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156-570: Assumption Chapel , also known as the Grasshopper Chapel , is a Roman Catholic Marian shrine , " Calvary Hill " ( German : Kalvarienberg ), and pilgrimage chapel ( German : Wahlfahrtsort ) ( German : Gnadenkapelle ). The shrine stands upon one of the tallest hills in Stearns County , and which is known locally as ( German : Marienberg ), meaning "Mary's Mountain", on the outskirts of Cold Spring, Minnesota . The chapel stands in

312-621: A variety of theological and spiritual emphases in the church. Of its seven sacraments , the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass . The church teaches that through consecration by a priest , the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ . The Virgin Mary is venerated as the Perpetual Virgin , Mother of God , and Queen of Heaven ; she

468-577: A " prisoner in the Vatican ". This stand-off, which was spoken of as the Roman Question , was resolved by the 1929 Lateran Treaties , whereby the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States in return for payment and Italy's recognition of papal sovereignty over Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent state. Catholic missionaries generally supported, and sought to facilitate,

624-873: A church-oriented hamlet. As the farmers prospered, the small frame churches were replaced by more substantial buildings of brick or stone such as St. Mary, Help of Christians , a Gothic Revival stone structure built in 1873. Stearns County retains in its German character and is still home to one of the largest rural Catholic populations in Anglo-America." Furthermore, according to Kathleen Neils Conzen, "Stearns County Germans early established daughter settlements at West Union in Todd County , Millerville in Douglas County , and Pierz in Morrison County , later flooded into North Dakota (where 'Stearns County German' remains

780-749: A combined membership of approximately 18 million, represent a body of Eastern Christians who returned or remained in communion with the pope during or following these schisms for a variety of historical circumstances. In the 16th century, the Reformation led to the formation of separate, Protestant groups. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its teachings on sexuality , its doctrine against ordaining women , and its handling of sexual abuse cases involving clergy. Catholic (from Greek : καθολικός , romanized :  katholikos , lit.   'universal')

936-460: A few preserved remains have been found in Knife Point Glacier , Wyoming and Grasshopper Glacier , Montana ). Rocky Mountain locusts were a part of the diet of the critically endangered or possibly extinct Eskimo curlew ( Numenius borealis ) on its spring migration and the extinction of the locust has been speculated as being a factor in the decline of the curlew. The species name

1092-463: A form of grasshopper that appear when grasshopper populations reach high densities, it was theorized that M. spretus might not be extinct, that "solitary phase" individuals of a migratory grasshopper might be able to turn into the Rocky Mountain locust given the right environmental conditions; however, breeding experiments using many grasshopper species in high-density environments failed to invoke

1248-464: A problem in the 19th century, as farming expanded westward into the grasshoppers' favored habitat. Outbreaks of varying severity emerged in 1828, 1838, 1846, and 1855, affecting areas throughout the West. Plagues visited Minnesota in 1856–1857 and again in 1865, and Nebraska suffered repeated infestations between 1856 and 1874. The last major swarms of Rocky Mountain locust were between 1873 and 1877, when

1404-530: A recognized ethnicity today), and in 1905 negotiated with the Canadian authorities to establish the St. Peter Colony in north-central Saskatchewan ." The first Assumption Chapel was known as ( German : Maria-Hilf ), meaning " Mary, Help of Christians ", and was built atop the same hill, which is locally known as ( German : Marienberg ), meaning "Mary's Mountain". At the time of its original construction in 1877, much of

1560-609: A region of Minnesota largely settled in the 1850s by German-American Catholics who were invited to the area by Slovenian-American missionary Fr. Francis Xavier Pierz and which remained, until shortly before the Second World War , a major center for the speaking of the German language in the United States . Although inspired by thousand-year-old traditions carried from Southern Germany to central Minnesota by its peasant-pioneers,

1716-573: A shred of clothing could remain unexposed, everything was locked up in presses. Even the priest at the altar was not secure against their attacks: before Mass the hoppers had to be swept off the altar. The priest had to vest hastily, place the altar clothes upon the altar and be very careful to keep the Sacred Host covered with the Paten , and at the Elevation to leave the palla upon the chalice. During Mass

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1872-472: A territory spreading from southern Wyoming over Nebraska and the Dakotas all the way to Iowa and Minnesota . The first year the grasshoppers came looking for food and found it in the plentiful wheat fields, where they laid eggs. The newly hatched grasshoppers were wingless for the first six to eight weeks of life, but their work was no less devastating. Until they could fly, they crawled along and feasted on

2028-421: A thunder and hailstorm. Only after the mission did the real reason for the "storm" become apparent, and the clouds of "hoppers" swiftly devoured both the crops and much of the seed grain, which left the newly arrived German-American Catholic settlers of the region destitute. According to Father Bruno Riss, "This small, voracious yet invincible monster had in a short time devastated all that grows and blooms upon

2184-545: A type of plow device pulled behind horses that had a shield that knocked jumping locusts into a pan of liquid poison or fuel, even sucking them into vacuum cleaner –like contraptions, but all of these were ultimately ineffective in stopping the hordes. Charles Valentine Riley , a Missouri entomologist , came up with a recipe for locusts seasoned with salt and pepper and pan-fried in butter. The recipe sold, but some stated that they "would just as soon starve as eat those horrible creatures." Farmers finally responded in force to

2340-453: Is a small, independent city-state and enclave within the city of Rome , of which the pope is head of state . The core beliefs of Catholicism are found in the Nicene Creed . The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission , that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles , and that

2496-523: Is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The massive Islamic invasions of the mid-7th century began a long struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The Byzantine Empire soon lost the lands of the eastern patriarchates of Jerusalem , Alexandria and Antioch and was reduced to that of Constantinople,

2652-412: Is honoured in dogmas and devotions . Catholic social teaching emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy . The Catholic Church operates tens of thousands of Catholic schools, universities and colleges , hospitals , and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in

2808-537: Is in vain; the hoppers will not let anything grow. Let us save the seed." The old man replied, "No, boys, we will do our part and plant as usual. But let me tell you this: if God gives us a harvest, we shall give one third to God and the Church, the second third will be for the poor, while for ourselves we will reserve the balance. Now if the good God wishes to accept of our gift He will permit this grain to grow." According to Fr. Bruno, "And so it happened. It seemed as though

