95-570: The Atom Poets were a group of Icelandic modernist poets working in the wake of modernist poets like Steinn Steinarr and Jón úr Vör , the most prominent of whom were Einar Bragi , Hannes Sigfússon , Jón Óskar , Sigfús Daðason , Dagur Sigurðarson and Stefán Hörður Grímsson , who all began their careers in the 1940s and 1950s. The term was coined by Icelandic's Nobel Prize-winning novelist Halldór Laxness in his 1948 novel The Atom Station : in Daisy Nejmann's summary, "the atom poet in
190-557: A longhouse in Stöðvarfjörður that may date to as early as 800. Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed during the winter and built a house in Húsavík . Garðar departed the following summer, but one of his men, Náttfari , decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, and he and his slaves became
285-464: A shield volcano with a magma chamber underneath). Several classifications of the systems exist, for example there is one of 30 systems, and one of 34 systems, with the later currently being used in Iceland itself. The climate of Iceland's coast is subarctic . The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in
380-528: A summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev , during which they took significant steps towards nuclear disarmament . A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognise the independence of Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed
475-444: A 32 percent increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007. In 2003–2007, following the privatisation of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson , Iceland moved towards having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world, but was hit hard by a major financial crisis . The crisis resulted in
570-634: A convicted child sex offender. Snap elections in October 2017 brought to power a new coalition consisting of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement , headed by Katrín Jakobsdóttir . After the 2021 parliamentary election , the new government was, just like the previous government, a tri-party coalition of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and
665-636: A defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force and remained throughout the Cold War . The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006. Iceland prospered during the Second World War. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth , driven by the industrialisation of the fishing industry and
760-460: A famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population. In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterwards, and affected climates in other areas. Iceland has many geysers , including Geysir , from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur , which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After
855-589: A foreign policy orientated towards humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia , Kosovo , and Iraq . Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001 when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise great amounts of external debt , contributing to
950-515: A free man could choose to support any of the goðar of his district. The supporters of the goðar were called Þingmenn ("assembly people"). In exchange for the goði protecting his interests, the Þingmaðr would provide armed support to his goði during feuds or conflicts. The Þingmenn were also required to attend regional and national assemblies. On a regional level, the goðar of the thirteen district assemblies convened meetings every spring to settle local disputes. The goðar also served as
1045-704: A fully sovereign and independent state in a personal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark carry out on its behalf certain defence and foreign affairs matters, subject to consultation with the Althing. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland . Iceland's legal position became comparable to those of countries belonging to
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#17330858859231140-710: A latitude just south of the Arctic Circle . Its latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, and most of its islands have a polar climate . According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók , the settlement of Iceland began in 874 AD, when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the island's first permanent settler. In the following centuries, Norwegians , and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians , immigrated to Iceland, bringing with them thralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin. The island
1235-466: A low- silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii . Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite . Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with about 30 active volcanic systems. Surtsey , one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr , it rose above
1330-452: A mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions." While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist , he argues that the legal system came close to being a real-world anarcho-capitalist legal system. Although noting that there was a single legal system, Friedman argues that enforcement of the law was entirely private and highly capitalist, providing some evidence of how such
1425-406: A phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000 . Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often. With the widespread availability of geothermal power and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity , most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt ,
1520-620: A popular holiday destination. In 2016, Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson resigned after being implicated in the Panama Papers scandal. Early elections in 2016 resulted in a right-wing coalition government of the Independence Party , the Reform Party and Bright Future . This government fell when Bright Future quit the coalition due to a scandal involving then-Prime Minister Bjarni Benediktsson 's father's letter of support for
