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145-516: Virtual and physical training facilities have been integrated to familiarize astronauts with the conditions they will encounter during all phases of flight and prepare astronauts for a microgravity environment. Special considerations must be made during training to ensure a safe and successful mission, which is why the Apollo astronauts received training for geology field work on the Lunar surface and why research

290-608: A McDonnell Douglas C-9 , is based at Ellington Field (KEFD), near Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . NASA's Microgravity University - Reduced Gravity Flight Opportunities Plan, also known as the Reduced Gravity Student Flight Opportunities Program, allows teams of undergraduates to submit a microgravity experiment proposal. If selected, the teams design and implement their experiment, and students are invited to fly on NASA's Vomit Comet. The European Space Agency (ESA) flies parabolic flights on

435-541: A PADI open water scuba diving course. This scuba course provides basic EVA training at ESA's NBF before moving on to the larger NASA training facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . Advanced Training includes a much more in-depth look into the ISS, including learning how to service and operate all systems. Enhanced science training is also implemented at this time to ensure all astronauts can perform science experiments on board

580-463: A number of non-human animals have circled or orbited it, including two tortoises , several turtles , and five mice . Apollo missions 8 and 10 – 17 were the nine crewed missions to the Moon. Apollo 4 – 6 and AS-201 and AS-202 were uncrewed, while AS-203 is considered a test flight. The Apollo program included three other crewed missions: Apollo 1 (AS-204) did not launch and its crew died in

725-616: A Skylab mission, one commanded Apollo–Soyuz, one flew as commander for Approach and Landing Tests of the Space Shuttle , and two commanded orbital Space Shuttle missions. NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations during the Gemini and Apollo programs was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton , one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts, who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a minor cardiac arrhythmia – paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Slayton

870-802: A Soyuz-type orbital vehicle into low Earth orbit . The training for these astronauts should be based on the lessons learned from training India's only Cosmonaut Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma ( See Salyut-7 1984 ) and through India's international co-operation with NASA and Roscosmos. India may proceed with its human spaceflight program on its own, which would require the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) to develop its own training program. India plans to build an astronaut training facility and biomedical engineering centre 8 to 10 kilometres from Kempegowda International Airport. This facility will be used for future astronaut training, as training for India's first crewed mission will take place in

1015-403: A crucial role as these missions would last from one year to Moon to three years on Mars. The training required for such missions has to be versatile and easy to learn, adapt, and improvise. A journey to Mars will require astronauts to remain in the crew capsule for nine months. The monotony and isolation of the journey present new psychological challenges. The long period spent in the crew capsule

1160-440: A focus on the psychological aspects of long-duration missions where crew is largely isolated. Currently a six-month mission to the ISS requires up to five years of astronaut training. This level of training is to be expected and likely to be expanded upon for future space exploration missions. It may also include in-flight training aspects. It may be possible that the ISS will be used as a long-duration astronaut training facility in

1305-413: A fulcrum, or by using a plate that oscillates on a vertical axis. The use of beta-2 adrenergic agonists to increase muscle mass, and the use of essential amino acids in conjunction with resistive exercises have been proposed as pharmacologic means of combating muscle atrophy in space. Next to the skeletal and muscular system, the cardiovascular system is less strained in weightlessness than on Earth and

1450-489: A graphical rendering program that replicates the ISS and a device called the Charlotte Robot that allows astronauts to visually explore their surroundings while interacting with an object.  The Charlotte robot is a simple device with a metal arm attached to the side that allows a user to interact with the device. The user wears haptic feedback gloves with force sensors that send signals to a central computer. In response,

1595-477: A ground-based capsule fire, while Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were low Earth orbit missions that only tested spacecraft components and docking maneuvers. Apollo missions 18, 19, and 20 were canceled . Twelve astronauts later flew unused Apollo command modules in the Apollo Applications Program 's Skylab and Apollo–Soyuz Test Project . Of the 24 astronauts who flew to the Moon, two went on to command

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1740-409: A group of five scientist astronauts, the first group qualified by doctorate degrees rather than test or military fighter pilot experience. Geologist Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt participated heavily in the geological training of the lunar landing astronauts, as well as assisting in the analysis of returned samples and the preparation of mission reports. In 1970, he was selected as Lunar Module Pilot for

1885-509: A high vacuum, low temperature chamber that simulates the environmental conditions of space. At all stages of training, astronauts undergo physical conditioning, including time in a human centrifuge located at the ACC, and a program of micro gravity flights, carried out in Russia. The Indian human space flight program still awaits a formal go ahead. Once cleared, the mission is expected to take two Indians in

2030-412: A means of training astronauts in a cost-effective manner, particularly for operations such as extra-vehicular activity ( EVA ). These missions are not completely independent without the presence of robots. This opens up a new avenue towards Human-Robot Interaction which has to be thoroughly understood and practised to develop a harmonious relationship between astronauts and robots. These robots would aid

2175-454: A microgravity environment. The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL) has advantages in simulating a zero-gravity environment and reproducing the sensation of floating in space. The training method is achieved by constructing a low gravity environment through Maintaining the Natural buoyancy in one of the largest pools in the world. The NBL pool used to practice extravehicular activities or spacewalks

2320-407: A nearly weightless environment in which to train astronauts, conduct research, and film motion pictures. Such aircraft are commonly referred by the nickname " Vomit Comet ". To create a weightless environment, the airplane flies in a 10 km (6 mi) parabolic arc, first climbing, then entering a powered dive. During the arc, the propulsion and steering of the aircraft are controlled to cancel

2465-551: A space mission. The mission specific training typically requires 18 months to complete for Space Shuttle and International Space Station crews. It is important to ensure the astronauts’ well-being, physical and mental health prior, during, and after the mission period. Proficiency maintenance aims to help the crew members to maintain a minimum level of performance, including topics such as extravehicular activity, robotics, language, diving, and flight training. The effects of launching and landing have various effects on astronauts, with

2610-621: A spacecraft. It is also used to replace some of the oversized models that cannot fit in the Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL). In 1993, astronauts were trained and evaluated on working on the Hubble Space Telescope through a virtual reality training tool, Research in Human Factors Aspects of Enhanced Virtual Environments for EVA Training and Simulation (RAVEN). However, the aim of RAVEN was not to train astronauts but to evaluate

2755-507: A specially modified Airbus A310-300 aircraft to perform research in microgravity. Along with the French CNES and the German DLR , they conduct campaigns of three flights over consecutive days, with each flight's about 30 parabolae totalling about 10 minutes of weightlessness. These campaigns are currently operated from Bordeaux - Mérignac Airport by Novespace , a subsidiary of CNES ;

