120-463: Ashbrooke is a residential area of Sunderland , North East England directly south and south-west of the city centre. Ashbrooke developed through the Victorian era as Sunderland's first suburb . Originally occupied by large middle-class families, including much of Wearside's Jewish population, a fair number of the larger residences have been reorganised into dwellings of multiple occupancy, home to
240-645: A fishing village at the southern mouth of the river (now the East End) known as 'Soender-land' (which evolved into 'Sunderland'). This settlement was granted a charter in 1179 under the name of the borough of Wearmouth by Hugh Pudsey , then the Bishop of Durham (who had quasi- monarchical power within the County Palatine of Durham ). The charter gave its merchants the same rights as those of Newcastle-upon-Tyne , but it nevertheless took time for Sunderland to develop as
360-411: A port . Fishing was the main commercial activity at the time: mainly herring in the 13th century, then salmon in the 14th and 15th centuries. From 1346 ships were being built at Wearmouth, by a merchant named Thomas Menville, and by 1396 a small amount of coal was being exported. Rapid growth of the port was prompted by the salt trade. Salt exports from Sunderland are recorded from as early as
480-510: A second FA Cup . Shipbuilding ended in 1988 and coal-mining in 1993 after a mid-1980s unemployment crisis with 20 per cent of the local workforce unemployed. Electronic, chemical, paper and motor manufacturing as well as the service sector expanded during the 1980s and 1990s to fill unemployment from heavy industry. In 1986 Japanese car manufacturer Nissan opened its Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK factory in Washington, which has since become
600-487: A watch , and improve the market. In 1832 a parliamentary borough (constitutency) of Sunderland was created, covering the parishes or townships of Sunderland, Bishopwearmouth, Bishopwearmouth Panns, Monkwearmouth, Monkwearmouth Shore and Southwick. In 1836 Sunderland was reformed to become a municipal borough under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , which standardised how most boroughs operated across
720-658: A century in each innings. In 1990, Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar made his first appearance in England at Ashbrooke Sports Ground against a League Conference Cricket Conference XI. Sunderland Rugby Football Club currently play in the Durham/Northumberland Division 2 . This Tyne and Wear location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sunderland, Tyne and Wear Sunderland ( / ˈ s ʌ n d ər l ə n d / )
840-456: A charter in 1179 under the name of 'Wearmouth'. The original borough covered a relatively small area in the north-east corner of the old Bishopwearmouth parish, lying on the south side of the mouth of the River Wear. The borough was granted a further charter in 1634 which gave it the right to appoint a mayor and incorporated the town under the name of Sunderland rather than Wearmouth. The area of
960-438: A fertilizer, applying a moderate concentration helps avoid potential toxicity; typically, 1–3 grams (0.035–0.106 oz) per liter is considered safe and effective for most plants. Sodium chloride is one of the largest volume inorganic raw materials. It is a feedstock in the production of caustic soda and chlorine . These are used in the manufacture of PVC , paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds. Salt
1080-443: A healthy level of sodium intake of between 4 and 5 grams (equivalent to 10-13 g salt) a day. One of the two most prominent dietary risks for disability in the world are diets high in sodium. Only a small percentage of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food. The remainder is used in agriculture, water treatment, chemical production, de-icing, and other industrial use cases. In the practice of watering plants with salt as
1200-422: A high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments. Human salt taste is detected by sodium taste receptors present in taste bud cells on the tongue. Human sensory taste testing studies have shown that proteolyzed forms of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) function as the human salt taste receptor. Table salt
1320-510: A metaphor. Uses include the tale of how Lot's wife is turned into a pillar of salt when looking back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah as they are destroyed. In the New Testament , Jesus refers to his followers as the " salt of the earth ". In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water. Salt is an auspicious substance in Hinduism and
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#17328698859011440-461: A mildly "fishy" or "sea-air" odour, the latter from organobromine compounds . Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appearance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, sea salt may have a more complex flavour than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavours would likely be overwhelmed by those of
1560-650: A pair of gun batteries were built (in 1742 and 1745) on the shoreline to the south of the South Pier, to defend the river from attack (a further battery was built on the cliff top in Roker, ten years later). One of the pair was washed away by the sea in 1780, but the other was expanded during the French Revolutionary Wars and became known as the Black Cat Battery. In 1794 Sunderland Barracks were built, behind
1680-565: A passenger service from Sunderland to Seaham Harbour. In 1886–90 Sunderland Town Hall was built in Fawcett Street, just to the east of the railway station, to a design by Brightwen Binyon . By 1889 two million tons of coal per year was passing through Hudson Dock, while to the south of Hendon Dock, the Wear Fuel Works distilled coal tar to produce pitch, oil and other products. The 20th century saw Sunderland A.F.C. established as