1615-429: A republic in 1944, ending the remaining formal ties to Denmark. Although the Althing was suspended from 1799 to 1845, Iceland nevertheless has a claim to sustaining one of the world's longest-running parliaments. Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid after World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one of
1710-479: A society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%. Around the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation , King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason ,
1805-517: A society would function. "Even where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially 'public' offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system." Commenting on its political structure, libertarian scholar Roderick Long remarks: The legal system's administration, insofar as it had one, lay in
1900-552: A verdict became the responsibility of the injured party or his family. Penalties often included financial compensation or outlawry . However, these were considered by some to be insufficient penalties and the Alþingi was only moderately successful at stopping feuds. According to Magnus Magnusson, the courts were "an uneasy substitute for vengeance." The most severe punishments were outlawry and three years' exile. Outlaws lost all property rights and could be killed without any punishment for
1995-596: Is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans , on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America and Europe . It is culturally and politically linked with Europe and is the region's westernmost and most sparsely populated country . Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík , which is home to about 36% of the country's roughly 380,000 residents (excluding nearby towns/suburbs which are separate municipalities). The official language of
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#17330858859232090-553: Is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur ; it was measured at 25.2 m (83 ft) in 2013. Algae such as Chondrus crispus , Phyllphora truncata and Phyllophora crispa and others have been recorded from Iceland. The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox , which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to
2185-508: Is a matter of controversy; the sagas are perceived by many as portraying an essentially violent and unjust society, tormented by constant feuding. It is difficult to tell whether such judgments are correct." A 2021 study by economists Vincent Geloso and Peter T. Leeson concluded that: The data available for comparing living standards in Iceland and other territories in medieval Europe—data on human height, wages, and population growth—are sparse, crude, and therefore challenging to interpret. But
2280-496: Is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland , is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains, and lava fields . The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík , along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur , Hafnarfjörður , and Garðabær , nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on
2375-456: Is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest to Greenland (290 kilometres; 155 nautical miles), an island of North America. Iceland is generally included in Europe for geographical, historical, political, cultural, linguistic and practical reasons. Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest bodies of land in Europe are
2470-559: Is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). Iceland is essentially free of mosquitoes . Icelandic Commonwealth The Icelandic Commonwealth , also known as the Icelandic Free State , was the political unit existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing ( Icelandic : Alþingi ) in 930 and the pledge of fealty to
2565-464: Is the surface expression of the Iceland Plateau , a large igneous province forming as a result of volcanism from the Iceland hotspot and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , the latter of which runs right through it. This means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes including Hekla , Eldgjá , Herðubreið , and Eldfell . The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused
2660-557: The Age of the Sturlungs , the Commonwealth began to suffer from chaos and division resulting from internal disputes. Originally, the goðar (chieftains) functioned more as a contractual relationship than a fixed geographic chieftaincy. However, by 1220 this form of communal leadership was replaced by dominant regional individuals who battled with one another for more control. One historian argues
2755-441: The Age of the Sturlungs , the average battle involved fewer than 1000 men, with an average casualty rate of only 15%. This relatively low casualty rate might be attributed to the blood-feud mentality which permeated Icelandic society, which meant that the defeated army could not honourably be slaughtered to a man. The first Bishop of Skalholt was Ísleifur Gissurarson , who was elected by the Althing in 1056. After his son Gissur
2850-456: The Boreal Kingdom . Plantlife consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch ( Betula pubescens ), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens ( Populus tremula ), rowans ( Sorbus aucuparia ), common junipers ( Juniperus communis ), and other smaller trees, mainly willows. When
2945-583: The Faroe Islands (420 km; 225 nmi); Jan Mayen Island (570 km; 310 nmi); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides , both about 740 km (400 nmi); and the Scottish mainland and Orkney , both about 750 km (405 nmi). The nearest part of Continental Europe is mainland Norway, about 970 km (525 nmi) away, while mainland North America is 2,070 km (1,120 nmi) away, at
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3040-582: The Little Ice Age , and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion . Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three-quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) is affected by soil erosion; 18,000 km (6,900 sq mi) is affected to a degree serious enough to make the land useless. Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The Icelandic Forest Service and other forestry groups promote large-scale reforestation in