2900-416: A timely manner, with as little intervention from the ground as possible. For missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn prepare the astronauts for carrying out

3045-660: A virtual reality environment, is being researched as a solution to behavioral health. Researchers are looking into how current mental health tools can be adjusted to help the crew face stressors that will arise in an isolated, confined environment (ICE) during extended missions. The International Space Station uses a behavioral conflict management system known as the Virtual Space Station (VSS) to minimize conflict between crew members and address psychological challenges. The program has modules that focus on relationship management, stress and depression that guide astronaut's through

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3190-470: A virtual therapy session in space. Virtual reality technologies first came to a commercial release in the 1990s. It is not until then did people realize that VR can be used in training astronauts. The earlier VR gears for astronaut training are dedicated to enhance the communication between robot arm operators and the astronaut during Extravehicular Activities (EVA). It brings EVA crew members and robot arm operators together, in live, even when they are on board

3335-736: A week after fertilization develop normally. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium , a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence ". Under certain test conditions, microbes have been observed to thrive in

3480-426: Is 105 m tall and provides a 4.6 s free fall under near- vacuum conditions. Other drop facilities worldwide include: Another ground-based approach to simulate weightlessness for biological sample is a "3D-clinostat," also called a random positioning machine . Unlike a regular clinostat , the random positioning machine rotates in two axes simultaneously and progressively establishes a microgravity-like condition via

3625-401: Is 62 meters (203 feet) long, 31 meters (102 feet) wide, and 12 meters (39 feet) deep, with a capacity of 6.2 million gallons. Underwater head-mounted display virtual reality headset is used to provide visual information during the training with a frame rate of 60 fps and screen resolution of 1280 by 1440. The underwater VR training system has a reduced training cost because of the accessibility of

3770-537: Is a risk for post-flight motion sickness, however this is only significant following long-duration space missions. Post-flight, following exposure to microgravity, the vestibular system , located in the inner ear is disrupted because of the microgravity-induced unresponsiveness of the otoliths which are small calcareous concretions that sense body postures and are responsible for ensuring proper balance. In most cases, this leads to some postflight postural illusions. Cardiovascular events represent important factors during

3915-533: Is a selective alpha-1 adrenergic agonist. Midodrine produces arterial and venous constriction resulting in an increase in blood pressure by baroreceptor reflexes . Russian scientists have observed differences between cockroaches conceived in space and their terrestrial counterparts. The space-conceived cockroaches grew more quickly, and also grew up to be faster and tougher. Chicken eggs that are put in microgravity two days after fertilization appear not to develop properly, whereas eggs put in microgravity more than

4060-412: Is an elevator car where the cable has been cut and it plummets toward Earth, accelerating at a rate equal to the 9.81 meters per second per second. In this scenario, the gravitational force is mostly, but not entirely, diminished; anyone in the elevator would experience an absence of the usual gravitational pull, however the force is not exactly zero. Since gravity is a force directed towards the center of

4205-542: Is being conducted on best practices for future extended missions, such as the trip to Mars. The selection and training of astronauts are integrated processes to ensure the crew members are qualified for space missions. The training is categorized into five objectives to train the astronauts on the general and specific aspects: basic training, advanced training, mission-specific training, onboard training, and proficiency maintenance training. The trainees must learn medicine, language, robotics and piloting, space system engineering,

4350-496: Is being pulled towards Earth at the same speed, but also moving forward as the Earth's surface "falls" away below. All these objects are in free fall , not zero gravity. Compare the gravitational potential at some of these locations . Following the advent of space stations that can be inhabited for long periods, exposure to weightlessness has been demonstrated to have some deleterious effects on human health. Humans are well-adapted to

4495-422: Is carried out in parallel with mission planning. This phase is where candidates will undergo mission specific operational training, as well as experience with their assigned experiments. Crew medical officer training is also included to effectively intervene with proactive and reactive actions in case of medical issues. It can take up to two years for an AsCan to become formally qualified as an astronaut. Usually,

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4640-404: Is characterized by excessive drowsiness, lassitude, lethargy, mild depression, and reduced ability to focus on an assigned task." Together, these symptoms may pose a substantial threat (albeit temporary) to the astronaut who must remain attentive to life and death issues at all times. SMS is most commonly thought to be a disorder of the vestibular system that occurs when sensory information from

4785-456: Is comparable to other forms of solitary confinement, such as in submarines or Antarctic bases. Being in an isolated and confined environment generates stress, interpersonal conflict, and other behavioral and mental problems. However, natural scenery and communication with loved ones has shown to relax and lessen these effects. A Network of Social Interactions for Bilateral Life Enhancement (ANSIBLE), which provides natural scenery and socialization in

4930-427: Is de-conditioned during longer periods spent in space. In a regular environment, gravity exerts a downward force, setting up a vertical hydrostatic gradient. When standing, some 'excess' fluid resides in vessels and tissues of the legs. In a micro-g environment, with the loss of a hydrostatic gradient , some fluid quickly redistributes toward the chest and upper body; sensed as 'overload' of circulating blood volume. In

5075-452: Is done by a consortium of different countries and is a very publicly visible area, astronauts received professional and cultural training, as well as language courses (specifically in Russian ). Following completion of Basic Training candidates proceed to NASA's Advanced Training. AsCans are trained on life-sized models to get a feel of what they will be doing in space. This was done both through

5220-447: Is more or less synonymous in its effects, with the recognition that g-forces are never exactly zero. Weight is a measurement of the force on an object at rest in a relatively strong gravitational field (such as on the surface of the Earth). These weight-sensations originate from contact with supporting floors, seats, beds, scales, and the like. A sensation of weight is also produced, even when

5365-463: Is only slightly reduced. As an object orbits a body such as the Earth, gravity is still attracting objects towards the Earth and the object is accelerated downward at almost 1g. Because the objects are typically moving laterally with respect to the surface at such immense speeds, the object will not lose altitude because of the curvature of the Earth. When viewed from an orbiting observer, other close objects in space appear to be floating because everything

5510-403: Is performed in order to prepare astronauts for events that may pose a hazard to their health, the health of the crew, or the successful completion of the mission. These types of events may be: failure of a critical life support system, capsule depressurization, fire, and other life-threatening events. In addition to the need to train for hazardous events, astronauts will also need to train to ensure

5655-414: Is still largely unknown. However, it is theorized that astronauts on a trip to Mars will likely receive more than 1000x the radiation dosage of a typical person on Earth. As such, present and future training must incorporate systems and processes for protecting astronauts against radiation. Scientific experimentation has historically been an important element of human spaceflight, and is the primary focus of