2964-508: Is pictured, and at her feet, bowing in submission, are two grasshoppers. This new chapel was dedicated on October 7, 1952. Today, in continuation of the Chapel's tradition, there is an annual August 15 Mass celebrated inside the Assumption Chapel upon Marienberg. Since 1962, an outdoor shrine to St. Joseph has also been located nearby. A large outdoor crucifixion shrine and Stations of

3120-676: Is the bishop of Rome , known as the pope ( Latin : papa , lit.   'father'), whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See ( Sancta Sedes in Latin). In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services. The Catholic Church has been described as

3276-482: Is the universal [katholike] Church." In the Catechetical Lectures ( c.  350 ) of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem , the name "Catholic Church" was used to distinguish it from other groups that also called themselves "the church". The "Catholic" notion was further stressed in the edict De fide Catolica issued 380 by Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of

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3432-479: Is traditionally known in Southern Germany as one of the protectors of farmers from thunderstorms and plagues of vermin, on September 6 was locally celebrated as "Grasshopper Day". The 1877 pilgrimage chapel dedicated to St. Boniface in nearby St. Augusta, Minnesota dates from the same era and was built for exactly the same reason. There is a similar local tradition of pilgrimages to the shrine on June 5th,

3588-639: The Pax Romana made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood. Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see Idolatry ). The Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians—including government authorities—to fear that

3744-586: The Allgäu ", continued to be widely venerated in Stearns County as a patron of good harvests and as the protector against lightning, hail, and plagues of vermin. Furthermore, his Feast Day on September 6 continued to be celebrated until well into the 1870s, both in and around Jacobs Prairie, as, "Grasshopper Day." The later plague began in the summer of 1873, when similarly migrating Rocky Mountain Locusts laid claim to

3900-586: The Blessed Virgin 's shrine upon Marienberg. The original wooden chapel was hit on June 28, 1894, by a tornado travelling from the southeast, and was picked up and smashed into a nearby grove of trees. The destruction of the chapel was complete--except for the wooden statue of the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child which had been carved by Joseph Ambroziz and carried in the wagon from Jacobs Prairie in 1877. After

4056-783: The Byzantine–Seljuk Wars , which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control. In the 11th century , strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the East–West Schism, partially due to conflicts over papal authority. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved

4212-735: The Code of Canon Law (1983). "Catholic Church" is also used in the documents of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), the Council of Trent (1545–1563), and numerous other official documents. The New Testament , in particular the Gospels , records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the Twelve Apostles and his Great Commission of

4368-648: The Council of Nicaea declared heretical . The resulting religious discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects was avoided when, in 497, Clovis I , the Frankish ruler, converted to orthodox Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries. The Visigoths in Spain followed his lead in 589, and the Lombards in Italy in the course of the 7th century. Western Christianity , particularly through its monasteries ,

4524-613: The Diocese of Augsburg during a time when what is now the Germanosphere was very similar to the Wild West , who both had a well established reputation for intercession during similar plagues of vermin in Southern Germany . For this reason, the processions were scheduled for July 4th, the Feast of Saint Ulrich of Augsburg , and September 6th, the Feast of Saint Magnus of Füssen . Immediately after

4680-787: The Eastern Orthodox Church until the East–West Schism in 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the pope . Before the Council of Ephesus in AD 431, the Church of the East also shared in this communion, as did the Oriental Orthodox Churches before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451; all separated primarily over differences in Christology . The Eastern Catholic Churches, who have

4836-652: The Edict of Thessalonica made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire , a position that within the diminishing territory of the Byzantine Empire would persist until the empire itself ended in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became particularly clear with the East–West Schism . During the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils , five primary sees emerged, an arrangement formalized in

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4992-725: The English Reformation and the eventual development of Anglicanism . The Reformation contributed to clashes between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V and his allies. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict—the Thirty Years' War —which broke out in 1618. In France, a series of conflicts termed

5148-621: The Feast Day of St. Boniface , an English Benedictine missionary, Bishop, and martyr instrumental to the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples ; and who is still revered as the "Apostle to the Germans ", Patron Saint of the Germanosphere and the German diaspora . A fictionalized description of the devastation created by Rocky Mountain locusts in the 1870s can be found in the 1937 novel On

5304-573: The French Imperial Army who had lost a leg to enemy fire during the Napoleonic Wars , when he wrote about, "an old man [who] dwelled with several of his children on a farm" near St. James Church in Jacob's Prairie. According to Fr. Bruno, "Spring of '57 came: the young brood of grasshoppers crept to the surface, but the old man ordered his sons to sow wheat and oats." His sons replied, "Father, this

5460-586: The French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots (French Calvinists ) and the forces of the French Catholic League , which were backed and funded by a series of popes. This ended under Pope Clement VIII , who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes granting civil and religious toleration to French Protestants. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became

5616-525: The Immaculate Conception as a dogma in the Catholic Church . In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements, striking a blow to the rival position of conciliarism . Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church , The Italian unification of

5772-625: The Italian Peninsula , imprisoning Pope Pius VI , who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801 . The end of the Napoleonic Wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States . In 1854, Pope Pius IX , with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed

5928-577: The Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches , which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies around the world . The pope , who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The Diocese of Rome , known as the Holy See , is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia , has its principal offices in Vatican City , which

6084-541: The Polish People's Republic , became the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. His 26 1/2-year pontificate was one of the longest in history, and was credited with hastening the fall of communism in Europe. John Paul II sought to evangelize an increasingly secular world . He travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries, and used television and radio as means of spreading the church's teachings. He also emphasized

6240-422: The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, when those who ceased to be in communion became known as Protestants. While the Roman Church has been used to describe the pope's Diocese of Rome since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages (6th–10th century), Roman Catholic Church has been applied to the whole church in the English language since the Protestant Reformation in

6396-409: The Roman Empire , when establishing the state church of the Roman Empire . Since the East–West Schism of 1054, the Eastern Orthodox Church has taken the adjective Orthodox as its distinctive epithet; its official name continues to be the Orthodox Catholic Church. The Latin Church was described as Catholic , with that description also denominating those in communion with the Holy See after

