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57-607: Atheris is a genus of vipers known as bush vipers . They are found only in tropical subsaharan Africa (excluding southern Africa ) and many species have isolated and fragmented distributions due to their confinement to rain forests . Like all other vipers, they are venomous . In an example of convergent evolution , they show many similarities to the arboreal pit vipers of Asia and South America . Seventeen species are currently recognized. They are relatively small in size, with adults ranging in total length (body + tail) from 55 cm (22 in) for A. katangensis to

114-417: A Burmese snake-catcher inoculating himself with cobra venom. However, the snake-catcher was unsure whether this was actually effective and therefore continued to treat his snakes with care. Nicholson, along with other Britons, began to consider that venom might provide its own cure. Although Scottish surgeon Patrick Russell had noted in the late 18th century that snakes were not affected by their own venom, it

171-464: A case of A. squamigera envenomation. Symptomatic replacement therapy is applied due to the absence of an Atheris-specific antivenom. *) Not including the nominate subspecies ) Type species Other species may be encountered in literature, such as: Until relatively recently, the following species, all of which are terrestrial, were also included in the genus Atheris : Together with Atheris , these three genera are sometimes referred to as

228-609: A high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the venomous species involved. In the US, approved antivenom, including for pit viper ( rattlesnake , copperhead and water moccasin ) snakebite, is based on a purified product made in sheep known as CroFab . It was approved by the FDA in October 2000. U.S. coral snake antivenom ceased production, and remaining stocks of in-date antivenom for coral snakebite expired in fall 2009, leaving

285-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

342-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

399-407: A maximum of 78 cm (31 in) for A. squamigera . All species have a broad, triangular head that is distinct from the neck. The canthus is also distinct and the snout is broad. The crown is covered with small imbricate or smooth scales, none of which is enlarged. The eyes are relatively large with elliptical pupils . The eyes are separated from the supralabials by 1–3 scale rows and from

456-405: A minor gap in the cold chain is not disastrous. The use of serum from immunized animals as a treatment for disease was pioneered in 1890 by Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato , who first demonstrated that the infectious diseases diphtheria and tetanus could be prevented or cured using transfusions from an immune animal to a susceptible one. On February 10, 1894, Albert Calmette at

513-401: A much wider distribution but are now declining. Some species are threatened by habitat destruction. A major cause of illness and mortality in both caged and wild bush viper snakes is Snake fungal disease(SFD). All species have extreme aggressive tendencies. All species are arboreal , although they can sometimes be found on or near the ground. Atheris species have been known to prey upon

570-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

627-463: A step toward an antivenom that could be used on any of the 200 or so dangerous venomous snakes throughout the world. Antivenoms have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals: The name "antivenin" comes from the French word venin , meaning venom , which in turn was derived from Latin venenum , meaning poison . Historically, the term antivenin was predominant around

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684-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

741-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

798-412: A variety of small amphibians , lizards , rodents , birds , and even other snakes . Some species or populations may specialize in eating frogs , but most have been described as opportunistic feeders. Prey is typically ambushed from a hanging position, held until it has succumbed to the venom, and then swallowed. All Atheris species are ovoviviparous . Mating takes place in October and November, and

855-593: Is based on that of vaccines , developed by Edward Jenner ; however, instead of inducing immunity in the person directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused into the person. The host animals may include horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, rabbits, chickens, llamas, and camels. In addition, opossums are being studied for antivenom production. Antivenoms for medical use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoules , but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. They are not immediately inactivated by heat, however, so

912-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

969-462: Is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved. It is given by injection. Side effects may be severe. They include serum sickness , shortness of breath , and allergic reactions including anaphylaxis . Antivenom is traditionally made by collecting venom from the relevant animal and injecting small amounts of it into a domestic animal. The antibodies that form are then collected from

1026-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

1083-555: Is strongly hemotoxic , causing pain, swelling, and blood clotting problems. Until recently, their venom has often been regarded as less toxic than that of many other species, perhaps because bites are uncommon, but this turned out not to be the case. There are now a number of reports of bites that have led to severe hemorrhaging . One case was fatal. Atheris -specific antivenom does not exist and antivenom meant for bites from other species seems to have little effect, although Echis antivenom has been reported to have been of some help in

1140-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

1197-482: Is to develop targeted drugs (which, unlike antibodies, are usually synthetic and easier to manufacture at scale). Antivenom was first developed in the late 19th century and came into common use in the 1950s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . Antivenom is used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. They are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or

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1254-585: The Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL) began antivenom research in the 1920s. CSL has developed antivenoms for the redback spider, funnel-web spiders and all deadly Australian snakes. In the USA, the H.K. Mulford company began producing "Nearctic Crotalidae antivenin" in 1927, via a consortium called the Antivenin Institute of America. Over time, a variety of improvements have been made in

1311-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

1368-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

1425-582: The Pasteur Institute , and independently Césaire Auguste Phisalix and Gabriel Bertrand at the National Museum of National History in France, announced that they had achieved the same result—treatment of a vulnerable animal with serum from an immunized one—this time using snake venom as the source of protection and disease. Calmette went on subsequently to immunize horses using venom from Indian cobras , and

1482-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

1539-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1596-466: The tribe Atherini. Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

1653-460: The U.S. without a coral snake antivenom. However, as of July 2021, Pfizer has indicated that antivenom is available. Efforts are being made to obtain approval for a coral snake antivenom produced in Mexico which would work against U.S. coral snakebite, but such approval remains speculative. As an alternative when conventional antivenom is not available, hospitals sometimes use an intravenous version of