5800-534: Is the 2.2 Second Drop Tower, which has a drop distance of 24.1 m. Experiments are dropped in a drag shield in order to reduce the effects of air drag. The entire package is stopped in a 3.3 m tall air bag, at a peak deceleration rate of approximately 20 g . While the Zero Gravity Facility conducts one or two drops per day, the 2.2 Second Drop Tower can conduct up to twelve drops per day. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center hosts another drop tube facility that

5945-429: Is thought to be a subtype of motion sickness that plagues nearly half of all astronauts who venture into space. SMS, along with facial stuffiness from headward shifts of fluids, headaches, and back pain, is part of a broader complex of symptoms that comprise space adaptation syndrome (SAS). SMS was first described in 1961 during the second orbit of the fourth crewed spaceflight when the cosmonaut Gherman Titov aboard

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6090-652: The Apollo Applications Project . Although Conrad, Bean, and Stafford commanded three of these four flights, the remaining crew members were rookies and thus had long missed the opportunity to fly a Moon mission. Of the seven rookies who flew Skylab, three of them ( Paul J. Weitz , Owen K. Garriott , and Jack R. Lousma ) would return to space aboard the Space Shuttle. Vance Brand flew on ASTP as Command Module Pilot and would command three Shuttle missions. Except for Garriott, all Apollo astronauts who also flew on

6235-500: The Apollo program between July 1969 and December 1972. All landed on the surface only once, and five missions consisted of two or more surface extravehicular activities (EVAs) . Four of them are alive as of November 2024 with an average age of 91 years. Most astronauts at that time came from the military services and were considered to be on active duty during their NASA service. The few exceptions were considered civilian NASA astronauts, regardless of any prior military service. On

6380-517: The European Space Agency . Orbital motion is a form of free fall. Objects in orbit are not perfectly weightless due to several effects: If an object were to travel to the center of a spherical planet unimpeded by the planet's materials, it would achieve a state of weightlessness upon arriving at the center of the planet's core . This is because the mass of the surrounding planet is exerting an equal gravitational pull in all directions from

6525-536: The Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio , is a 145 m vertical shaft, largely below the ground, with an integral vacuum drop chamber, in which an experiment vehicle can have a free fall for a duration of 5.18 seconds, falling a distance of 132 m. The experiment vehicle is stopped in approximately 4.5 m of pellets of expanded polystyrene , experiencing a peak deceleration rate of 65 g . Also at NASA Glenn

6670-695: The Kibo module will also be carried out at Tsukuba Space Center. Advanced Training is followed by Increment-Specific Training, which, along with any Kibo training, will be carried out at Tsukuba. EVA training for Kibo takes place in the Weightless Environment Test System (WETS). WETS is a Neutral Buoyancy Facility featuring a full-scale mock-up of the Kibo module on the ISS. The Tsukuba Space Center also includes medical facilities for assessing suitability of candidates, an isolation chamber for simulating some of

6815-452: The Moon or Mars –need to carry out multiple tasks and duties, because on such missions the astronauts will need to function largely autonomously, and will need to be proficient in many different areas. For these types of missions, the training to prepare astronauts will likely include training as doctors , scientists , engineers, technicians , pilots , and geologists . In addition there will be

6960-508: The Pioneer program .) At the speed of light it would take roughly three and a half hours to reach this micro-gravity environment (a region of space where the acceleration due to gravity is one-millionth of that experienced on the Earth's surface). To reduce the gravity to one-thousandth of that on Earth's surface, however, one needs only to be at a distance of 200,000 km. At a distance relatively close to Earth (less than 3000 km), gravity

7105-674: The Shenzhou vehicle in nominal and emergency modes. The third and final stage of training is mission specific training, and lasts approximately 10 months. During this phase of training, astronauts are trained in the high fidelity Shenzhou trainer, as well as the Neutral Buoyancy Facility located at the Astronaut Center of China (ACC), in Beijing . As well as time spent in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility (NBF), training for EVA takes place in

7250-598: The Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER) as simplified aid. The VR training offers a graphical 3-dimensional simulation of the International Space Station (ISS) with a headset, haptic feedback gloves, and motion tracker. In 2018, two Expedition 55 astronauts Richard R. Arnold and Andrew J. Feustel , received virtual reality training and performed the 210th spacewalk. The Virtual Reality Laboratory offers astronauts an immersive VR experience for spacewalks before launching into space. The training process combines

7395-555: The Vostok 2 , described feeling disoriented with physical complaints mostly consistent with motion sickness. It is one of the most studied physiological problems of spaceflight but continues to pose a significant difficulty for many astronauts. In some instances, it can be so debilitating that astronauts must sit out from their scheduled occupational duties in space – including missing out on a spacewalk they have spent months training to perform. In most cases, however, astronauts will work through

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7540-405: The drag (air resistance) on the plane out, leaving the plane to behave as if it were free-falling in a vacuum. Versions of such airplanes have been operated by NASA 's Reduced Gravity Research Program since 1973, where the unofficial nickname originated. NASA later adopted the official nickname 'Weightless Wonder' for publication. NASA's current Reduced Gravity Aircraft, "Weightless Wonder VI",

7685-560: The micro gravity environment, particularly for EVA. Virtual reality is also becoming increasingly used as a tool to immerse AsCans into the space environment. The final phase is the Intensive Training. It starts about three months prior to launch, preparing candidates for their assigned mission. Flight-specific integrated simulations are designed to provide a dynamic testing ground for mission rules and flight procedures. The final Intensive Training joint crew/flight controller training

7830-518: The Apollo 15 backup crew, and prime crew on Apollo 18. When program cutbacks canceled missions 18 through 20, NASA's lunar geological community insisted on having a geologist on the Moon, so Slayton reassigned Schmitt to Apollo 17 . NASA named a group of 19 more astronauts in April 1966. None had spaceflight experience before their Apollo mission. Twelve men walked on the Moon during six Moon landings of

7975-463: The Apollo program that remained in Earth orbit to test fly the spacecraft. Apollo 7 was a crewed test flight of the CSM, and Apollo 9 was a crewed flight test of the CSM and LEM. Of the six astronauts who participated in these missions, five were never rotated to a lunar mission. In addition, the three Skylab missions and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project used crewed CSMs in Earth orbit and are considered part of

8120-600: The Chinese air force and must be between 25 and 30 years of age, with a minimum of 800 hours flying time, and a degree-level education. Candidates must be between 160 cm and 172 cm in height, and between 50 kg and 70 kg in weight. For China's Shenzhou astronauts, training begins with a year-long program of education in the basics of spaceflight. During this period, candidates are also introduced to human physiology and psychology. The second phase of training, lasting nearly 3 years involves extensive training in piloting