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6552-419: The Tridentine Mass as found in the Roman Missal of 1962, which he titled the "Extraordinary Form". Citing the frailties of advanced age, Benedict resigned in 2013, becoming the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years. Pope Francis, the current pope of the Catholic Church, became in 2013 the first pope from the Americas, the first from the Southern Hemisphere , and the first Pope from outside Europe since

6708-418: The University of Oxford , University of Paris , and University of Bologna . Higher education before then had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools, led by monks and nuns . Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century CE. These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. The university

6864-444: The dignity of work and natural rights of labourers to have fair wages and safe conditions in Laborem exercens . He emphasized several church teachings, including moral exhortations against abortion, euthanasia , and against widespread use of the death penalty, in Evangelium Vitae . Pope Benedict XVI , elected in 2005, was known for upholding traditional Christian values against secularization , and for increasing use of

7020-604: The rosary . According to Fr. Robert J. Voigt, while praying the rosary, it is traditional in Stearns County German culture to mention which of the Mysteries of the Rosary is being focussed upon right after the Name of Jesus during each Hail Mary . The pilgrims from Jacobs Prairie walked behind a wagon upon which carried a wooden statue of the Blessed Virgin and the Christ Child , Who were surrounded by twelve girls dressed in white and bearing white flags. They were followed by four priests, several altar boys swinging censers, twenty six men on horseback, and many other pilgrims. As

7176-422: The 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France during a period known as the Avignon Papacy . The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the pope returned to Rome, but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism , with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa. The matter

7332-414: The 1860s incorporated the Papal States, including Rome itself from 1870, into the Kingdom of Italy , thus ending the papacy's temporal power . In response, Pope Pius IX excommunicated King Victor Emmanuel II , refused payment for the land, and rejected the Italian Law of Guarantees , which granted him special privileges. To avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian authorities, he remained

7488-426: The 1894 tornado, the statue still stood unharmed in the ruins of the chapel. Meanwhile, Anton Bold, one of the two donors for the land on which the chapel sits, saved his life by clinging to a stump. He later recalled, ( German : "Der hat oben und unten gerüpft, aber ich hab' fest gehalten!" ) ("It plucked at me above and below, but I held on tight!") According to Fr. Robert J. Voigt, "The cyclone did not stop at

7644-522: The 1960s, Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Council , which ushered in radical change to church ritual and practice, and in the later 20th century, the long reign of Pope John Paul II contributed to the fall of communism in Europe, and a new public and international role for the papacy. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its doctrines on sexuality , its inability to ordain women , and its handling of sexual abuse cases . Pope Pius X (1903–1914) renewed

7800-408: The 21st century. Pope Gregory VII further initiated the Gregorian Reforms regarding the independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman Emperors , over which had the authority to appoint bishops and popes. In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions in

7956-416: The Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through the socio-political mechanisms of colonial rule. Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in

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8112-456: The Assumption Chapel, similar to the St. Boniface pilgrimage shrine in nearby St. Augusta , was constructed in 1877, as a desperate plea for heavenly intercession against the Rocky Mountain locusts ; a species of giant grasshopper whose plagues devastated the region between 1856 and 1877. The petition was considered to have been successful at the time and there has not been another Rocky Mountain locus plague in Minnesota since 1877. Moreover,

8268-411: The Banks of Plum Creek by Laura Ingalls Wilder . Her description was based on actual incidents in western Minnesota during the summers of 1874 and 1875 as the locusts destroyed her family's wheat crop. Another vivid portrayal of the depredations of the locust can be found in Ole Edvart Rølvaag 's Giants in the Earth , based in part on his own experiences and those of his wife's family. In 2018,

8424-407: The Banks of Plum Creek , Laura Ingalls Wilder records her eyewitness accounts of the plight of these plagues. She relates how they could not even keep grasshoppers out of the milk pail while milking. She tells how some men headed to the eastern side of the state to find work on unaffected farms. The farmers who stayed to fight the plague resorted to desperate measures. Some used smudge pots to keep

8580-402: The Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna from which it governed the small fragments of Italy, including Rome, that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during the election in 752 of Pope Stephen II and that the papacy was forced to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it. In 754, at

8736-405: The Catholic and Orthodox churches. Several eastern churches reunited, forming the majority of the Eastern Catholic Churches . The Age of Discovery beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion of Western Europe's political and cultural influence worldwide. Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal played in Western colonialism, Catholicism was spread to

8892-487: The Christ Child that was carved by Joseph Ambroziz, carried in the wagon from Jacobs Prairie in 1877, and which survived the destruction of the original chapel by the tornado in 1894. As the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary had only just been formally defined in 1950, the dedication of the chapel was changed accordingly. For this reason, as well, a stone carving above the door is inscribed in Ecclesiastical Latin , "Assumpta est Maria" ("Mary has been taken up"). Our Lady

9048-422: The Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The resulting persecutions were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalized in the 4th century. In 313, Emperor Constantine I 's Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople , modern Istanbul, Turkey . In 380

9204-510: The Cross were added more recently. Catholic Church God Schools Relations with: The Catholic Church , also known as the Roman Catholic Church , is the largest Christian church , with 1.28 to 1.39 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2024. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions and has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization . The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches , including

9360-457: The Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV of France , which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. As the papacy resisted pushes for Gallicanism , the French Revolution of 1789 shifted power to the state, caused the destruction of churches, the establishment of a Cult of Reason , and the martyrdom of nuns during the Reign of Terror . In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte 's General Louis-Alexandre Berthier invaded

9516-401: The European imperial powers' conquest of Africa during the late nineteenth century. According to the historian of religion Adrian Hastings , Catholic missionaries were generally unwilling to defend African rights or encourage Africans to see themselves as equals to Europeans, in contrast to Protestant missionaries, who were more willing to oppose colonial injustices. During the 20th century,

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9672-447: The Holy See, or the Apostolic See (meaning the see of the apostle Peter). Directly serving the pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church. The pope is also sovereign of Vatican City, a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that

