10395-505: Was restored as their king, and the Trinovantes provided grain and hostages. Five further tribes, the Cenimagni , Segontiaci , Ancalites , Bibroci and Cassi , surrendered to Caesar, and revealed to him the location of Cassivellaunus' stronghold, possibly the hill fort at Wheathampstead , which he proceeded to put under siege. Cassivellaunus sent word to his allies in Kent, Cingetorix , Carvilius , Taximagulus and Segovax , described as

10500-580: Was split into Neustria (roughly Belgica Secunda, main cities Paris , Reims ) and Austrasia (roughly Belgica Prima and Germania Inferior , main cities Trier , Metz , Cologne ). After the death of Charlemagne 's son, Louis the Pious , the Carolingian Empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The three sons of Louis the Pious divided his territories into three kingdoms: East Francia (the forerunner of modern Germany ), West Francia (west of

10605-403: Was split off and renamed Germania Inferior , later to be reorganized and renamed as Germania Secunda . This included the eastern part of modern Belgium , the southernmost part of the modern Netherlands , and a part of modern Germany. The eastern part was split off to become Germania Superior (parts of western Germany and eastern France) and the southern border of Gallia Belgica was extended to

10710-421: Was taken by surprise by high British tides and a storm. His beached warships filled with water, and his transports, riding at anchor, were driven against each other. Some ships were wrecked, and many others were rendered unseaworthy by the loss of rigging or other vital equipment, threatening the return journey. Realising this and hoping to keep Caesar in Britain over the winter and thus starve him into submission,

10815-420: Was too small for his much larger forces. The great natural harbours further up the coast at Rutupiae ( Richborough ), which were used by Claudius for his invasion 100 years later, were not used on either occasion. Caesar may have been unaware of them, may have chosen not to use them, or they may not have existed in a form suitable for sheltering and landing such a large force at that time. Present knowledge of

10920-512: Was transferred from the hill-fort of Etrun to Nemetocennae (present-day Arras ), on an important road junction. The name Nemetocennae means in Gaulish either 'far' or 'born' 'from the sacred wood, the sanctuary', stemming from the root nemet(o)- ('sacred wood' > 'sanctuary') attached to the suffix - cenna ('far') or, more likely, to a deformed suffix - genna ('born from'). It is later attested as Metacon by Ptolemy (ca. 170 AD), and as Nemetacum (ca. 300 AD) or Nemetaco (365), with

11025-468: Was what drew Pytheas and other traders. However, Caesar only penetrated to Essex and so, receiving reports of the trade whilst there, it would have been easy to perceive the trade as coming from the interior. Caesar made no conquests in Britain, but his enthroning of Mandubracius marked the beginnings of a system of client kingdoms there, thus bringing the island into Rome's sphere of political influence. Diplomatic and trading links developed further over

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