8265-445: The Earth), but of there being no g-force that an astronaut can feel because of the free-fall condition, and also there being zero difference between the acceleration of the spacecraft and the acceleration of the astronaut. Space journalist James Oberg explains the phenomenon this way: The myth that satellites remain in orbit because they have "escaped Earth's gravity" is perpetuated further (and falsely) by almost universal misuse of

8410-456: The Earth, two balls a horizontal distance apart would be pulled in slightly different directions and would come closer together as the elevator dropped. Also, if they were some vertical distance apart the lower one would experience a higher gravitational force than the upper one since gravity diminishes according to the inverse square law . These two second-order effects are examples of micro gravity. Airplanes have been used since 1959 to provide

8555-526: The ISS are individually tailored, with consideration to the astronaut's particular experience and professional background. There are three different user levels for all on-board equipment (i.e. user level, operator level, and specialist level). A crew member can be a specialist on systems while also only being an operator or user on others, hence why the training program is individually tailored. Increment Specific Training also includes training to deal with off-nominal situations. Astronauts will also learn how to run

8700-447: The ISS astronauts, cosmonauts train in the US, Germany, Japan, and Canada for specific training in the various ISS modules. The Japanese human spaceflight program has historically focused on training astronauts for Space Shuttle missions. As such, training previously took place at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, and followed that of NASA astronauts and other international participants in

8845-414: The ISS was conducted to crystallize the monoclonal antibody therapeutic Pembrolizumab , where results showed more uniform and homogenous crystal particles compared to ground controls. Such uniform crystal particles can allow for the formulation of more concentrated, low-volume antibody therapies, something which can make them suitable for subcutaneous administration , a less invasive approach compared to

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8990-545: The ISS. This phase takes around one year to complete and training is completed across the ISS partner network, no longer only at the EAC. It is only upon completion of this phase that astronauts are assigned to a spaceflight. Increment-Specific Training starts only after an astronaut has been assigned to a flight. This phase lasts 18 months and prepares them for their role on their assigned mission. During this phase crew members as well as backup crews will train together. The crew tasks on

9135-456: The International Space Station. Training on how to successfully carry out these experiments is an important part of astronaut training, as it maximizes the scientific return of the mission. Once on-orbit, communication between astronauts and scientists on the ground can be limited, and time is strictly apportioned between different mission activities. It is vital that astronauts are familiar with their assigned experiments in order to complete them in

9280-532: The LRV's first passenger, he had an often rough ride as Scott swerved to avoid craters. It was Irwin who, during the second EVA, first spotted the Genesis Rock and aided Scott in collecting this bit of the early lunar crust. A man of deep Christian religious faith, Irwin quoted from Psalms while on the lunar surface and later became an evangelist. In addition to the nine lunar missions, there were two crewed flights in

9425-570: The Moon as commander of Apollo 19, but Apollo 18 and Apollo 19 were canceled on September 2, 1970. Because of Apollo 13's free-return trajectory, Lovell, Swigert and Haise flew higher above the Moon's 180° meridian (opposite Earth) than anyone else has flown (254 km/158 mi). Coincidentally, due to the Moon's distance from Earth at the time, they simultaneously set the present record for humans' greatest distance from Earth, reaching an altitude of 400,171 km (248,655 mi) above sea level at 0:21 UTC on 15 April 1970. Armstrong descended

9570-423: The Moon was Alan Shepard , who walked on its surface during the Apollo 14 mission. Shepard was 47 years and 74 days old on his launch date and 47 years and 78 days old when he entered lunar orbit. Jim Lovell and Fred Haise were scheduled to walk on the Moon during the Apollo 13 mission, but the lunar landing was aborted following a major malfunction en route to the Moon. Haise was again scheduled to walk on

9715-482: The Moon, at age 47 years and 80 days. Charles Duke was the youngest, at age 36 years and 201 days. Jim Lovell and Fred Haise were scheduled to walk on the Moon during the Apollo 13 mission, but the lunar landing was aborted following an explosion in the spacecraft service module en route to the Moon. Haise was again scheduled to walk on the Moon as commander of Apollo 19, but Apollo 18 and Apollo 19 were canceled on September 2, 1970. Joe Engle had trained on

9860-438: The Moon. Besides the 12 people who have walked on the Moon, 12 more have flown to within 0.001 lunar distance of its surface. As of November 2024 , two of them are alive with an average age of 93 years. During each of the six missions with successful lunar landings, one astronaut remained in lunar orbit while the other two landed. In addition, the three-person crews of Apollo 8 and Apollo 10 also entered lunar orbit, and

10005-551: The Partial Gravity Simulator (PGS) and air bearing floor (PABF) to simulate the zero-gravity and the effects of Newton's laws of motion . Similar training systems originated from the Apollo and Gemini training. Virtual reality enhances an astronaut's senses during training modules like fluid quick disconnect operations, spacewalks, and the orbiter's Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) repairs. NASA Virtual Reality Laboratory utilizes virtual reality to supplement

10150-464: The Shuttle served as commander. Three astronauts died on the ground while training for the first crewed Apollo mission, Apollo 1 . Weightlessness Weightlessness is the complete or near-complete absence of the sensation of weight , i.e., zero apparent weight . It is also termed zero g-force , or zero-g (named after the g-force ) or, incorrectly, zero gravity . Microgravity environment

10295-647: The Soyuz or ISS as well as professional skills. The final phases, the Crew Training phase, lasts a year and a half and is dedicated to detailed vehicle operations procedures, ISS training, and the English language . Training primarily takes place at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center . The center facilities have full size mockups of all major Soviet and Russian spacecraft including the ISS. As with

10440-608: The Space Shuttle program. Since the development of domestic training facilities at the Tsukuba Space Center , training has increasingly taken place in Japan. With Japan's participation in the ISS, the training of Japanese astronauts follows a similar structure to that of other ISS partners. Astronauts carry out 1.5 years of Basic Training mainly at Tsukuba, followed by 1.5–2 years of Advanced Training at Tsukuba and ISS partner sites. Training for any international ISS astronauts involving

10585-492: The US or in Russia. The Kempegowda centre will have chambers for radiation regulation, thermal cycling and centrifugal acceleration training. While the first generation of non-government spaceflight astronauts will likely perform suborbital trajectories, currently companies like Virgin Galactic and Xcor Aerospace are developing proprietary suborbital astronaut training programs. Astronauts for long-term missions–such as those to

10730-584: The VR applications, and astronauts need less time to complete the assigned practice task. Despite the NASA training modules, commercial spaceflight training also uses virtual reality technology to improve their training systems. Boeing's virtual reality team develops a training system for Boeing Starliner to train astronauts to transport between the Earth and the ISS. The VR training system can simulate high-speed situations and emergency scenarios, for instance, launching, entering