9828-416: The Midwest was suffering from a four year long Rocky Mountain locust plague. At the same time, however, the construction of the chapel was based on a tradition stretching back much earlier. According to Fr. Bruno Riss (1829–1900), a Benedictine missionary priest from Augsburg , in the Kingdom of Bavaria , the first Rocky Mountain locust plague to strike Central Minnesota began on 15 August 1856, during

9984-402: The Pope's insistence on public neutrality and diplomatic language has become a source of much criticism and debate. Nevertheless, in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews. Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide estimated that Catholic rescue of Jews amounted to somewhere between 700,000 and 860,000 people. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church

10140-410: The Reformation, which gave birth to the great majority of Protestant denominations and also crypto-Protestantism within the Catholic Church. Meanwhile, Henry VIII petitioned Pope Clement VII for a declaration of nullity concerning his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . When this was denied, he had the Acts of Supremacy passed to make himself Supreme Head of the Church of England , spurring

10296-499: The Second World War, also because they had powerful supporters from the Vatican. The judgment of Pius XII is made more difficult by the sources, because the church archives for his tenure as nuncio, cardinal secretary of state and pope are in part closed or not yet processed. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent, four centuries before. Initiated by Pope John XXIII, this ecumenical council modernized

10452-445: The States from which we emigrated, we were good for nothing and wanted to cure us without harming our neighbors and therefore he led us to this place and the grasshoppers after us and now, I hope, we are all cured." Fr. Bruno Riss was almost certainly referring to elderly Rockville pioneer homesteader Michael Hanson, Sr., an immigrant from the Luxembourgish -speaking but Prussian -ruled village of Obersgegen and combat veteran of

10608-484: The War, and established aid networks to help victims, but he secretly assisted the anti-Hitler resistance and shared intelligence with the Allies. His first encyclical Summi Pontificatus (1939) expressed dismay at the 1939 Invasion of Poland and reiterated Catholic teaching against racism. He expressed concern against race killings on Vatican Radio , and intervened diplomatically to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries from 1942 to 1944. But

10764-527: The altar-boys were kept busy driving away the insolent insects with whips from the vestments of the priest." According to Father Bruno Riss, George Berger (1823-1897), a St. Joseph homesteader from Oberschneiding , in the Kingdom of Bavaria , raised the question, in a typically self-deprecating example of Stearns County German humor, after Mass one Sunday, "Why does God afflict us with grasshoppers?" Herr Berger then answered his own question, "in his own humorous way", and explained, "God saw that when we lived in

10920-403: The ancient enemy revived the former fervor." According to Stephen Gross, however, this is not entirely accurate. While the Feast Day of St. Ulrich of Augsburg was swiftly displaced by America's Independence Day , this was not the case with St. Magnus of Füssen . The Hiberno-Scottish missionary St. Magnus, the founder of St. Mang's Abbey, Füssen who is traditionally known as the "Apostle of

11076-458: The apostles, instructing them to continue his work. The book Acts of Apostles , tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry began on Pentecost , occurring fifty days following the date Christ is believed to have resurrected . At Pentecost, the apostles are believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their mission in leading

11232-408: The area after the completion of similar processions and parish missions, or marking the future locations of parish churches, always bore the maxim, ( German : Wer ausharrt bis ans End, der wird selig." ) ("Blessed is he who perseveres to the end.") Fr. Bruno Riss later recalled, however, "In subsequent years, I am informed that the custom of observing these processions was abandoned, but a return of

11388-461: The area of California ), weighing 27.5 million tons and consisting of some 12.5 trillion insects, the greatest concentration of animals ever speculatively guessed, according to Guinness World Records . Less than 30 years later, the species was apparently extinct. The last recorded sighting of a live specimen was in 1902 in southern Canada. As a creature so ubiquitous was not expected to become extinct, very few specimens were ever collected (though

11544-468: The areas under his control definitively established a form of caesaropapism , in which "he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church", re-established imperial power over Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed the Byzantine Papacy (537–752), during which

11700-529: The authority for the binomial Caloptenus spretus to C. Thomas , but fails on the Principle of Priority . The treatment under the genus Melanoplus began in 1878 in publications by S. H. Scudder who pointed out the difference between the genus Caloptenus that he noted as being more correctly spelled Calliptenus and Melanoplus . The species is reported to have descended from the Rocky Mountains to

11856-558: The bishops of Rome, or popes, required approval from the emperor in Constantinople or from his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected by the emperor from his Greek-speaking subjects, resulting in a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions in art as well as liturgy. Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity in its Arian form, which

12012-453: The case of a sickly boy of the pioneer Nicholas Hansen family. Restored to health, he went on in adulthood to be a first missionary to the Bahamas , Bonaventure Hansen, O.S.B." According to Stephen Gross, the future Bahamian missionary was stricken with Sydenham's chorea when only 12-years of age, only to be completely cured as his parents made a twelve mile Bittgang , or pilgrimage on foot, to

12168-625: The chapel, "the place, which a month ago was a wilderness, and overgrown with wild brush, can today be called a paradise, a place of refuge for pilgrims." According to a document signed and notarized with six witnesses, by the time the second Mass was offered in the Chapel on September 8, 1877, no grasshoppers remained. There has not been a grasshopper plague in Minnesota or the Midwest at large since 1877. The Masses in Maria Hilf continued as promised, and

12324-422: The chapel. It destroyed other farm homes, barns, and granaries. It killed and injured cattle and horses, but missed the people, for they hid in their cellars. The tornado headed north. It gobbled up the church at Jacobs Prairie for dessert, and after travelling twenty miles, it did $ 60,000 worth of damage at St. John's Abbey. The storm even brought St. John's a present, some feed stacks from Cold Spring, identified by

12480-496: The church's approach to ecumenism , and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra aetate . The council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the " Spirit of Vatican II " such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng said that Vatican II had "not gone far enough" to change church policies. Traditionalist Catholics , such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre , however, strongly criticized

12636-460: The church's global reach continued to grow, despite the rise of anti-Catholic authoritarian regimes and the collapse of European Empires, accompanied by a general decline in religious observance in the West. Under Popes Benedict XV , and Pius XII , the Holy See sought to maintain public neutrality through the World Wars, acting as peace broker and delivering aid to the victims of the conflicts. In