1800-565: A passenger terminus there in 1836. In 1847 the line was bought by George Hudson 's York and Newcastle Railway . Hudson, nicknamed 'The Railway King', was Member of Parliament for Sunderland and was already involved in a scheme to build a dock in the area. In 1846 he had formed the Sunderland Dock Company , which received parliamentary approval for the construction of a dock between the South Pier and Hendon Bay. Increasing industrialisation had prompted residential expansion away from
1920-534: A physical link with Monkwearmouth following the construction of a bridge, the Wearmouth Bridge , which was the world's second iron bridge (after the famous span at Ironbridge ). It was built at the instigation of Rowland Burdon , the Member of Parliament (MP) for County Durham , and described by Nikolaus Pevsner as being 'a triumph of the new metallurgy and engineering ingenuity [...] of superb elegance'. Spanning
2040-522: A salt spring in Lunca , Neamț County , Romania. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract salt as far back as 6050 BC. The salt extracted from this operation may have directly correlated with the rapid growth of this society's population soon after production began. The harvest of salt from
2160-504: A salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat . It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush. To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt. Salt plays a role within different Christian traditions. It
2280-426: A scrubbing agent when combined with oil. Salt is present in most foods , but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods (such as canned foods and especially salted foods , pickled foods , and snack foods or other convenience foods ), where it functions as both a preservative and a flavouring . Dairy salt
2400-550: A song about Ashbrooke Launderette on their 1987 album Bare Faced Cheek . Various members of the band still either live or work in Ashbrooke. Ashbrooke is part of St. Michael's ward and is represented by three Conservative councillors; Lyall Reed, Peter Wood and Michael Dixon. Ashbrooke Sports Ground, opened on 30 May 1887 for cricket and rugby, is home to many amateur sports associations such as bowls, cricket, tennis, hockey, squash and rugby union. A Tennis tournament before Wimbledon
2520-547: A steam-powered hemp-spinning machine which had been devised by a local schoolmaster, Richard Fothergill, in 1793; the ropery building still stands, in the Deptford area of the city. Sunderland's shipbuilding industry continued to grow through most of the 19th century, becoming the town's dominant industry and a defining part of its identity. By 1815 it was 'the leading shipbuilding port for wooden trading vessels' with 600 ships constructed that year across 31 different yards. By 1840
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#17328698859012640-505: A virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated. The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity. Away from
2760-439: A yellow colour. Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries. A lack of fluoride in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries . Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice
2880-637: Is a port city in Tyne and Wear , England . It is a port at the mouth of the River Wear on the North Sea , approximately 10 miles (16 km) south-east of Newcastle upon Tyne . The built-up area had a population of 168,277 at the 2021 census, making it the second largest settlement in North East England after Newcastle. It is the administrative centre of the metropolitan borough of the same name . Sunderland
3000-681: Is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs. Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases , health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake
3120-469: Is an important micronutrient for humans, and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine ( hypothyroidism ) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ( endemic goitre ) in adults or cretinism in children. Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924 and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide , sodium iodide , or sodium iodate . A small amount of dextrose may be added to stabilize
3240-434: Is as a feedstock for the production of chemicals. It is used to produce caustic soda and chlorine , and in the manufacture of products such as polyvinyl chloride , plastics , and paper pulp . Of the annual global production of around three hundred million tonnes , only a small percentage is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use. Edible salt
3360-561: Is associated with a greater risk of stroke , total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease . A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension . The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium (which
3480-420: Is contained in 5 g of salt) per day. Guidelines by the United States recommend that people with hypertension, African Americans, and middle-aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1,500 mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4,700 mg/day with a healthy diet of fruits and vegetables. While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day
3600-419: Is dug out by the room and pillar method, where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels. Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385,000 tons per annum.The mine is also a major tourist attraction, receiving around a quarter of a million visitors a year. Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At
3720-693: Is either beneficial or harmful. Evidence shows a more complicated relationship between salt and cardiovascular disease. "The association between sodium consumption and cardiovascular disease or mortality is U-shaped, with increased risk at both high and low sodium intake." The findings showed that increased mortality from excessive salt intake was primarily associated with individuals with hypertension. The levels of increased mortality among those with restricted salt intake appeared to be similar regardless of blood pressure. This evidence shows that while those with hypertension should primarily focus on reducing sodium to recommended levels, all groups should seek to maintain