10875-620: The aircraft is flown by test pilots from DGA Essais en Vol . As of May 2010 , the ESA has flown 52 scientific campaigns and also 9 student parabolic flight campaigns. Their first Zero-G flights were in 1984 using a NASA KC-135 aircraft in Houston , Texas. Other aircraft used include the Russian Ilyushin Il-76 MDK before founding Novespace, then a French Caravelle and an Airbus A300 Zero-G . Novespace created Air Zero G in 2012 to share

11020-421: The astronauts candidates an immersive training experience. Virtual reality has been explored as a technology to artificially expose astronauts to space conditions and procedures prior to going into space. Using virtual reality, astronauts can be trained and evaluated on performing an EVA (extravehicular activity) with all the necessary equipment and environmental features simulated. This modern technology also allows

11165-465: The astronauts from being their personal assistants to next generation of extreme environment explorers. Currently there is a robot on the ISS aiding the astronauts in their mammoth tasks with a human touch. Intercultural and human robot interaction training is the need of the hour for long duration missions. Training also has to be evolved for future Moon landings to a human mission to Mars . Factors like crew dynamics, crew size, and crew activities play

11310-453: The backup crew for Apollo 14 to explore the Moon with Cernan, but he was replaced by Schmitt on the primary crew for Apollo 17 . Schmitt had previously been crewed with Apollo 12 Command Module pilot Dick Gordon in anticipation of Apollo 18, but Schmitt replaced Engle on Apollo 17 after the cancellation of Apollo 18 and Apollo 19, leaving Gordon as the last Apollo astronaut to train extensively for lunar exploration without ever landing on

11455-517: The brain without the individual becoming dizzy. Heart rhythm disturbances have also been seen among astronauts, but it is unclear whether this was a result of pre-existing conditions or an effect of the micro-g environment. One current countermeasure includes drinking a salt solution, which increases the viscosity of blood and would subsequently increase blood pressure, which would mitigate post micro-g environment orthostatic intolerance. Another countermeasure includes administration of midodrine , which

11600-413: The cardiovascular system in a micro-g environment. Parabolic flight studies have increased the understanding of orthostatic intolerance and decreased peripheral blood flow suffered by astronauts returning to Earth. Due to the loss of blood to pump, the heart can atrophy in a micro-g environment. A weakened heart can result in low blood volume, low blood pressure and affect the body's ability to send oxygen to

11745-454: The case of the Earth, the effects are minor, especially on objects of relatively small dimensions (such as the human body or a spacecraft) and the overall sensation of weightlessness in these cases is preserved. This condition is known as microgravity, and it prevails in orbiting spacecraft. In Newtonian physics, the sensation of weightlessness experienced by astronauts is not the result of there being zero gravitational acceleration (as seen from

11890-399: The center, canceling out the pull of any one direction, establishing a space with no gravitational pull. A "stationary" micro-g environment would require travelling far enough into deep space so as to reduce the effect of gravity by attenuation to almost zero. This is simple in conception but requires travelling a very large distance, rendering it highly impractical. For example, to reduce

12035-459: The central computer maneuvers the device using a web of cables and calculates how it would act in space through physics. While objects are weightless in space, an astronaut has to be familiar with an object's forces of inertia and understand how the object will respond to simple motions to avoid losing it in space. Training can be completed individually or with a partner. This allows astronauts to learn how to interact with mass and moments of inertia in

12180-401: The crew of Apollo 13 looped around the Moon on a free-return trajectory . All nine crewed missions to the Moon took place as part of the Apollo program over a period of just under four years, from 21 December 1968 to 19 December 1972. The 24 people who have flown to the Moon are the only people who have traveled beyond low Earth orbit . Jim Lovell , John Young , and Eugene Cernan are

12325-472: The current prevalent method of intravenous administration. "Jake Garn was sick, was pretty sick. I don't know whether we should tell stories like that. But anyway, Jake Garn, he has made a mark in the Astronaut Corps because he represents the maximum level of space sickness that anyone can ever attain, and so the mark of being totally sick and totally incompetent is one Garn. Most guys will get maybe to

12470-642: The effect of immersion or the engagement of the trainee. At NASA, following the selection phase, the so-called "AsCans" (Astronaut candidates) have to undergo up to two years of training to become fully qualified astronauts. Initially, all AsCans must go through basic training to learn both technical and soft skills. There are 16 different technical courses in: AsCans initially go through Basic Training, where they are trained on Soyuz , and ISS systems, flight safety and operations, as well as land and water survival. Pilot AsCans will receive training on NASA's T-38 Trainer Jet . Furthermore, because modern space exploration

12615-539: The efficacy of training using virtual reality versus underwater and other setup. Through the years of technological development in VR, the hardware for the VR Lab in NASA has also significantly improved. Both the material and the resolution of the display are being renovated: Virtual reality has also been adopted to a much wider range of fields in space exploration throughout the history of technology renovation. The newer applications of VR include but are not limited to: While

12760-577: The emesis, resulting in strong odors and liquid within the cabin which may affect other astronauts. Some changes to eye movement behaviors might also occur as a result of SMS. Symptoms typically last anywhere from one to three days upon entering weightlessness, but may recur upon reentry to Earth's gravity or even shortly after landing. SMS differs from terrestrial motion sickness in that sweating and pallor are typically minimal or absent and gastrointestinal findings usually demonstrate absent bowel sounds indicating reduced gastrointestinal motility . Even when

12905-512: The engineering systems of the spacecraft including spacecraft propulsion , spacecraft thermal control , and life support systems . In addition to this, astronauts receive training in orbital mechanics , scientific experimentation, earth observation , and astronomy . This training is particularly important for missions when an astronaut will encounter multiple systems (for example on the International Space Station (ISS)). Training

13050-450: The experience of weightlessness with 40 public passengers per flight, using the same A310 ZERO-G as for scientific experiences. These flights are sold by Avico , are mainly operated from Bordeaux-Merignac , France , and intend to promote European space research, allowing public passengers to feel weightlessness. Jean-François Clervoy , Chairman of Novespace and ESA astronaut, flies with these one-day astronauts on board A310 Zero-G. After

13195-521: The experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center. For human experiments, the scientists describe their experiments to the astronauts who then choose whether to participate on board the ISS. For these experiments, the astronauts will be tested before, during, and after the mission to establish a baseline and determine when the astronaut returned to the baseline. Virtual reality training for astronauts intends to give