12792-577: The church. The Catholic Church teaches that the college of bishops , led by the bishop of Rome are the successors to the Apostles. In the account of the Confession of Peter found in the Gospel of Matthew , Christ designates Peter as the "rock" upon which Christ's church will be built. The Catholic Church considers the bishop of Rome, the pope, to be the successor to Saint Peter . Some scholars state Peter

12948-422: The church. There are three levels of clergy: the episcopate, composed of bishops who hold jurisdiction over a geographic area called a diocese or eparchy ; the presbyterate, composed of priests ordained by bishops and who work in local dioceses or religious orders; and the diaconate, composed of deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church

13104-577: The city of Rome, though enjoying extraterritorial privileges accredited to the Holy See. Rocky Mountain locust The Rocky Mountain locust ( Melanoplus spretus ) is an extinct species of grasshopper that ranged through the western half of the United States and some western portions of Canada with large numbers seen until the end of the 19th century. Sightings often placed their swarms in numbers far larger than any other locust species, with one famous sighting in 1875 estimated at 198,000 square miles (510,000 km ) in size (greater than

13260-842: The conflict. Catholic clergy played a leading role in the government of the fascist Slovak State , which collaborated with the Nazis, copied their anti-Semitic policies, and helped them carry out the Holocaust in Slovakia. Jozef Tiso , the President of the Slovak State and a Catholic priest, supported his government's deportation of Slovakian Jews to extermination camps. The Vatican protested against these Jewish deportations in Slovakia and in other Nazi puppet regimes including Vichy France , Croatia, Bulgaria , Italy and Hungary. Around 1943, Adolf Hitler planned

13416-486: The conversion of its grassland habitat to agriculture . Assumption Chapel in Cold Spring, Minnesota , was established as a Christian pilgrimage shrine ( German : Wallfahrtsort ) ( German : Gnadenkapelle ) in 1877 by German-American Catholic pioneer farmers, supposedly to keep away future locust plagues similar to those they had faced in both the 1850s and the 1870s. The Feast Day of St. Magnus of Füssen , who

13572-511: The council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments", among other issues. The teaching on the morality of contraception also came under scrutiny; after a series of disagreements, Humanae vitae upheld the church's prohibition of all forms of contraception. In 1978, Pope John Paul II , formerly Archbishop of Kraków in

13728-449: The day of the chapel's completion and dedication, August 15, 1877, all houses in the nearby villages were decorated with flags, and with garlands of oak and evergreen branches. Triumphal arches ( German : Triumphbogen ), which were also made of oak and evergreen branches and festooned with legends in both Ecclesiastical Latin , Standard German , and the local dialect known as "Stearns County German", were constructed in advance and lined

13884-489: The development of the role of the papacy in the subsequent church". These roles, Brown says, "contributed enormously to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died and where Paul witnessed the truth of Christ, as the successor of Peter in care for the church universal". Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and

14040-539: The driving force behind the Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant movement. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation. In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world, in part through missionaries and imperialism , although its hold on European populations declined due to

14196-465: The early history of the region as follows, "Father Francis X. Pierz, a missionary to Indians in central Minnesota, published a series of articles in 1851 in German Catholic newspapers advocating Catholic settlement in central Minnesota. Large numbers of immigrants, mainly German , but also Slovenian and Polish , responded. Over 20 parishes where formed in what is now Stearns County, each centered on

14352-639: The early summer, before locusts were able to migrate. These new agricultural practices effectively reduced the threat of locusts and greatly contributed to the species' downfall. It has been hypothesized that plowing and irrigation by settlers as well as trampling by cattle and other farm animals near streams and rivers in the Rocky Mountains destroyed their eggs in the areas they permanently lived, which ultimately caused their demise. For example, reports from this era suggest that farmers killed over 150 egg cases per square inch while plowing, harrowing or flooding. It appeared that this species lived and reproduced in

14508-469: The eight miles to Jacobs Prairie. Two miles from their destination they were met by the parishioners from Jacobs Prairie, who accompanied the procession back to the church. Mass was held outside at the base of a huge mission cross, decorated with flowers and holy pictures. The priest in his sermon expressed his joy at the unity and love, which prevailed in the parishes, and his wish that it would always remain so." The crosses erected outside pioneer churches in

14664-699: The eighth-century Gregory III . Francis has made efforts to further close Catholicism's estrangement with the Eastern churches. His installation was attended by Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the first time since the Great Schism of 1054 that the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople has attended a papal installation, while he also met Patriarch Kirill of Moscow , head of

14820-668: The empire's capital. As a result of Islamic domination of the Mediterranean , the Frankish state, centred away from that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the Western Europe of the Middle Ages. The battles of Toulouse and Poitiers halted the Islamic advance in the West and the failed siege of Constantinople halted it in the East. Two or three decades later, in 751,

14976-579: The event to impede the grasshoppers' destructive advances, but when the storm passed they were as plentiful as ever. In Stearns County , about a month after the Statewide day of Prayer, newly ordained Father Leo Winter, OSB , was assigned to the Parish of St. James in Jacobs Prairie , with further responsibility for the mission of St. Nicholas eight miles away. In the midst of the plague, Father Winter encouraged

15132-451: The face of the earth. Within about 2 or 3 days the fields presented the appearance of being newly plowed. Then an indescribable misery entered the homes of the settlers of Stearns County. The entire harvest was a dead loss for those settlers who had taken their abodes in this region during the previous year: those, of course, who had settled during the year of the famine had no crops to lose, as they had not planted any. The first terrible winter

15288-518: The famous insect. The status of M. spretus as a distinct species was confirmed by a 2004 DNA analysis of North American species of the genus Melanoplus . Melanoplus spretus was formally declared extinct by the IUCN in 2014. It has been suggested that the now critically endangered Eskimo curlew fed on the locust during its spring migration and that its extinction may have added to the pressures on already declining curlew populations including hunting and

15444-506: The farmers began to harvest successful crops the next year. Furthermore, the last documented sighting of live Rocky Mountain locusts took place in southern Canada in 1902. In 2014, the species of insect which was once numerous enough to block out the sun and reduce farm families throughout North America to the brink of starvation was formally declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . According to

