Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation , formerly known as the Ash Institute , was established in 2003 and is part of the Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts , in the United States.
67-654: The Center's mission is to advance public discussion and public policy research on key issues of democratic governance worldwide, as well as recognize and promote innovations in government that are improving the lives of citizens. The center consists of three major programs: the Program on Democratic Governance, the Innovations in Government Program; and the Rajawali Foundation Institute for Asia. In April 2001,
134-507: A public company . Finally, Henry Ford II resigned from his trustee's role in a surprise move in December 1976. In his resignation letter, he cited his dissatisfaction with the foundation holding on to their old programs, large staff and what he saw as anti-capitalist undertones in the foundation's work. In February 2019, Henry Ford III was elected to the Foundation's Board of Trustees, becoming
201-520: A crucial role in preserving and sustaining strong, healthy Indian nations. Its programs offer knowledge and inspiration that are utilized by non-indigenous communities. Honoring Nations invites applications from American Indian governments across a broad range of subject areas: education; health care; resource management ; government policy development and reform; justice; intergovernmental relations; and economic, social, and cultural programs. A Board of Governors composed of distinguished individuals from
268-432: A governing structure, economic system , policies, and procedures that fit its own contemporary culture. Nation-building requires leaders who introduce new knowledge and experiences, challenge assumptions, and propose change. Such leaders, whether elected, community , or spiritual , convince people that things can be different and inspire them to take action. The Harvard Project also administers Honoring Contributions in
335-550: A part of its covert cultural war. John J. McCloy, serving as the chairman from 1958 to 1965, knowingly employed numerous US intelligence agents and, based on the premise that a relationship with the CIA was inevitable, set up a three-person committee responsible for dealing with its requests. Writer and activist Arundhati Roy connects the foundation, along with the Rockefeller Foundation , with supporting imperialist efforts by
402-475: A portion of the Ford Foundation's endowment came after self-initiated research into the Ford Foundation's history of support of Native and Indigenous artists and communities. The results of this research indicated "the inadequacy of philanthropic support for Native arts and artists", and related feedback from an unnamed Native leader that "once big foundations put the stuff in place for an Indian program, then it
469-555: A series of individual awards for people working in adult education to support training and field study experiences. The FAE also sponsored conferences on the topic of adult education, including the Bigwin Institute on Community Leadership in 1954 and the Mountain Plains Adult Education Conference in 1957. These conferences were open to academics, community organizers, and members of the public involved in
536-544: A variety of ways involving social justice. In April 2011, the foundation announced that it will cease its funding for programs in Israel as of 2013. It has provided $ 40 million to nongovernmental organizations in Israel since 2003 exclusively through the New Israel Fund (NIF), in the areas of advancing civil and human rights, helping Arab citizens in Israel gain equality and promoting Israeli-Palestinian peace. The grants from
603-474: A year to support social justice work around the world. But last year, it also pledged to plow up to $ 1 billion of its overall $ 12.5 billion endowment over the next decade into impact investing via mission-related investments (MRIs) that generate both financial and social returns." Foundation President Darren Walker wrote in an op-ed in the New York Times that the grant-making philanthropy of institutions like
670-446: Is not usually funded very well. It lasts as long as the program officer who had an interest and then goes away" and recommended that an independent endowment be established and that "[n]ative leadership is crucial". John J. McCloy , the architect of Office of Strategic Services that would later become Central Intelligence Agency served as the chairman of the Ford Foundation. The CIA would channel its funds through Ford Foundation as
737-481: Is one of the primary foundations offering grants that support and maintain diversity in higher education with fellowships for pre-doctoral, dissertation, and post-doctoral scholarship to increase diverse representation among Native Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans, and other under-represented Asian and Latino sub-groups throughout the U.S. academic labor market. The outcomes of scholarship by its grantees from
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#1732883758313804-425: The 2001 World Conference Against Racism . Under pressure by several members of Congress, chief among them Rep. Jerrold Nadler , the foundation apologized and then prohibited the promotion of "violence, terrorism, bigotry or the destruction of any state" among its grantees. This move itself sparked protest among university provosts and various non-profit groups on free speech issues. The foundation's partnership with
871-617: The Ford Foundation announced a $ 50 million endowment to the Harvard Kennedy School . This endowment was the largest single endowment ever made by the Ford Foundation at that time. Susan Berresford , then president of the Ford Foundation, explained that the endowment would enable much-needed recognition of numerous innovative government programs in the United States and worldwide. The grant enabled Harvard Kennedy School to launch
938-468: The Harvard Kennedy School , Harvard University . The Harvard Project aims to promote research to understand and foster the conditions under which sustained, self-determined social and economic development is achieved among the American Indian nations. The Harvard Project's core activities include research, education, and the administration of a tribal governance awards program. In all of its activities,
1005-521: The Harvard Kennedy School . In November 2008, Harvard Kennedy School announced a new initiative with the Ford Foundation to link innovative governance to the world's major social challenges. The Program on Democratic Governance includes research on democratic participation, immigration , and democracy in the developed and developing world. The Center now hosts the Seminar Series, bringing distinguished speakers to Harvard Kennedy School throughout
1072-502: The New Israel Fund (NIF), which began in 2003, was criticized regarding its choice of mostly progressive grantees and causes. This criticism peaked after the 2001 World Conference Against Racism, where some nongovernmental organizations funded by the foundation backed resolutions equating Israeli policies with apartheid . In response, the Ford Foundation tightened its criteria for funding. In 2011, right wing Israeli politicians and organizations such as NGO Monitor and Im Tirtzu claimed