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3840-534: Is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6 g serving (1 teaspoon) contains about 2,400 mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs ( fluid balance ). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries
3960-583: Is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass . Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism ) of the Celtic Consecration ( cf. Gallican Rite ) that is employed in the consecration of a church, and it is permitted to be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water. The Bible makes multiple mentions of salt , both of the mineral itself and as
4080-547: Is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France , 35% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride . Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates , traces of algal products , salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic (i.e., it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered). Algal products contribute
4200-409: Is mostly sodium chloride (NaCl). Sea salt and mined salt may contain trace elements . Mined salt is often refined. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. When dissolved in water sodium chloride separates into Na and Cl ions, and the solubility is 359 grams per litre. From cold solutions, salt crystallises as
4320-428: Is prepared by roasting salt in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang (a fermented bean paste). Kosher or kitchen salt has a larger grain size than table salt and is used in cooking. It can be useful for brining , in bread or pretzel making, and as
4440-435: Is recommended by developed countries, one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at least 1,200 mg (contained in 3 g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake led to a greater fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethnicities. Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300 mg per day
4560-543: Is refined by treatment with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of evaporation are then applied. Some salt is produced using the Alberger process , which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals, and produces a grainy-type flake. The Ayoreo , an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco , obtain their salt from
4680-409: Is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt, the latter of which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency . As well as its use in cooking and at the table, salt is present in many processed foods. Sodium is an essential element for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute . However, excessive salt consumption increases
4800-409: Is used as a flux in the production of aluminium . For this purpose, a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants. It is used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine , where it is used to saponify fats. As an emulsifier, salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber , and another use is in the firing of pottery , when salt added to
4920-456: Is used extensively in cooking as a flavouring, and in cooking techniques such as with salt crusts and brining . The main sources of salt in the Western diet, apart from direct use, are bread and cereals, meat, and dairy products. In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment. In its place, condiments such as soy sauce , fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have
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5040-460: Is used in ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings. In Jainism , devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried. Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Mahayana Buddhist tradition, and when returning home from a funeral , a pinch of salt is thrown over
5160-441: Is used in many cuisines, and it is often found in salt shakers on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride . Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Iodized salt , containing potassium iodide ,
5280-617: Is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products. As a flavouring, salt enhances the taste of other foods by suppressing the bitterness of those foods making them more palatable and relatively sweeter. Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration , salting was one of the main methods of food preservation . Thus, herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g, while kipper , its preserved form, contains 990 mg. Similarly, pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1,480 mg, and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g. Salt
5400-434: Is widely available. Some people put a desiccant , such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker , in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form. Some table salt sold for consumption contains additives that address a variety of health concerns, especially in the developing world. The identities and amounts of additives vary from country to country. Iodine
5520-570: The Committee on Toxicity in 1988. Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate , calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts ( acid salts ), magnesium oxide , silicon dioxide , calcium silicate , sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate . Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in
5640-556: The Crimean War ; nonetheless, sailing ships continued to be built, including fast fully-rigged composite -built clippers , including the City of Adelaide in 1864 and Torrens (the last such vessel ever built), in 1875. By the middle of the century glassmaking was at its height on Wearside. James Hartley & Co. , established in Sunderland in 1836, grew to be the largest glassworks in