15600-405: The farmers' names. In the winter, the farmers talked about rebuilding their chapel, but in summer with the pressure of farm work, they forgot about it..." Marienberg would accordingly stand vacant for the next fifty-eight years. In 1952, in honor of the centennial of the diocese of Saint Cloud, the Chapel was rebuilt. The current chapel stands sixteen by twenty-six feet, the approximate size of

15756-469: The field. However, the grasshoppers devastated crops at a speed that no human invention could compete with. The number of grasshoppers and the destruction they brought with them grew each year. By the spring of 1877, grasshopper eggs covered approximately two thirds of Minnesota. Each year, the Minnesota State Legislature appropriated more and more funds to assist its distressed citizens with

15912-507: The final breach. In this age great gothic cathedrals in France were an expression of popular pride in the Christian faith. In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán . The studia conventualia and studia generalia of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of church-sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of Charlemagne at Aachen , into

16068-421: The grass and valuable crops, but also leather, wood, sheep's wool, and—in extreme cases—even clothes off peoples' backs. Trains were sometimes brought to a halt after skidding over large numbers of locusts run over on the rails. As the swarms worsened, farmers attempted to control them using gunpowder , fires (sometimes dug in trenches to burn as many of the locusts as possible), smearing them with "hopperdozers",

16224-424: The grasshoppers in flight. Others set their doomed crops on fire in order to kill the fledgling grasshoppers. Many farmers resorted to catching them by hand or in buckets. People started building makeshift "hopper dozers". These machines consisted of pieces of sheet metal smeared with tar, which would be dragged over infested fields. The grasshoppers would get stuck in the tar and be wiped off and burned at each end of

16380-515: The growth of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment. From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Catholic Church over Western society. In the 18th century, writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of

16536-420: The hoppers could not find this farm. The yield about one half of a usual harvest, while farmers in the vicinity has no crops whatever. Agreeable to his promise, he delivered to me two thirds of the entire yield for distribution. How I was edified and touched by the faith of this man. Nor did he make display of his charity, - all was done on the quiet." By May 1857, conditions among the settlers had deteriorated to

16692-482: The idea with fellow parishioners. They decided to build a chapel upon Marienberg in the Blessed Virgin’s honor and to offer Masses of Thanksgiving on every Saturday. The parishioners of the two parishes agreed. They vowed to build a chapel "to honor the mother of God, to take refuge in her as their intercessor and be freed from the ravages of the grasshopper plague." Two farmers donated seven acres halfway between

16848-517: The independence of papal office by abolishing the veto of Catholic powers in papal elections, and his successors Benedict XV (1914–1922) and Pius XI (1922–1939) concluded the modern independence of the Vatican State within Italy. Benedict XV was elected at the outbreak of the First World War . He attempted to mediate between the powers and established a Vatican relief office, to assist victims of

17004-588: The kidnapping of the Pope and his internment in Germany. He gave SS General Wolff a corresponding order to prepare for the action. While Pope Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews during the Holocaust , the church has also been accused of having encouraged centuries of antisemitism by its teachings and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Many Nazi criminals escaped overseas after

17160-577: The largest Eastern Orthodox church, in 2016; this was reported as the first such high-level meeting between the two churches since the Great Schism of 1054. In 2017 during a visit in Egypt , Pope Francis reestablished mutual recognition of baptism with the Coptic Orthodox Church . The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity , led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within

17316-466: The last documented sighting of live Rocky Mountain locusts in the wild took place in southern Canada in 1902. In 2014, the species of insects which was once numerous enough to block out the sunlight and reduce farm families throughout North America to starvation was formally declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Writing in 1997, Jewish-American historian of America's religious architecture Marilyn J. Chiat described

17472-537: The late 16th century. Further, some will refer to the Latin Church as Roman Catholic in distinction from the Eastern Catholic churches. "Roman Catholic" has occasionally appeared also in documents produced both by the Holy See, and notably used by certain national episcopal conferences and local dioceses. The name Catholic Church for the whole church is used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1990) and

17628-490: The locust caused $ 200 million in crop damage in Colorado , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Nebraska and other states. One farmer reported that the locusts seemed "like a great, white glistening cloud, for their wings caught the sunshine on them and made them look like a cloud of white vapor" while another described the experience as "a big snowstorm, where the air was filled with enormous-size flakes.” The locusts ate not only

17784-401: The locusts had simply laid their eggs in the furrows. When the warmth of the sun hatched the eggs, the results were even more catastrophic for the local population than the events of the previous year, as the grasshoppers, "suffered nothing to grow, except peas." According to Fr. Bruno Riss, "They found their way into the houses and destroyed whatever clothing they could reach. In the church not

17940-577: The mid-6th century by Emperor Justinian I as the pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople , Antioch , Jerusalem and Alexandria . In 451 the Council of Chalcedon , in a canon of disputed validity, elevated the see of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome". From c.  350  – c.  500 , the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support of orthodox leaders in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals to them. Emperor Justinian , who in

18096-760: The new colonies. In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines . Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India, China, and Japan. The French colonization of the Americas beginning in the 16th century established a Catholic francophone population and forbade non-Catholics to settle in Quebec . In 1415, Jan Hus

18252-553: The next Feast Day of St. Ulrich of Augsburg on 4 July 1857, St. James's Roman Catholic Church in Jacobs Prairie was chosen as the objective. The pilgrims from St. Augusta and St. Cloud crossed the Sauk River at "Waite's Crossing" and were met on the other side by the pilgrims from Richmond and other nearby communities. The Tridentine Mass was then offered under the open sky before the pilgrimage continued to its objective. Meanwhile,

18408-458: The numerous visual artists sponsored by the church. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization ". In Western Christendom , the first universities in Europe were established by monks. Beginning in the 11th century, several older cathedral schools became universities, such as

18564-513: The official history of St. Boniface Roman Catholic Church in Cold Spring, "To what soon became known as Marienberg , or 'Mary Hill', regular pilgrimages were regularly made. In many instances, these were made penitentiary on foot, or even barefooted. Up the face of the steep slope, earthen steps were cut, on which the devout would kneel step by step with praying a Hail Mary at each. Tales were told of miracles wrought by these prayers -- especially in