13340-443: The experiments that are specifically scheduled for their assigned missions. Training for cosmonauts falls into three phases: General Space Training, Group Training, and Crew Training. General Space Training lasts about two years and consists of classes, survival training, and a final exam which determines whether a cosmonaut will be a test or research cosmonaut. The next year is devoted to Group Training where cosmonauts specialize in

13485-617: The extravehicular activities (EVAs) training facility can simulate the space conditions, including pressure and lighting, the Micro-g environment cannot be fully reconstructed in the Earth's 1-G environment. Virtual reality is utilized during EVA training to increase the immersion of the training process. NASA Johnson Space Center has facilities such as the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility (SVMF), Virtual Reality Laboratory (VRL), and Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL). The SVMF uses

13630-414: The face. These effects begin to reverse quickly upon return to the Earth. In addition, after long space flight missions, astronauts may experience vision changes. Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a crewed mission to the planet Mars . Exposure to high levels of radiation may influence the development of atherosclerosis . Clots in

13775-510: The first to drive a vehicle on the Moon as he drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle , more than doubling Apollo 14's EVA time. After the final traverse, back outside the LM, Scott performed a demonstration of Galileo's theory that all objects fall at the same rate in vacuum by dropping a hammer and a feather for the television camera. Irwin came onto the lunar surface soon after his commander, Scott. As

13920-419: The first two weeks that the muscles are unloaded from carrying the weight of the human frame during space flight, whole muscle atrophy begins. Postural muscles contain more slow fibers, and are more prone to atrophy than non-postural muscle groups. The loss of muscle mass occurs because of imbalances in protein synthesis and breakdown. The loss of muscle mass is also accompanied by a loss of muscle strength, which

14065-602: The flight, he explains the quest of space and talks about the 3 space travels he did along his career. The aircraft has also been used for cinema purposes, with Tom Cruise and Annabelle Wallis for the Mummy in 2017. The Zero Gravity Corporation operates a modified Boeing 727 which flies parabolic arcs to create 25–30 seconds of weightlessness. Ground-based facilities that produce weightless conditions for research purposes are typically referred to as drop tubes or drop towers. NASA's Zero Gravity Research Facility , located at

14210-534: The future. A powerful tool for astronaut training will be the continuing use of analog environments, including NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations ( NOAA NEEMO ), NASA's Desert Research and Technology Studies ( Desert RATS ), Envihab (planned), Flight Analog Research Unit , Haughton-Mars Project ( HMP ), or even the ISS (in-flight). In fact, at NEEMO a total of 15 mission astronauts (known as aquanauts ) have been trained for future missions to asteroids. The use of virtual reality will also continue to be used as

14355-445: The gravitational field is zero, when contact forces act upon and overcome a body's inertia by mechanical, non- gravitational forces- such as in a centrifuge , a rotating space station , or within an accelerating vehicle. When the gravitational field is non-uniform, a body in free fall experiences tidal forces and is not stress-free. Near a black hole , such tidal effects can be very strong, meeting to spaghettification . In

14500-495: The gravity of the Earth by a factor of one million, one needs to be at a distance of 6 million kilometres from the Earth, but to reduce the gravity of the Sun to this amount, one has to be at a distance of 3.7 billion kilometres. This is not impossible, but it has only been achieved thus far by four interstellar probes : ( Voyager 1 and 2 of the Voyager program , and Pioneer 10 and 11 of

14645-472: The hatch. Armstrong performed the majority of the photography on the surface, which is why there are only five photos of him on the Moon. Soon after piloting the LM Falcon to a landing at Hadley Rille , Scott accomplished the only stand-up EVA through the lander's top hatch, using it as a high place from which to refine the geology traverses he and Irwin would undertake during the following days. Scott became

14790-408: The horizon." The ground's curved withdrawal along the Earth's round surface offsets the satellites' fall toward the ground. Speed, not position or lack of gravity, keeps satellites in orbit around the Earth. From the perspective of an observer not moving with the object (i.e. in an inertial reference frame ) the force of gravity on an object in free fall is exactly the same as usual. A classic example

14935-484: The internal jugular vein have recently been detected inflight. On December 31, 2012, a NASA -supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brains of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease . In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to human spaceflight , including a human mission to Mars . Space motion sickness (SMS)

15080-467: The last of their three Apollo 17 EVAs, Harrison Schmitt stepped out of the Apollo Lunar Module onto the surface of the Moon after Gene Cernan , and is therefore the 12th and most recent person to have stepped out onto the Moon. When they re-entered the lunar module Cernan stepped in last, and is therefore the last person to have walked on the Moon. Alan Shepard was the oldest person to walk on

15225-527: The leg bones and reduce osteopenia. Other significant effects include fluid redistribution (causing the "moon-face" appearance typical of pictures of astronauts in weightlessness), changes in the cardiovascular system as blood pressures and flow velocities change in response to a lack of gravity, a decreased production of red blood cells , balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system . Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, excess flatulence , and puffiness of

15370-431: The legs and abdomen, resulting in increased stroke volume . These fluid shifts become more dangerous upon returning to a regular gravity environment as the body will attempt to adapt to the reintroduction of gravity. The reintroduction of gravity again will pull the fluid downward, but now there would be a deficit in both circulating fluid and red blood cells. The decrease in cardiac filling pressure and stroke volume during

15515-656: The lower body causing fluids to shift toward the head from the rest of the body. These fluid shifts are thought to increase cerebrospinal fluid pressure (causing back aches), intracranial pressure (causing headaches), and inner ear fluid pressure (causing vestibular dysfunction). Despite a multitude of studies searching for a solution to the problem of SMS, it remains an ongoing problem for space travel. Most non-pharmacological countermeasures such as training and other physical maneuvers have offered minimal benefit. Thornton and Bonato noted, "Pre- and inflight adaptive efforts, some of them mandatory and most of them onerous, have been, for

15660-404: The lunar landing. The Block I crew position titles were Command Pilot, Senior Pilot (second seat), and Pilot (third seat). The corresponding Block II titles were: Commander, Command Module Pilot, and Lunar Module Pilot. The second seat pilot was given secondary responsibility for celestial navigation to keep the CSM's guidance computer accurately calibrated with the spacecraft's true position, and

15805-538: The lunar module ladder and spoke his famous epigram , "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." He then went to work on collecting the contingency sample, which was a scoop of the lunar surface collected early in the mission in case there was an emergency. Armstrong took the TV camera off the lunar module and mounted it to a tripod. After that, Aldrin descended the ladder to join Armstrong. Aldrin egressed to

15950-405: The lunar surface, six of whom drove Lunar Roving Vehicles as part of the last three missions. Three men have been to the Moon twice, one orbited once and took a circumlunar trajectory the second time, while the other two landed once apiece. Apart from these 24 men, no human being has gone beyond low Earth orbit . As of June 2024 , 6 of the 24 remain alive. No woman has been to the Moon, but