5760-613: The German word Salz , salt. Hallstatt was the site of the world's first salt mine . The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used pickaxes and shovels , began open pan salt making . During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries. The word salary comes from
5880-672: The Latin word for salt. The reason for this is unknown; a persistent modern claim that the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt is baseless. The word salad literally means "salted", and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables . Wars have been fought over salt. Venice won a war with Genoa over the product, and it played a role in the American Revolution . Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties , and towns like Liverpool flourished on
6000-605: The Mediterranean Sea , along specially built salt roads , and across the Sahara on camel caravans . The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance. Salt is processed from salt mines , and by the evaporation of seawater ( sea salt ) and mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. The greatest single use for salt (sodium chloride)
6120-513: The National Glass Centre a new University of Sunderland campus on the St Peter's site were also built. The former Vaux Breweries site on the north west fringe of the city centre was cleared for further development opportunities. After 99 years at the historic Roker Park stadium, the city’s football club, Sunderland AFC moved to the 42,000-seat Stadium of Light on the banks of
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#17328698859016240-624: The River Tyne , crippling the Newcastle coal trade, which allowed a short period of flourishing coal trade on the Wear. In 1669, after the Restoration , King Charles II granted letters patent to one Edward Andrew, Esq. to 'build a pier and erect a lighthouse or lighthouses and cleanse the harbour of Sunderland'. There was a tonnage duty levy on shipping in order to raise the necessary funds. There
6360-628: The civil war and with the exception of Kingston upon Hull , the North declared for the King. In 1644 the North was captured by the Roundheads (Parliamentarians), the area itself taken in March of that year. One artefact of the civil war in the area was the long trench; a tactic of later warfare. In the village of Offerton roughly three miles inland from the present city centre, skirmishes occurred. The Roundheads blockaded
6480-413: The dihydrate NaCl·2H 2 O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the freezing point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt, and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108.7 °C (227.7 °F). Salt is essential to the health of humans and other animals, and it is one of the five basic taste sensations . Salt
6600-797: The obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era . Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds, and salt fish. From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar , glass, and the dye Tyrian purple ; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salted fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire. Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in
6720-450: The tanning of hides, the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables. Food-grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries (7% in Europe), although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of total production. In 2018, total world production of salt was 300 million tonnes , the top six producers being China (68 million),
6840-524: The 'finest book in the world', was created at the monastery and was likely worked on by Bede , who was born at Wearmouth in 673. This is one of the oldest monasteries still standing in England. While at the monastery, Bede completed the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People) in 731, a feat which earned him the title The father of English history . In
6960-404: The 13th century, by 1589 salt pans were laid at Bishopwearmouth Panns (the modern-day name of the area the pans occupied is Pann's Bank, on the river bank between the city centre and the East End). Large vats of seawater were heated using coal; as the water evaporated, the salt remained. As coal was required to heat the salt pans, a coal mining community began to emerge. Only poor-quality coal
7080-598: The 5th century BC. In the early years of the Roman Empire, roads were built for the transportation of salt from the salt imported at Ostia to the capital. In Africa, salt was used as currency south of the Sahara, and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia . The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). The caravans still cross
7200-611: The Baltic and elsewhere which, together with locally available limestone (and coal to fire the furnaces) was a key ingredient in the glassmaking process. Other industries that developed alongside the river included lime burning and pottery making (the town's first commercial pottery manufactory, the Garrison Pottery, had opened in old Sunderland in 1750). By 1770 Sunderland had spread westwards along its High Street to join up with Bishopwearmouth. In 1796 Bishopwearmouth in turn gained
7320-517: The River Wear at North Hylton , including four stone anchors, which may support the theory that there was a Roman dam or port on the River Wear. Recorded settlements at the mouth of the Wear date to c. 674 , when an Anglo-Saxon nobleman, Benedict Biscop, was granted land by King Ecgfrith, founded the Wearmouth–Jarrow ( St Peter's ) monastery on the north bank of the river—an area that became known as Monkwearmouth. Biscop's monastery