18720-406: The oldest multinational organization in the world. The hierarchy of the Catholic Church is headed by the pope, currently Pope Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 by a papal conclave . The office of the pope is known as the papacy . The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter . His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called

18876-532: The original building. It was constructed of rough granite, much of which was donated by the Cold Spring Granite Company . The inside of the Chapel is simple and has no pews, only an altar. The chapel's inside walls are carved from polished agate and carnelian granite . The Chapel also features four stained-glass windows. Above the altar stands the very same wooden statue of the Blessed Virgin and

19032-520: The people to continue that Day of Prayer in their homes and he did so himself in their churches." One Sunday, while Father Winter was saying the Offertory of the Tridentine Mass , the thought came to him of urging his parishioners to promise to build a chapel in honor of Mary, Help of Christians , so that She would intercede with Her Son for relief from the grasshopper plague. Father Winter talked over

19188-421: The people to continue their prayers of supplication. According to Fr. Robert J. Voigt, Father Winter, "felt the plague was a punishment sent by God because the people had become too self-sufficient. They had their plots of land by now and some income, so they started to forget about God. Father Leo felt it was time for the people to repent of their waywardness and plead with God to remove the plague. So he urged

19344-459: The pilgrims passed through Cold Spring, a reporter later commented that the houses were decorated with flags, and oak and evergreen garlands as though the Blessed Virgin herself, or some earthly monarch, were visiting the community. Upon the arrival of all the pilgrims at the chapel, Father Winter and the other priest cooperated in consecrating the altar and offered a Tridentine Missa Solemnis . On August 23, 1877, Der Nordstern reported about

19500-554: The placement in the genus Melanoplus and the distinctiveness as a species (i.e., not a migratory form of an extant species). It also identified the closest living relative as Melanoplus bruneri rather than M. sanguinipes as had been earlier surmised. The Rocky Mountain locust occurred along both sides of the Rocky Mountains and in most of the prairie areas. Breeding in sandy areas and thriving in hot and dry conditions, it has been hypothesized that they may have depended on

19656-501: The point that the four Benedictine priests responsible for the region discussed the situation together and proposed to their parishioners the idea of vowing to make a biannual religious procession and pilgrimage ( German : Bittgang ) in perpetuity if the locust plague were lifted. The Benedictines had recalled two Saints, early missionaries who spearheaded the Christianization of the pagan Germanic tribes in what later became

19812-569: The pope is the successor to Saint Peter , upon whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith taught by the apostles, preserving the faith infallibly through scripture and sacred tradition as authentically interpreted through the magisterium of the church. The Roman Rite and others of the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic liturgies , and institutes such as mendicant orders , enclosed monastic orders and third orders reflect

19968-660: The pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives. The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals , such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages . While the famous Saint Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City, above the traditional site of Saint Peter's tomb , the papal cathedral for the Diocese of Rome is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran , located within

20124-412: The practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations". It intended to engage the church more closely with the present world ( aggiornamento ), which was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows". In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to

20280-566: The prairie in large numbers only in certain years, particularly in dry seasons, following westward wind currents. Outbreaks usually lasted two consecutive years. Although a great number of eggs were laid on the prairie during outbreak years, individuals hatched from these eggs usually did not thrive, a condition that has been attributed to the lack of adaptation of this species to prairie habitats. A 2004 molecular phylogenetic study that used mitochondrial DNA from specimens obtained from museums and fragments preserved in frozen glacial deposits confirms

20436-521: The prairie only temporarily during swarming years, with each generation being smaller than the previous one and swarming ever further from the Rocky Mountains, while the permanent breeding grounds of this species seemed to be restricted to an area somewhere between 3 and 3,000 square miles (7.8 and 7,770.0 square kilometres) of sandy soils near streams and rivers in the Rockies, which coincided with arable and pastoral lands exploited by settlers. As locusts are

20592-560: The preaching of a mission for the Feast of the Assumption by Father Francis Xavier Weninger inside the newly erected log chapel in St. Joseph, Minnesota ; following the lifting of a personal interdict imposed against that community by Bishop Joseph Crétin in May 1856. The Rocky Mountain locusts darkened the sky and pounded upon the rooftop of the chapel so incredibly loud that they were mistaken for

20748-683: The preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as Columbanus and Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe. The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilization from Late Antiquity to the dawn of the modern age. It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music. Renaissance figures such as Raphael , Michelangelo , Leonardo da Vinci , Botticelli , Fra Angelico , Tintoretto , Titian , Bernini and Caravaggio are examples of

20904-457: The prominent universities of Europe. Scholastic theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas' Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation. A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked

21060-406: The proposal was accepted and a solemn vow was made by the parish missions at St. Cloud , St. Augusta , St. Joseph , Jacobs Prairie , and Richmond , a strong northwest wind blew the locusts out of the region. Even though local settlers had to wait another fourteen months for the next harvest to end local destitution, the religious processions began almost immediately. For the first pilgrimage, on

21216-434: The purchase of seed and even the necessities of food and clothing. People began to lose their faith in man-made interventions. They turned to spiritual means to relieve the devastation caused by the plague. Minnesota governor John S. Pillsbury declared April 26, 1877, a statewide day of prayer. That night and the following day the weather shifted and the rain which fell soon turned to snow. The people thought this could be

21372-580: The schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to further division. In the 11th century, the efforts of Hildebrand of Sovana led to the creation of the College of Cardinals to elect new popes, starting with Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061 . When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as Pope Gregory VII . The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into

21528-790: The swarm's destruction; an 1877 Nebraska law said that anyone between the ages of 16 and 60 had to work at least two days eliminating locusts at hatching time or face a $ 10 fine. That same year Missouri offered a bounty of $ 1 a bushel for locusts collected in March, 50 cents a bushel in April, 25 cents in May, and 10 cents in June. Other Great Plains states made similar bounty offers. In the 1880s, farmers had recovered sufficiently from their locust woes to be able to send carloads of corn to flood victims in Ohio . They also switched to such resilient crops as winter wheat, which matured in