1710-831: The antiparalytic drug neostigmine to delay the effects of neurotoxic envenomation through snakebite. Some promising research results have also been reported for administering the drug nasally as a "universal antivenom" for neurotoxic snakebite treatment. A monovalent antivenom is specific for one toxin or species, while a polyvalent one is effective against multiple toxins or species. The majority of antivenoms (including all snake antivenoms ) are administered intravenously; however, stonefish and redback spider antivenoms are given intramuscularly . The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective. Antivenoms are purified from animal serum by several processes and may contain other serum proteins that can act as immunogens . Some individuals may react to

1767-489: The antisera, followed by application of high vacuum. This causes frozen water to sublimate. Sera is reduced to powder with no water content. In such an environment, microorganisms and enzymes cannot degrade the antivenom, and it can be stored for up to 5 years [at normal temperatures]. Liquid antivenoms may also be stored for 5 years, but they must be stored at low temperatures (below 8 ° C /46 ° F ). Antivenoms act by binding to and neutralizing venoms. The principle of antivenom

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1824-403: The antivenom with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction ( anaphylaxis ) or a delayed hypersensitivity ( serum sickness ) reaction, and antivenom should, therefore, be used with caution. Although rare, severe hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis to antivenom are possible. Despite this caution, antivenom is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once

1881-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

1938-505: The body while suspended from a branch or a twig. Members of this genus come in a wide variety of colors and patterns, often within a single species. A. ceratophora and A. squamigera are particularly variable. They inhabit rainforest regions and forests, mostly in remote areas far from human activity. They are found in tropical subsaharan Africa , excluding southern Africa . Some species have only isolated populations, surviving in small sections of ancient rainforest . They once had

1995-424: The domestic animal's blood and purified. Versions are available for spider bites , snake bites , fish stings , and scorpion stings . Due to the high cost of producing antibody-based antivenoms and their short shelf lives when not refrigerated, alternative methods of production of antivenoms are being actively explored. One such different method of production involves production from bacteria. Another approach

2052-534: The females give birth to live young in March and April. A. squamigera is reported to do very well in captivity, needing only arboreal access and having no particular temperature requirements. Captive specimens take mice and small birds. However, there have been reports of cannibalism . Food may be refused during the African winter months of July and August. Limited understanding exists about their venom , except that it

2109-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

2166-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

2223-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

2280-454: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Antivenom Antivenom , also known as antivenin , venom antiserum , and antivenom immunoglobulin , is a specific treatment for envenomation . It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if there

2337-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

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2394-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

2451-401: The nasal by 2–3 scales. The body is slender, tapering, and slightly compressed. The dorsal scales are overlapping, strongly keeled and have apical pits. Laterally these are smaller than the middorsals. Midbody there are 14–36 rows of dorsal scales. There are 133–175 rounded ventral scales . The subcaudal scales are single and number 38–67. The tail is strongly prehensile and can support

2508-481: The precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenom if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenom, the side effects are manageable, and antivenom should be given rapidly as the side effects can be managed. Most antivenoms are prepared by freeze drying (also called cryodesiccation or lyophilization). The process involves freezing

2565-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

2622-460: The result is that many snake antivenoms, world-wide, are very expensive. Availability, from region to region, also varies. Internationally, antivenoms must conform to the standards of pharmacopoeia and the World Health Organization (WHO). In 2024 researchers have discovered a synthetic antibody that can neutralize a key type of neurotoxin produced by four different deadly snake species from South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa. This might be

2679-585: The resulting Serum Antivenimeux (antivenomous serum) became the first commercially-available antivenom product. Natural immunity of snakes to their own venom was observed at least as long ago as 1767, by Felice Fontana in his work Ricerche Fisiche sopra il Veleno della Vipera (Physical Research on the Venom of the Viper). Surgeon-Major Edward Nicholson wrote in the November 1870 Madras Medical Journal that he had witnessed

2736-417: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

2793-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

2850-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

2907-770: The specificity, potency, and purity of antivenom products, including " salting out " with ammonium sulphate or caprylic acid , enzymatic reduction of antibodies with papain or with pepsin , affinity purification , and a variety of other measures. Many equine facilities now use plasmapheresis to collect blood plasma instead of blood serum . There is an overall shortage of antivenom to treat snakebites . Because of this shortage, clinical researchers are considering whether lower doses may be as effective as higher doses in severe neurotoxic snake envenoming. Antivenom undergoes successive price markups after manufacturing, by licencees, wholesalers and hospitals. When weighed against profitability (especially for sale in poorer regions),

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2964-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

3021-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

3078-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

3135-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

3192-658: Was effective in the laboratory, but failed to make an impact as the public were focused on contemporary Pasteurian discoveries. In 1901, Vital Brazil , working at the Instituto Butantan in São Paulo , Brazil , developed the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenoms for Central and South American Crotalus and Bothrops genera, as well as for certain species of venomous spiders , scorpions , and frogs . In Mexico in 1905, Daniel Vergara Lope developed an antivenom against scorpion venom, by immunizing dogs. In Australia,

3249-531: Was not until the late 19th century that Joseph Fayrer, Lawrence Waddell , and others began to consider venom-based remedies again. However, they and other naturalists working in India did not have the funding to fully develop their theories. In 1895 Sir Thomas Fraser , Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, picked up Fayrer and Waddell's research to produce a serum to act against cobra venom. His "antivenene"

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