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#17328698859017440-453: The River Wear in 1997. At the time, it was the largest stadium built by an English football club since the 1920s, and has since been expanded to hold nearly 50,000 seated spectators. On 24 March 2004, the city adopted Benedict Biscop as its patron saint . In 2018 the city was ranked as the best to live and work in the UK by the finance firm OneFamily. In the same year, the city was ranked as one of
7560-542: The Sunderland Shipbuilding Co. Ltd. (at Hudson Dock) both closed in the 1920s, and other yards were closed down by National Shipbuilders Securities in the 1930s. By 1936 Sunderland AFC had been league champions on six occasions. They won their first FA Cup in 1937 . With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Sunderland was a key target of the German Luftwaffe bombing. Luftwaffe raids resulted in
7680-561: The Sunderland area were Stone Age hunter-gatherers and artifacts from this era have been discovered, including microliths found during excavations at St Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth . During the final phase of the Stone Age, the Neolithic period ( c. 4000 – c. 2000 BC), Hastings Hill , on the western outskirts of Sunderland, was a focal point of activity and a place of burial and ritual significance. Evidence includes
7800-412: The UK the recommended iodine content of iodized salt is 10–22 ppm. Sodium ferrocyanide , yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent . Such anticaking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely. The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by
7920-479: The UK's largest car factory. Sunderland received city status in 1992. Like many cities, Sunderland comprises a number of areas with their own distinct histories, Fulwell , Monkwearmouth, Roker , and Southwick on the northern side of the Wear, and Bishopwearmouth and Hendon to the south. From 1990, the Wear’s riverbanks were regenerated with new housing, retail parks and business centres on former shipbuilding sites;
8040-490: The United States (42 million), India (29 million), Germany (13 million), Canada (13 million) and Australia (12 million). The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries. A major source of salt is seawater, which has a salinity of approximately 3.5%. This means that there are about 35 g (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts , predominantly sodium ( Na ) and chloride ( Cl ) ions , per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of water. The world's oceans are
8160-484: The Wear Flint Glassworks (which had originally been established in 1697). In addition to the plate glass and pressed glass manufacturers there were 16 bottle works on the Wear in the 1850s, with the capacity to produce between 60 and 70,000 bottles a day. In 1848 George Hudson's York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway built a passenger terminus, Monkwearmouth Station , just north of Wearmouth Bridge; and south of
8280-604: The Wearside area's greatest claim to sporting fame. Founded in 1879 as Sunderland and District Teachers A.F.C. by schoolmaster James Allan , Sunderland joined The Football League for the 1890–91 season . From 1900 to 1919, an electric tram system was built and was gradually replaced by buses during the 1940s before being ended in 1954. In 1909 the Queen Alexandra Bridge was built, linking Deptford and Southwick . The First World War increased shipbuilding, leading to
8400-674: The ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree ( Maytenus vitis-idaea ) and other trees. The largest mine operated by underground workings in the world is the Sifto mine, located mostly 550 meters below Lake Huron, in Goderich, Ontario (Canada). About seven million tons of salt are extracted from it annually. The Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan has nineteen storeys, eleven of which are underground, and 400 km (250 mi) of passages. The salt
8520-650: The availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. What is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata , in Bulgaria , which was a salt mine, providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC. Salt was the best-known food preservative, especially for meat, for many thousands of years. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to
8640-400: The battery, close to what was then the tip of the headland. The world's first steam dredger was built in Sunderland in 1796-7 and put to work on the river the following year. Designed by Stout's successor as Engineer, Jonathan Pickernell jr (in post from 1795 to 1804), it consisted of a set of 'bag and spoon' dredgers driven by a tailor-made 4-horsepower Boulton & Watt beam engine. It
8760-399: The borough was made a separate parish from Bishopwearmouth by an act of parliament in 1719. The ancient borough's powers were relatively modest. Unlike most such boroughs, it did not hold its own courts, nor did it have any meaningful municipal functions. A separate body of improvement commissioners was established in 1810 with responsibilities to pave, light and clean the streets, provide
8880-400: The coast natives lost their previous profits; as of the late 1950s, sea salt was still the currency best appreciated in the interior. Salzburg , Hallstatt , and Hallein lie within 17 km (11 mi) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits. Salzach means "salt river" while Salzburg means "salt castle", both taking their names from
9000-541: The council was based at the Civic Centre on Burdon Road, which had been built in 1970. Sunderland has the motto of Nil Desperandum Auspice Deo or Under God's guidance we may never despair . The borough's population (at the 2021 Census) was 274,200. The original settlement of Sunderland was historically part of the ancient parish of Bishopwearmouth in County Durham. It was an ancient borough , having been granted