16095-432: The major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major crewed and uncrewed space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics , propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology , biology , earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have

16240-481: The mental and emotional stressors of long duration spaceflight, and a hypobaric chamber for training in hull breach or Life Support System failure scenarios resulting in a reduction or loss of air pressure. Although official details of the selection process for the Shenzhou program are not available, what is known is that candidates are chosen by the Chinese National Space Administration from

16385-406: The micro-g environment, the newly sensed excess blood volume is adjusted by expelling excess fluid into tissues and cells (12-15% volume reduction) and red blood cells are adjusted downward to maintain a normal concentration (relative anemia ). In the absence of gravity, venous blood will rush to the right atrium because the force of gravity is no longer pulling the blood down into the vessels of

16530-417: The most part, operational failures." To date, the most common intervention is promethazine , an injectable antihistamine with antiemetic properties, but sedation can be a problematic side effect. Other common pharmacological options include metoclopramide , as well as oral and transdermal application of scopolamine , but drowsiness and sedation are common side effects for these medications as well. In

16675-657: The most significant effects that occur being space motion sickness , orthostatic intolerance , and cardiovascular events . Space motion sickness is an event that can occur within minutes of being in changing gravity environments (i.e. from 1g on Earth prior to launch to more than 1g during launch, and then from microgravity in space to hypergravity during re-entry and again to 1g after landing). The symptoms range from drowsiness and headaches, to nausea and vomiting. There are three general categories of space motion sickness: About three-fourths of astronauts experience space motion sickness, with effects rarely exceeding two days. There

16820-426: The nausea and vomiting resolve, some central nervous system symptoms may persist which may degrade the astronaut's performance. Graybiel and Knepton proposed the term " sopite syndrome " to describe symptoms of lethargy and drowsiness associated with motion sickness in 1976. Since then, their definition has been revised to include "...a symptom complex that develops as a result of exposure to real or apparent motion and

16965-516: The near-weightlessness of space and to survive in the vacuum of outer space . While not yet a commercial application, there has been interest in growing crystals in micro-g, as in a space station or automated artificial satellite through Low-gravity process engineering , in an attempt to reduce crystal lattice defects. Such defect-free crystals may prove useful for certain microelectronic applications and also to produce crystals for subsequent X-ray crystallography . In 2017, an experiment on

17110-513: The only three people to have flown to the Moon twice. Young and Cernan each set foot on it during their respective second lunar missions, while Lovell is the only person to have flown to the Moon twice without landing. During Cernan's first lunar mission on Apollo 10, he tied the present record set by Bill Anders on Apollo 8 as the youngest person to fly to the Moon. Each was 35 years and 65 days old on his launch date and 35 years and 68 days old when he entered lunar orbit. The oldest person to fly to

17255-490: The organization of space systems, and the acronyms in aerospace engineering during the basic training. While 60% to 80% of the astronauts will experience space motion sickness, including pallor, cold sweating, vomiting, and anorexia, the astronaut candidates are expected to overcome the sickness. During the advanced training and the mission specific training, astronauts will learn about the operation of specific systems and skills required associated with their assigned positions in

17400-596: The orthostatic stress due to a decreased blood volume is what causes orthostatic intolerance . Orthostatic intolerance can result in temporary loss of consciousness and posture, due to the lack of pressure and stroke volume. Some animal species have evolved physiological and anatomical features (such as high hydrostatic blood pressure and closer heart place to head) which enable them to counteract orthostatic blood pressure. More chronic orthostatic intolerance can result in additional symptoms such as nausea, sleep problems , and other vasomotor symptoms as well. Many studies on

17545-548: The physical conditions at the surface of the Earth. In response to an extended period of weightlessness, various physiological systems begin to change and atrophy. Though these changes are usually temporary, long-term health issues can result. The most common problem experienced by humans in the initial hours of weightlessness is known as space adaptation syndrome or SAS, commonly referred to as space sickness. Symptoms of SAS include nausea and vomiting , vertigo , headaches , lethargy , and overall malaise. The first case of SAS

17690-653: The physics and environment of outer space. Astronaut training in Europe is carried out by the European Astronaut Centre (EAC), headquartered in Cologne , Germany . European training has three phases: Basic training, Advanced training, and Increment Specific Training. For all ESA selected astronauts, Basic Training begins at the EAC headquarters. This section of the training cycle has four separate training blocks that last 16 months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on

17835-400: The physiological effects of weightlessness on the cardiovascular system are done in parabolic flights. It is one of the only feasible options to combine with human experiments, making parabolic flights the only way to investigate the true effects of the micro-g environment on a body without traveling into space. Parabolic flight studies have provided a broad range of results regarding changes in

17980-567: The principle of gravity-vector-averaging. On the International Space Station (ISS), there are small g-forces come from tidal effects, gravity from objects other than the Earth, such as astronauts, the spacecraft, and the Sun , air resistance , and astronaut movements that impart momentum to the space station). The symbol for microgravity, μg , was used on the insignias of Space Shuttle flights STS-87 and STS-107 , because these flights were devoted to microgravity research in low Earth orbit . Over

18125-722: The required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a crewed space research laboratory. This phase also covers in-depth systems operations for all spacecraft that service the ISS (e.g. Soyuz, Progress , Automatic Transfer Vehicle ( ATV ), and the H-II Transfer Vehicle ( HTV )), as well as ground control and launch facility training. This training phase also focuses on skills such as robotic operations , rendezvous and docking , Russian language courses, human behavior and performance, and finally

18270-480: The scenario to be changed on the go, such as to test emergency protocols. The VR training systems can reduce the effects of the space motion sickness through a process of habituation. Preflight VR training can be a countermeasure for space motion sickness and disorientation due to the weightlessness of the microgravity environment. When the goal is to act as a practice tool, virtual reality is commonly explored in conjunction with robotics and additional hardware to increase

18415-635: The space (or microgravity) environment the effects of unloading varies significantly among individuals, with sex differences compounding the variability. Differences in mission duration, and the small sample size of astronauts participating in the same mission also adds to the variability to the musculoskeletal disorders that are seen in space. In addition to muscle loss, microgravity leads to increased bone resorption , decreased bone mineral density , and increased fracture risks. Bone resorption leads to increased urinary levels of calcium , which can subsequently lead to an increased risk of nephrolithiasis . In

18560-412: The space, and landing at an unexpected location. Visual reorientation is a phenomenon that happens when the perception of an object changes because of the changing visual field and cues. This illusion will alter the astronaut's perception of the orienting force of gravity and then lose spatial direction. The astronauts must develop good spatial awareness and orientation to overcome visual reorientation. In