21684-616: The tall grass prairie plants during drier spells. The destruction of the prairie habitat and the incursion of new flora and fauna along with agricultural practices may have led to the extinction of the species. Large numbers of grasshoppers including a large number of Rocky Mountain locusts entombed in the ice in the Rocky Mountains gave their name to the Grasshopper Glacier . Rocky Mountain locusts caused farm damage in Maine from 1743 to 1756 and Vermont in 1797–1798. The locusts became more of

21840-626: The tender new growth of crops. When their wings grew strong enough, they flew off for another field. This cycle would continue from 1873 to 1877, bringing widespread destruction to a part of the country primarily dependent on an agricultural economy. Large black clouds made up of thousands of grasshoppers moved from field to field, from county to county. One historian reported that "grasshoppers, sixty to eighty per square yard, could devour one ton of hay per day each forty acres they covered." The grasshoppers ate everything and anything: crops, fruit trees, wooden fork handles, even clothing. In her book On

21996-521: The term "bishop of Rome" to the most prominent members of the clergy in the earlier period and also to Peter himself. On this basis protestant scholars Oscar Cullmann , Henry Chadwick , and Bart D. Ehrman question whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy. Raymond E. Brown also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period would have looked on Peter as having "roles that would contribute in an essential way to

22152-513: The two parishes of St. James and St. Nicholas. Construction on the Chapel began July 16, 1877. Laura Ingalls Wilder alleges that the grasshoppers left suddenly that month. All told, the chapel cost a total of $ 865 and was completed in less than a month. A pilgrimage statue of the Blessed Virgin holding the Christ Child was carved by Slovenian-immigrant Joseph Ambroziz, an 80-year old farmer and folk artist from St. Joseph, Minnesota . Before

22308-629: The urgent request of Pope Stephen, the Frankish king Pepin the Short conquered the Lombards. He then gifted the lands of the former exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the Papal States . Rome and the Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the Photian schism of the 860s, when Photius criticized the Latin west of adding of the filioque clause after being excommunicated by Nicholas I . Though

22464-539: The war and reunite families. The interwar Pope Pius XI modernized the papacy, appointing 40 indigenous bishops and concluding fifteen concordats, including the Lateran Treaty with Italy which founded the Vatican City State . His successor Pope Pius XII led the Catholic Church through the Second World War and early Cold War . Like his predecessors, Pius XII sought to publicly maintain Vatican neutrality in

22620-445: The whole planned pilgrimage route. As described by a local reporter for Der Nordstern , cannons were fired off at 5:00 am to announce the beginning of a religious procession ( German : Bittgang ) in the nearby villages of Cold Spring, Jacobs Prairie, St. Nicholas, and other communities. The pilgrims from Jacobs Prairie, who, like all other groups of pilgrims, were singing German hymns ( German : Kirchenlieder ) and praying

22776-568: The world. Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. The Catholic Church has profoundly influenced Western philosophy , culture , art , literature , music , law , and science . Catholics live all over the world through missions , immigration , diaspora , and conversions . Since the 20th century, the majority have resided in the Global South , partially due to secularization in Europe and North America. The Catholic Church shared communion with

22932-612: The writer of a letter from Stearns County to Der Wahrheitsfreund in Cincinnati, Ohio , which was published on July 2, 1857, commented, "Truly, one feels that they have been transported back to Germany when they see the beautiful customs of the Fatherland, votive and other processions, which proceed over fields and meadows". The same writer continued, "Some of the Yankees witnessed the event and stared, as they had never seen this, and its meaning

23088-481: Was a major factor in preserving classical civilization , with its art (see Illuminated manuscript ) and literacy. Through his Rule , Benedict of Nursia ( c.  480 –543), one of the founders of Western monasticism , exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Catholic Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through

23244-403: Was at hand the victuals that remained were soon consumed, prices rose enormously, because the nearest market was at St. Paul , and it required a full week to make a trip with an ox-team. Still, hope did not die." Although the grasshoppers were believed to have been killed off by the 1856-1857 winter and seed wheat stood at $ 2 per bushel, it became apparent during the spring planting in 1857 that

23400-519: Was at its most intense in Poland , and Catholic resistance to Nazism took various forms. Some 2,579 Catholic clergy were sent to the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp , including 400 Germans. Thousands of priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned, taken to a concentration camp, tortured and murdered, including Saints Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein . Catholics fought on both sides in

23556-529: Was burned at the stake for heresy, but his reform efforts encouraged Martin Luther , an Augustinian friar in modern-day Germany, who sent his Ninety-five Theses to several bishops in 1517. His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences , and along with the Leipzig Debate this led to his excommunication in 1521. In Switzerland , Huldrych Zwingli , John Calvin and other Protestant Reformers further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into

23712-406: Was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century. The first known use of the phrase "the catholic church" ( Greek : καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία , romanized :  katholikḕ ekklēsía ) occurred in the letter written about 110 AD from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans , which read: "Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there

23868-452: Was formally published with the Latin binomial Caloptenus spretus in 1866 by B.D. Walsh as named by "Mr. Uhler , without describing it," adding that "The name 'spretus' means 'despised', and refers apparently to its having been hitherto despised or overlooked by Entomologists". Walsh does not provide a description of the species, except for female wing length, as well as some aspects of biology, ecology, and control. Some entomologists credit

24024-410: Was largely resolved in 1415–17 at the Council of Constance , with the claimants in Rome and Pisa agreeing to resign and the third claimant excommunicated by the cardinals, who held a new election naming Martin V pope. In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting

24180-446: Was strange to them. It must be said in praise of them that in such circumstances they were well-behaved and not once tried to disturb the atmosphere." An eyewitness account of the annual pilgrimage upon the Feast of St. Magnus of Füssen was also published in Der Wahrheitsfreund on September 23, 1858. According to Stephen Gross, "The reporter described the congregation at St. Joseph meeting at 6:00 A.M. and beginning an hour later to walk

24336-416: Was the first bishop of Rome. Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome. Many scholars hold that a church structure of plural presbyters/bishops persisted in Rome until the mid-2nd century, when the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was adopted, and that later writers retrospectively applied

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