9120-538: The country and (having patented an innovative production technique for rolled plate glass ) produced much of the glass used in the construction of the Crystal Palace in 1851. A third of all UK-manufactured plate glass was produced at Hartley's by this time. Other manufacturers included the Cornhill Flint Glassworks (established at Southwick in 1865), which went on to specialise in pressed glass , as did
9240-475: The country. The municipal boundaries were enlarged at the same time to match the constituency, although later that year the municipal boundaries were reduced to remove Southwick and the parts of Bishopwearmouth and Bishopwearmouth Panns which fell more than one mile from the centre of Wearmouth Bridge. The improvement commissioners were wound up in 1851 and their functions transferred to the council. When elected county councils were established in 1889, Sunderland
9360-404: The county borough was replaced by a larger metropolitan borough within the new county of Tyne and Wear. The borough gained Hetton-le-Hole , Houghton-le-Spring , Washington , Burdon , and Warden Law . Salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt . In
9480-468: The deaths of 267 people and destruction of local industry while 4,000 homes were also damaged or destroyed. Many old buildings remain despite the bombing that occurred during World War II. Religious buildings include Holy Trinity Church, built in 1719 for an independent Sunderland, St Michael's Church, built as Bishopwearmouth Parish Church and now known as Sunderland Minster and St Peter's Church, Monkwearmouth, part of which dates from 674 AD, and
9600-444: The desert from southern Niger to Bilma , although much of the trade now takes place by truck. Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates. In Gabon, before the arrival of Europeans, the coast people carried on a remunerative trade with those of the interior by the medium of sea salt. This was gradually displaced by the salt that Europeans brought in sacks, so that
9720-467: The earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was prized by the ancient Hebrews , Greeks , Romans , Byzantines , Hittites , Egyptians , and Indians . Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across
9840-569: The export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire . Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples. The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution . After being repealed, this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars , and
9960-478: The food ingredients. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases . Salts have diverse mineralities depending on their source, giving each a unique flavour. Fleur de sel , a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a distinctive flavour varying with its source. In traditional Korean cuisine , so-called " bamboo salt "
10080-534: The form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as rock salt or halite . Salt is essential for life in general (being the source of the essential dietary minerals sodium and chlorine ), and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes . Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings , and is known to uniformly improve the taste perception of food, including otherwise unpalatable food. Salting , brining , and pickling are ancient and important methods of food preservation . Some of
10200-472: The former presence of a cursus monument. It is believed the Brythonic -speaking Brigantes inhabited the area around the River Wear in pre- Roman Britain . There is a long-standing local legend that there was a Roman settlement on the south bank of the River Wear on what is the site of the former Vaux Brewery, although no archaeological investigation has taken place. Roman artefacts have been recovered in
10320-435: The furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material, forming a strong glaze . When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel, salt may be added to the drilling fluid to provide a stable "wall" to prevent the hole collapsing. There are many other processes in which salt is involved. These include its use as a mordant in textile dying, to regenerate resins in water softening, for
10440-640: The iodine. Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities . Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used. The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies. In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), whereas in
10560-403: The late 20th century, the area became an automotive building centre . In 1992, the borough of Sunderland was granted city status . Sunderland is historically part of County Durham , being incorporated to the ceremonial county of Tyne and Wear in 1974. Locals are sometimes known as Mackems , a term which came into common use in the 1970s. Its use and acceptance by residents, particularly among
10680-460: The late 8th century the Vikings raided the coast, and by the middle of the 9th century the monastery had been abandoned. Lands on the south side of the river were granted to the Bishop of Durham by Athelstan of England in 930; these became known as Bishopwearmouth and included settlements such as Ryhope which fall within the modern boundary of Sunderland. In 1100, Bishopwearmouth parish included
10800-412: The latter two compounds. In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia , which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate . Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B 9 ), which gives the table salt
10920-432: The local University of Sunderland 's students and young professionals. The large, well-built houses, the wide, tree-lined avenues, and the often colourful street names ('The Esplanade', 'The Oaks', 'The Elms', 'West Lawn', 'Holmlands Park') signify the area's affluence. The area lies within walking distance of Park Lane and University stations on the Tyne and Wear Metro system. Local punk band The Toy Dolls wrote