3135-524: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge , a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates , and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge. Many fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-km-long (3,088-mi) coastline, which
3230-481: The Norwegian king with the Old Covenant in 1262. With the probable exception of hermitic Irish monks known as Papar , Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 874. The Icelandic Commonwealth had a unique political system whereby chieftains ( goðar ) established a common legal code and settled judicial disputes at the Althing, a national assembly. However, there was no executive body in Iceland that enforced
3325-686: The Treaty of Kiel formally ceded Iceland to Denmark in 1814. Influenced by ideals of nationalism after the French Revolution , Iceland's struggle for independence took form and culminated in the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union in 1918, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Iceland , sharing through a personal union the incumbent monarch of Denmark . During the occupation of Denmark in World War II, Iceland voted overwhelmingly to become
3420-456: The Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: 83–88 km (32–34 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn : 82 km (32 sq mi); other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn . Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at 248 m (814 ft). Geologically, Iceland is part of
3515-480: The "old poetic traditions of meter, alliteration, and stylized 'poetic' diction" with "free verse and other features of the 'international' style." The Atom Poets did not have a manifesto and were never an organized movement, though some of them collaborated on the editorial board of the "main forum for Icelandic modernists," Birtingur , founded in 1953 by Einar Bragi. Iceland Iceland ( Icelandic : Ísland , pronounced [ˈistlant] )
3610-518: The 11th and 12th centuries, and did thus not have princely powers or subjects in the districts that they represented. Around 1190, the number of chieftaincies declined and power started to centralize in individual chieftains controlling larger regions of the country. By ca 1220, the country was a loose federation of 10–12 regional powers. According to historian Jón Viðar Sigurðsson, "a chieftain based his power on his personal qualities, his wealth, friends, assembly men, kinsmen and in-laws. The cleverest,
3705-609: The 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson , based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet. The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union , an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as
3800-607: The Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks : Vatnajökull National Park , Snæfellsjökull National Park , and Þingvellir National Park . The country is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University 's Environmental Performance Index of 2012. A geologically young land at 16 to 18 million years old, Iceland
3895-518: The Commonwealth of Nations, such as Canada, whose sovereign is King Charles III . During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of its own defence and foreign affairs. A month later, British armed forces conducted Operation Fork ,
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3990-503: The King of Norway led the Icelandic chieftains to accept Norway's Haakon IV as king by the signing of the Gamli sáttmáli ("Old Covenant") in 1262. According to historian Sverrir Jakobsson, three Icelanders played a central role in bringing Iceland under the King of Norway: Gissur Þorvaldsson (for getting farmers to agree to pay taxes to the King), Hrafn Oddsson (for pressuring Gissur into supporting
4085-798: The King, and getting farmers in the Westfjords to submit to the King) and bishop Brandur Jónsson (for getting his relatives in the East Fjords to submit to the King). By 1264, all Icelandic chieftains had sworn allegiance to the King of Norway. The end of the Icelandic Commonwealth is typically dated to the Old Covenant (1262–1264) or to the adoption of Jónsbók in 1281. According to the libertarian theorist David D. Friedman , "Medieval Icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by
4180-677: The Left-Green Movement, headed by Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir. In April 2024, Bjarni Benediktsson of the Independence party succeeded Katrín Jakobsdóttir as prime minister. Iceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle , which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63 and 68°N , and longitudes 25 and 13°W . Iceland
4275-680: The US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at US$ 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at US$ 109). Vigdís Finnbogadóttir assumed Iceland's presidency on 1 August 1980, making her the first elected female head of state in the world. The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars —several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 nmi (370 km) offshore. Iceland hosted
4370-450: The assembly, which was responsible for reviewing and amending the nation's laws. The Lögrétta comprised the 39 goðar and their advisors. They also appointed a Lawspeaker ( lögsögumaður ) once every three years. The Lawspeaker recited and clarified laws at Lögberg ("Law Rock"), located at the center of Þingvellir. The descendants of Ingólfr Arnarson , the first settler of Iceland, held the ceremonial position of allsherjargoði and had
4465-509: The basis for Iceland's national assembly. Sections of his law code are preserved in the Landnámabók , ("Book of Settlements"). The first Alþingi assembly convened around the year 930 at Þingvellir , ("Assembly Plains"). The Alþingi served as a public gathering at which people from all over the country met for two weeks every June. The Alþingi revolved around the Lögrétta , the legislative council of