18705-753: The successful completion of their mission. This could be in the form of training for EVA , scientific experimentation, or spacecraft piloting . External events refer more broadly to the ability to live and work in the extreme environment of space. This includes adaptation to microgravity (or weightlessness ), isolation, confinement, and radiation . The difficulties associated with living and working in microgravity include spatial disorientation , motion sickness, and vertigo . During long-duration missions, astronauts will often experience isolation and confinement. This has been known to limit performance of astronaut crews and hence training aims to prepare astronauts for such challenges. The long-term effects of radiation on crews

18850-426: The successful landing. Aldrin then set to work documenting the condition of the spacecraft to ensure it was in proper condition for their upcoming launch. After setting up a couple of experiments with Armstrong, Aldrin went to work hammering a tube into the lunar surface to obtain a core sample. Aldrin's EVA ended when they loaded the lunar samples into the spacecraft and tossed out unneeded items, just before sealing

18995-464: The surface about nineteen minutes after Armstrong. They had some trouble planting the American flag into the lunar soil, but were able to secure it into the surface. Aldrin positioned himself in front of a video camera and began experimenting with different locomotion techniques on the surface. During these experiments, Armstrong and Aldrin received a phone call from President Nixon, congratulating them for

19140-457: The symptoms even with degradation in their performance. Despite their experiences in some of the most rigorous and demanding physical maneuvers on earth, even the most seasoned astronauts may be affected by SMS, resulting in symptoms of severe nausea , projectile vomiting , fatigue , malaise (feeling sick), and headache . These symptoms may occur so abruptly and without any warning that space travelers may vomit suddenly without time to contain

19285-571: The third seat pilot served as a flight engineer, monitoring the health of the spacecraft systems. All of these astronauts flew on Gemini, and except for White, each commanded one Gemini and one Apollo mission: This was the first class of astronauts for which test pilot experience was not required, but military jet fighter pilot experience was acceptable. Five of this group got their first spaceflight experience as second seat on Gemini: The remaining six members of this group were selected for their first space flights on Apollo: In June 1965, NASA named

19430-441: The three phases of a space mission. They can be divided in: Astronauts are trained in preparation for the conditions of launch as well as the harsh environment of space. This training aims to prepare the crew for events falling under two broad categories: events relating to operation of the spacecraft (internal events), and events relating to the space environment (external events) During training, astronauts are familiarized with

19575-514: The traditional disorientation training, for instance, the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center trains the astronaut by simulating a microgravity environment through a centrifuge. In contrast, VR training requires less gear, training the astronauts more economically. List of Apollo astronauts As part of the Apollo program by NASA , 24 astronauts flew nine missions to the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972. During six successful two-man landing missions, twelve men walked on

19720-517: The training process are completed with various training facilities available in NASA: Space training facilities try to replicate or simulate the experience of spaceflight in a spacecraft as closely and realistically as possible. This includes full-size cockpit replicas mounted on hydraulic rams and controlled by state of the art computer technology; elaborate watertanks for simulation of weightlessness ; and devices used by scientists to study

19865-557: The use of a penguin suit (contains sewn-in elastic bands to maintain a stretch load on antigravity muscles), centrifugation, and vibration. Centrifugation recreates Earth's gravitational force on the space station, in order to prevent muscle atrophy . Centrifugation can be performed with centrifuges or by cycling along the inner wall of the space station. Whole body vibration has been found to reduce bone resorption through mechanisms that are unclear. Vibration can be delivered using exercise devices that use vertical displacements juxtaposed to

20010-732: The use of the Shuttle Training Aircraft while it was still operational and is done through simulation mock-ups. The shuttle training aircraft was exclusively used by the commander and pilot astronauts for landing practices until the retirement of the Shuttle, while advanced simulation system facilities are used by all the candidates to learn how to work and successfully fulfill their tasks in the space environment. Simulators and EVA training facilities help candidates to best prepare for their different mission operations. In particular, vacuum chambers , parabolic flights , and neutral buoyancy facilities (NBF) allow candidates to get acclimated to

20155-404: The visual system (sight) and the proprioceptive system (posture, position of the body) conflicts with misperceived information from the semicircular canals and the otoliths within the inner ear. This is known as the 'neural mismatch theory' and was first suggested in 1975 by Reason and Brand. Alternatively, the fluid shift hypothesis suggests that weightlessness reduces the hydrostatic pressure on

20300-501: The word "zero gravity" to describe the free-falling conditions aboard orbiting space vehicles. Of course, this isn't true; gravity still exists in space. It keeps satellites from flying straight off into interstellar emptiness. What's missing is "weight", the resistance of gravitational attraction by an anchored structure or a counterforce. Satellites stay in space because of their tremendous horizontal speed, which allows them—while being unavoidably pulled toward Earth by gravity—to fall "over

20445-542: The years, biomedical research on the implications of space flight has become more prominent in evaluating possible pathophysiological changes in humans. Sub-orbital flights seize the approximated weightlessness, or μg, in the low Earth orbit and represent a promising research model for short-term exposure. Examples of such approaches are the MASER , MAXUS , or TEXUS program run by the Swedish Space Corporation and

20590-476: Was observed after only 2–5 days of spaceflight during the Soyuz-3 and Soyuz-8 missions. Decreases in the generation of contractile forces and whole muscle power have also been found in response to microgravity. To counter the effects of microgravity on the musculoskeletal system, aerobic exercise is recommended. This often takes the form of in-flight cycling. A more effective regimen includes resistive exercises or

20735-419: Was reported by cosmonaut Gherman Titov in 1961. Since then, roughly 45% of all people who have flown in space have suffered from this condition. The duration of space sickness varies, but in no case has it lasted for more than 72 hours, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. NASA jokingly measures SAS using the "Garn scale", named for United States Senator Jake Garn , whose SAS during STS-51-D

20880-591: Was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments. In March 1972, Slayton was restored to flight status, and flew on the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project mission. The prime crew members selected for actual missions are here grouped by their NASA astronaut selection groups, and within each group in the order selected for flight. Two versions of the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) spacecraft were developed: Block I, intended for preliminary low Earth orbit testing; and Block II, redesigned for

21025-567: Was the worst on record. Accordingly, one "Garn" is equivalent to the most severe possible case of SAS. The most significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness are muscle atrophy (see Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space for more information) and deterioration of the skeleton , or spaceflight osteopenia . These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise, such as cycling for example. Astronauts subject to long periods of weightlessness wear pants with elastic bands attached between waistband and cuffs to compress

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