11040-459: The middle of the century the town was probably the premier shipbuilding centre in Britain. Ships built in Sunderland were known as 'Jamies'. By 1788 Sunderland was Britain's fourth largest port (by measure of tonnage) after London, Newcastle and Liverpool; among these it was the leading coal exporter (though it did not rival Newcastle in terms of home coal trade). Still further growth was driven across
11160-515: The old port area in the suburban terraces of the Fawcett Estate and Mowbray Park . The area around Fawcett Street itself increasingly functioned as the civic and commercial town centre. Marine engineering works were established from the 1820s onwards, initially providing engines for paddle steamers ; in 1845 a ship named Experiment was the first of many to be converted to steam screw propulsion . Demand for steam-powered vessels increased during
11280-409: The older generations, is not universal. The term is also applied to the Sunderland dialect, which shares similarities with the other North East England dialects. In c. 674 , King Ecgfrith granted Benedict Biscop a "sunder-land". In 685 The Venerable Bede moved to the newly founded Jarrow monastery. He had started his monastic career at Monkwearmouth monastery and later wrote that he
11400-428: The region, towards the end of the century, by London's insatiable demand for coal during the French Revolutionary Wars . Until 1719 the borough of Sunderland formed part of the wider parish of Bishopwearmouth. Following the completion of Holy Trinity Church, Sunderland (today also known as Sunderland Old Parish Church) in 1719, the borough was made a separate parish called Sunderland. Later, in 1769, St John's Church
11520-413: The risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension . Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, equivalent to 5 grams of salt, per day. All through history,
11640-646: The river another passenger terminus, in Fawcett Street, in 1853. Later, Thomas Elliot Harrison (chief engineer to the North Eastern Railway ) made plans to carry the railway across the river; the Wearmouth Railway Bridge (reputedly 'the largest Hog-Back iron girder bridge in the world') opened in 1879. In 1854 the Londonderry, Seaham & Sunderland Railway opened linking collieries to a separate set of staiths at Hudson Dock South, it also provided
11760-464: The river in a single sweep of 236 feet (72 m), it was over twice the length of the earlier bridge at Ironbridge but only three-quarters the weight. At the time of building, it was the biggest single-span bridge in the world; and because Sunderland had developed on a plateau above the river, it never suffered from the problem of interrupting the passage of high-masted vessels. During the War of Jenkins' Ear
11880-503: The sea, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes. These sources are either mined directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted by pumping water into the deposit. In either case, the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine. Traditionally, purification was achieved in shallow open pans that were heated to accelerate evaporation. Vacuum -based methods are also employed. The raw salt
12000-702: The spread of civilization, salt became one of the world's main trading commodities. It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. In the Middle East, salt was used to seal an agreement ceremonially, and the ancient Hebrews made a " covenant of salt " with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him. An ancient practice in time of war
12120-442: The success of the port of Sunderland, salt panning and shipbuilding along the banks of the river. Around this time, Sunderland was known as 'Sunderland-near-the-Sea'. Sunderland's third-biggest export, after coal and salt, was glass. The town's first modern glassworks were established in the 1690s and the industry grew through the 17th century. Its flourishing was aided by trading ships bringing good-quality sand (as ballast ) from
12240-487: The surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi , China, dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks. There is more salt in animal tissues, such as meat, blood, and milk, than in plant tissues. Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food, but agriculturalists, feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter, need to supplement their diet with salt. With
12360-528: The time of Brahmanic sacrifices, in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon , salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith. In Judaism , it is recommended to have either
12480-488: The top 10 safest in the UK. There is one main tier of local government covering Sunderland, at metropolitan borough level: Sunderland City Council . Most of the built-up area is an unparished area , although on its southern edge part of the built-up area falls within the parish of Burdon . The city council is based at City Hall on Plater Way (formerly the site of the Vaux Brewery), which opened in 2021. Prior to that
12600-460: The town being a target in a 1916 Zeppelin raid. Monkwearmouth was struck on 1 April 1916 and 22 people died. Over 25,000 men from a population of 151,000 served in the armed forces during the war. Through the Great Depression of the 1930s, shipbuilding dramatically declined: shipyards on the Wear went from 15 in 1921 to six in 1937. The small yards of J. Blumer & Son (at North Dock) and
12720-513: The town had 76 shipyards and between 1820 and 1850 the number of ships being built on the Wear increased fivefold. From 1846 to 1854 almost a third of the UK's ships were built in Sunderland, and in 1850 the Sunderland Herald proclaimed the town to be the greatest shipbuilding port in the world. The Durham & Sunderland Railway Co. built a railway line across the Town Moor and established
12840-544: Was salting the earth : scattering salt around in a defeated city to prevent plant growth. The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem , and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War (146 BC). Salt may have been used for barter in connection with