4560-517: The chaos and violence of this period stem from an imbalance of power and changes in the nature of Icelandic warfare. Whereas the number of goðar had been at least 39 early in the Icelandic Commonwealth, a few powerful families had consolidated control over most of the goðorð in the late 12th century. There are several factors that may have resulted in the consolidation of goðorð . The separation of secular and ecclesiastical power led some families and regional networks to become stronger at
4655-457: The country is Icelandic . Iceland is on a rift between tectonic plates , and its geologic activity includes geysers and frequent volcanic eruptions . The interior consists of a volcanic plateau with sand and lava fields , mountains and glaciers , and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands . Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate , despite
4750-441: The country under his rule. He commissioned Icelandic chieftains to become part of his body of retainers and to pursue his interests in Iceland. The King's role in Icelandic affairs started in 1220, and had become strong by 1240 (Icelanders were starting to accept the King's choice of chieftains). Over the period 1240–1260, the King consolidated power in Iceland. A combination of discontent with domestic hostilities and pressure from
4845-566: The country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World , particularly to the region of Gimli , Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland . About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000. A national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in
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#17330858859234940-416: The country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life. Atlantic puffins , skuas , and black-legged kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs. Commercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997. Around 1,300 species of insects are known in Iceland. This
5035-417: The country. Due to the reforestation efforts, the forest cover of Iceland increased six-fold since the 1990s. This helps to offset carbon emissions, prevent sand storms and increase the productivity of farms. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species . The tallest tree in Iceland
5130-479: The direction of Snorri Goði , or "Snorri the Priest." The emphasis on justice and the conviction in their system of governance is reflected within the saga: "They say we shall suffer setbacks in court; we must plead for support from powerful chieftains: but Arnkel will argue an eloquent case, he will sway judge and jury – I have faith in justice." Chieftains were highly reliant on the support of farmers in their domain in
5225-563: The early 12th century. Icelandic law allowed individuals guilty of theft or failure to pay debts to be enslaved. Slaves were allowed to marry and have children, which meant that a class of slaves could self-perpetuate. Slavery likely declined in the second half of the 12th century and was extremely rare by the 15th century. The followers of the goðar owed them military service. They were organized into platoons or companies based on their social status and equipment, and these formed expeditionary armies or leiðangrs . Icelandic military tradition of
5320-513: The eruption, known as the Mist Hardships ( Icelandic : Móðuharðindin ), over half of all livestock in the country died. Around a quarter of the population starved to death in the ensuing famine . In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars , Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel , but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century,
5415-570: The events known locally as the Turkish Abductions , in which hundreds of residents were taken into slavery in North Africa and dozens killed; this was the only invasion in Icelandic history to have casualties. The 1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed a quarter to a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following
5510-510: The expense of others, leading to an imbalance of power. The introduction of tithe may have increased the wealth of chieftains that controlled the churches. The introduction of pitched battles and harassment of farmers on a regional basis raised the stakes and dangers, which may have incentivized consolidation. An increase in population along with a resource shortage may have made commoners more dependent on chieftains. The King of Norway began to exert pressure on his Icelandic vassals to bring
5605-415: The first permanent residents of Iceland to be documented. The Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls , many of whom were Irish or Scottish . By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing , a legislative and judicial assembly
5700-463: The greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and grew by 1.6% in 2012. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 election. In the following years, Iceland saw a surge in tourism as the country became
5795-428: The hands of a parliament of about 40 officers whom historians call, however inadequately, "chieftains". This parliament had no budget and no employees; it met only two weeks per year. In addition to their parliamentary role, chieftains were empowered in their own local districts to appoint judges and to keep the peace; this latter job was handled on an essentially fee-for-service basis. The enforcement of judicial decisions
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#17330858859235890-476: The invasion and occupation of the country, violating Icelandic neutrality . In 1941, the Government of Iceland, friendly to Britain, invited the then-neutral United States to take over its defence so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere. On 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate
5985-523: The island was first settled, it was extensively forested, with around 30% of the land covered in trees. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as "forested from mountain to sea shore". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity . The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation , climatic deterioration during
6080-440: The island was then called Garðarshólmur, which means "Garðar's Isle". Then came a Viking named Flóki Vilgerðarson ; his daughter drowned en route, then his livestock starved to death. The sagas say that the rather despondent Flóki climbed a mountain and saw a fjord ( Arnarfjörður ) full of icebergs, which led him to give the island its new and present name. The notion that Iceland's Viking settlers chose that name to discourage
6175-604: The island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. No native or free-living reptiles or amphibians are on the island. The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep , cattle , chickens , goats , the sturdy Icelandic horse , and the Icelandic Sheepdog , all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink , mice, rats, rabbits, and reindeer . Polar bears occasionally visit
6270-415: The island, travelling from Greenland on icebergs, but no Icelandic populations exist. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Marine mammals include the grey seal ( Halichoerus grypus ) and harbour seal ( Phoca vitulina ). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for roughly half of
6365-470: The killers. Exiles who failed to leave Iceland became outlaws. Historian Birgir Solvason states that Icelandic society was "more peaceful and cooperative than its contemporaries". In England and Norway, by contrast, "the period from about 800 to 1200 is a period of continuous struggle; high in both violence and killings". Historian Jón Viðar Sigurðsson argues that the introduction of Christianity to Iceland illustrates how effective and significant arbitration
6460-437: The last Catholic bishop of Hólar , was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became officially Lutheran, and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. In the summer of 1627, Barbary Pirates committed
6555-549: The leaders of the Alþingi, the national assembly of Iceland. Today, the Alþingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in existence. It began with the regional assembly at Kjalarness established by Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, son of the first settler. The leaders of the Kjalarnessþing appointed a man named Úlfljótr to study the laws in Norway. He spent three years in Norway and returned with the foundation of Úlfljótr's Law, which would form
6650-400: The legal code. The Icelandic Commonwealth has consequently been characterized as a stateless society . During the 13th century, Iceland came under the control of the Kingdom of Norway . The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure. The first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. They wanted to avoid
6745-399: The most helpful, the wealthiest and the most generous became the most powerful ones." Historian Árni Daniel Júliusson further notes that the food production of the peasantry was the "basis of political and military power". Peasant rebellions, traditionally defined, never occurred in Iceland, even though peasant unrest was fairly common. Slavery was practiced in Iceland from settlement to
6840-472: The northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 26.2 °C (79.2 °F) on 30 July 2008, and −24.5 °C (−12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918. The entire country is in a single ecoregion , the Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra . Some areas are covered by glaciers . Phytogeographically , Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within
6935-410: The northern tip of Labrador . Iceland is the world's 18th-largest island , and Europe's second-largest island after Great Britain and before Ireland. The main island covers 101,826 km (39,315 sq mi), but the entire country is 103,000 km (40,000 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% is tundra . Iceland contains about 30 minor islands, including the lightly populated Grímsey and
7030-435: The novel is a bad poet and a less than sympathetic character." The name, at first used pejoratively, stuck, and came to mean all poetry written in a non-traditional manner. In contrast, the atom poets' work is more complex and introspective, requiring more effort from the reader. Influenced by French surrealism (Einar Bragi had translated some of their texts into Icelandic), these poets revolutionized Icelandic poetry, replacing
7125-401: The ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island. The country has around 30 active volcanic systems. Within each are volcano-tectonic fissure systems and many, but not all of them, also have at least one central volcano (mostly in the form of a stratovolcano , sometimes of
7220-507: The personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president. In 1946, the US Defence Force Allied left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots . On 5 May 1951,
7315-420: The regional courts. The rulings of the quarter judges had to be agreed upon by a strong majority: if only six of the judges disagreed, then the case was deadlocked and dismissed. In 1005, this problem was solved by the creation of a Fifth Court, an appeals court based on a simple majority. Once a court decided a party was guilty, however, it had no executive authority to carry out a sentence. Instead, enforcement of
7410-419: The role of sanctifying the Alþingi each year. Iceland was divided into four administrative regions called fjörðungar (farthings). Each of these was ruled by nine goðar . The Alþingi was made up of the four Quarter Courts ( fjórðungsdómur ). This judicial body of Iceland consisted of 36 judges, each appointed by one of the goðar . These courts tried individual cases and served as a higher judicial authority to
7505-407: The same geographical area. Summarizing his research, Friedman concludes in part: It is difficult to draw any conclusion from the Icelandic experience concerning the viability of systems of private enforcement in the twentieth century. Even if Icelandic institutions worked well then, they might not work in a larger and more interdependent society. And whether the Icelandic institutions did work well