12960-438: Was "ácenned on sundorlande þæs ylcan mynstres" (born in a separate land of this same monastery). This can be taken as "sundorlande" (being Old English for "separate land") or the settlement of Sunderland. The name may also be descriptive of the original settlement's location, being almost cut off (sundered) from the rest of the mainland by creeks and gullies from both the sea and the River Wear. The earliest inhabitants of
13080-484: Was a growing number of shipbuilders or boatbuilders active on the River Wear in the late 17th century. By the start of the 18th century the banks of the Wear were described as being studded with small shipyards, as far as the tide flowed. After 1717, measures having been taken to increase the depth of the river, Sunderland's shipbuilding trade grew substantially (in parallel with its coal exports). A number of warships were built, alongside many commercial sailing ships. By
13200-664: Was built as a chapel of ease within Holy Trinity parish; built by a local coal fitter, John Thornhill, it stood in Prospect Row to the north-east of the parish church. (St John's was demolished in 1972.) By 1720 the port area was completely built up, with large houses and gardens facing the Town Moor and the sea, and labourers' dwellings vying with manufactories alongside the river. The three original settlements Bishopwearmouth, Monkwearmouth and Sunderland had started to combine, driven by
13320-471: Was considered large enough to provide its own county-level services, and so it was made a county borough , independent from the new Durham County Council . The borough boundaries were enlarged on several occasions, notably in 1867, 1928 (when it gained areas including Fulwell , Southwick and the remainder of the old Bishopwearmouth parish), 1936, 1951, and 1967 (when it gained North Hylton , South Hylton , Ryhope , Silksworth , and Tunstall ). In 1974
13440-399: Was designed to dredge to a maximum depth of 10 ft (3.0 m) below the waterline and remained in operation until 1804, when its constituent parts were sold as separate lots. Onshore, numerous small industries supported the business of the burgeoning port. In 1797 the world's first patent ropery (producing machine-made rope , rather than using a ropewalk ) was built in Sunderland, using
13560-439: Was founded in 674 and formed part of Monkwearmouth–Jarrow Abbey , a significant centre of learning in the seventh and eighth centuries. Sunderland was a fishing settlement and later a port, being granted a town charter in 1179. The city traded in coal and salt , also developing shipbuilding industry in the fourteenth century and glassmaking industry in the seventeenth century. Following the decline of its traditional industries in
13680-492: Was loaded onto keels (large, flat-bottomed boats) and taken downriver to the waiting colliers. A close-knit group of workers manned the Keels as ' keelmen '. In 1634 a market and yearly fair charter was granted by Bishop Thomas Morton . Morton's charter acknowledged that the borough had been called Wearmouth until then, but it incorporated the place under the name of Sunderland, by which it had become more generally known. Before
13800-456: Was not finally abolished until 1946. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi led a crowd of 100,000 protestors on the "Dandi March" or " Salt Satyagraha ", during which they made their own salt from the sea as a demonstration of their opposition to the colonial salt tax . This act of civil disobedience inspired numerous Indians and transformed the Indian independence movement into a national struggle. Salt
13920-493: Was once known as 'the largest shipbuilding town in the world' and once made a quarter of all of the world's ships from its famous yards, which date back to 1346 on the River Wear. The centre of the modern city is an amalgamation of three settlements founded in the Anglo-Saxon era : Monkwearmouth , on the north bank of the Wear, and Sunderland and Bishopwearmouth on the south bank. Monkwearmouth contains St Peter's Church , which
14040-529: Was the first built of stone in Northumbria . He employed glaziers from France and in doing he re-established glass making in Britain. In 686 the community was taken over by Ceolfrid , and Wearmouth–Jarrow became a major centre of learning and knowledge in Anglo-Saxon England with a library of around 300 volumes. The Codex Amiatinus , described by biblical scholar Henry Julian White (1859–1934) as
14160-594: Was the original monastery. St Andrew's Church, Roker , known as the "Cathedral of the Arts and Crafts Movement ", contains work by William Morris , Ernest Gimson and Eric Gill . St Mary's Catholic Church is the earliest surviving Gothic revival church in the city. After the war, more housing was built and the town's boundaries expanded in 1967 when neighbouring Ryhope , Silksworth , Herrington , South Hylton and Castletown were incorporated. Sunderland AFC won their only post- World War II major honour in 1973 when they won
14280-488: Was used as a warm up for players such as Jimmy Connors and Martina Navratilova. While a minor county, Durham County Cricket Club played games at Ashbrooke, including fixtures against touring international sides. The 1926 Australians attracted a crowd reputed to be over 20,000 for their two-day game in 1926, and the ground also hosted a match between Durham and the West Indians in 1950, notable for Kenneth Trestrail scoring
14400-436: Was used in salt panning; better-quality coal was traded via the port, which subsequently began to grow. Both salt and coal continued to be exported through the 17th century, with the coal trade growing significantly (2–3,000 tons of coal were exported from Sunderland in the year 1600; by 1680 this had increased to 180,000 tons). Difficulty for colliers trying to navigate the Wear’s shallow waters meant coal mined further inland
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