7600-621: The settlement of their verdant isle is most likely a myth. According to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók , monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission . An archaeological excavation has revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula . Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880. In 2016, archaeologists uncovered
7695-597: The signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united. After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway . Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in
7790-470: The smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army , possessing only a lightly armed coast guard . The Sagas of Icelanders say that a Norwegian named Naddodd (or Naddador) was the first Norseman to reach Iceland; in the ninth century, he named it Snæland or "Snowland" because it was snowing. Following Naddodd, the Swede Garðar Svavarsson arrived, and so
7885-463: The south coast is warmer, wetter, and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the aridest. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than in the south. The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was −38 °C (−36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in
7980-450: The strong centralized authority of Harald Fairhair from which some of them had fled, but they also wanted to replicate the Norwegian tradition of laws and district legal assemblies ( Þing ). This created a unique structure. The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains (sing. goði , pl. goðar ). The office of the goði was called the goðorð . The goðorð was not delimited by strict geographical boundaries. Thus,
8075-455: The time closely followed developments in Norway. No organized cavalry formations or formations of troops equipped with projectile weapons are recorded: instead the bulk of the forces were formed in units of light, medium and heavy infantry , with bowmen or slingers distributed among the infantry units, operating as light support skirmishers. Before the end of the Commonwealth, at least 21 fortresses and castles had been built in Iceland. During
8170-534: The world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands , the Alaska Peninsula , and Tierra del Fuego , although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, with the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969. The climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking,
8265-680: The world's wealthiest and most developed nations. In 1994 it became a part of the European Economic Area , further diversifying its economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing . Iceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes , compared to other OECD countries, as well as the highest trade union membership in the world . It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education . Iceland ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. It has
8360-639: The written law code, and Íslendingabók, or the Book of the Icelanders by Ari the Learned . The impact of the legislative and judicial systems on Icelandic settlers is a common theme in many of the other Icelandic sagas . Works such as Njáls saga and the Laxdæla saga give many details, but their accuracy has been disputed. Eyrbyggja saga details the transition from paganism to Christianity within Icelandic settlement under
8455-410: Was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among segments of the population for some years afterward. The Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to
8550-493: Was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing , one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. After a period of civil strife , Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under de facto Danish rule upon its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550, and
8645-540: Was in Iceland. At the Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, the Alþingi outlawed public celebration of pagan rituals and decreed that in order to prevent an invasion, all Icelanders must be baptized. In 1117, the law code of the Icelandic Commonwealth was put into writing, becoming known as the Gray Goose Laws . Knowledge of the system of government in medieval Iceland stems mainly from two main primary sources:
8740-539: Was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth . The lack of arable land also served as an impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period , when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity
8835-401: Was installed as bishop, the power and wealth of the church quickly grew due to the introduction of tithing , the first tax introduced in Iceland. The church became the second unifying institution in the country after the Althing. Continuing similar patterns from the pre-Christian era, church estates could be owned by goðar who would then get a portion of the tithe. In the early 13th century,
8930-483: Was largely a matter of self-help (hence Iceland's reputation as a land of constant private feuding), but those who lacked the might to enforce their rights could sell their court-decreed claims for compensation to someone more powerful, usually a chieftain; hence even the poor and friendless could not be victimized with impunity. The basis of a chieftain's power within the political order was the power he already possessed outside it, in civil society. The office of chieftaincy
9025-520: Was private property, and could be bought or sold; hence chieftaincies tended to track private wealth. But wealth alone was not enough. As economic historian Birgir Solvason notes in his masterful study of the period, "just buying the chieftainship was no guarantee of power"; the mere office by itself was "almost worthless" unless the chieftain could "convince some free-farmers to follow him". Chieftains did not hold authority over territorially-defined districts, but competed for clients with other chieftains from
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