1139-652: The United Federation of Teachers . In 1976, the foundation helped launch the Grameen Bank , which offers small loans to the rural poor of Bangladesh. The Grameen Bank and its founder Muhammad Yunus were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 for pioneering microcredit . Between 1969 and 1978, the foundation was the biggest funder for research into in vitro fertilisation in the United Kingdom, which led to
1206-541: The non-voting shares of the Ford Motor Company . (The Ford family retained the voting shares. ) Between 1955 and 1974, the foundation sold its Ford Motor Company holdings and now plays no role in the automobile company. In 1949, Henry Ford II created § Ford Philanthropy , a separate corporate foundation that to this day serves as the philanthropic arm of the Ford Motor Company and is not associated with
1273-477: The Ash Center is supported by Bloomberg Philanthropies . Ford Foundation The Ford Foundation is an American private foundation with the stated goal of advancing human welfare. Created in 1936 by Edsel Ford and his father Henry Ford , it was originally funded by a $ 25,000 (about $ 550,000 in 2023) gift from Edsel Ford . By 1947, after the death of the two founders, the foundation owned 90% of
1340-674: The FAE, and educational television advocate C. Scott Fletcher served as its president. The foundation underwrote the Fund for the Republic in the 1950s. Throughout the 1950s, the foundation provided arts and humanities fellowships that supported the work of figures like Josef Albers , James Baldwin , Saul Bellow , Herbert Blau , E. E. Cummings , Anthony Hecht , Flannery O'Connor , Jacob Lawrence , Maurice Valency , Robert Lowell , and Margaret Mead . In 1961, Kofi Annan received an educational grant from
1407-593: The Fighting Group undertook a range of missions in the East Zone, ranging from intelligence gathering to sabotage. It was funded and controlled by the CIA. In 1950, the U.S. government decided that the Fighting Group needed to bolster its legitimacy as a credible independent organization, so the International Rescue Committee was recruited to act as its advocate. One component of this project was convincing
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#17328837583131474-447: The Ford Foundation "must not only be generosity, but justice." The Ford Foundation seeks to address "the underlying causes that perpetuate human suffering" to grapple with and intervene in " how and why " inequality persists. In 2007, the Ford Foundation co-founded the independent Native Arts and Cultures Foundation by providing a portion of the new foundation's endowment out of the Ford Foundation's own. This decision to repatriate
1541-491: The Ford Foundation shifted its focus from Michigan philanthropic support to five areas of action. In the 1950 Report of the Study of the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program , the trustees set forth five "areas of action," according to Richard Magat (2012): economic improvements, education, freedom and democracy, human behavior, and world peace. These areas of action were identified in a 1949 report by Horace Rowan Gaither . Since
1608-458: The Ford Foundation to issue a grant to the Fighting Group. With the support of Eleanor Roosevelt, the Ford Foundation was persuaded to give the Fighting Group a grant of $ 150,000. A press release announcing the grant pointed to the assistance given by the Fighting Group to "carefully screened" defectors to come to the West. The National Committee for a Free Europe , a CIA proprietary, actually administered
1675-518: The Governance of American Indian Nations , a national awards program that identifies, documents, and shares outstanding examples of tribal government problem-solving. This expands the capacities of Native nation-builders by enabling them to learn from each other's successes. The high public visibility and news coverage of Honoring Nations also permits Non-native policymakers, the media, and the general public to see what Native nations are actually doing in
1742-1446: The Harvard Project collaborates with the Native Nations Institute for Leadership, Management, and Policy at the University of Arizona . The Harvard Project is also formally affiliated with the Harvard University Native American Program. At the heart of the Harvard Project is the systematic, comparative study of social and economic development on American Indian reservations . The study made several findings of what approaches lead to improved socio-economic conditions in American Indian nations. The study found that when Native nations make their own decisions about what development approaches to take, external decision-makers on matters as diverse as governmental form, natural resource management , economic development, health care, and social service provision. The study found that for development to take hold, assertions of sovereignty must be backed by capable institutions of governance. Nations do this as they adopt stable decision rules, establish fair and independent mechanisms for dispute resolution , and separate politics from day-to-day business and program management. Indigenous societies are diverse; each nation must equip itself with
1809-554: The Innovations in American Government Awards in 1985 which recognizes and supports state, local, tribal, and territorial government initiatives. Many past award winners have been replicated around the country including: In 2003, Harvard Kennedy School received a substantial gift from benefactors Roy and Lila Ash . Designed to enhance the Innovations in American Government Awards Program by emphasizing
1876-686: The Institute [now Ash Center] is to encourage thoughtful and focused attention to the nature, principles, functioning, and continued innovation and adaptations essential to a living and effective democracy." The Ash Center offers grant funding and internship opportunities for students in the Harvard community. Support for field research in Indonesia and Vietnam , as well as other regions are also offered. Its Ford Foundation Mason Fellowship and Roy and Lila Ash Fellowship provide financial support to students studying at
1943-464: The Institute for Asia and the HKS Indonesia Program are housed within the Ash Center. Other Institute for Asia programs include its China Public Policy Program, Vietnam Program, and HKS Singapore Program. The Institute also supports Rajawali Fellows, a host of academics and public practitioners with independent research projects relevant to Asia . Its annual China Goes Global Conference examines
2010-608: The International Rescue Committee and the CIA, M. E. Sharpe, 1995, Routledge, 2015. Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development The Project on Indigenous Governance and Development, previously named the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, also known as the Harvard Project , was founded in 1987 at Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University . It administers tribal awards programs as well as provides support for students and conducting research. The Harvard Project aims to understand and foster
2077-571: The NIF and other recipients of Ford Foundation grants supported the delegitimization of Israel. The Ford Foundation announced in October 2023 that it would no longer provide grants to Alliance for Global Justice, a charity in Arizona claimed by journalist Gabe Kaminsky in a Washington Examiner investigation to share Palestinian terrorism ties. "Ford has no plans to support any Alliance for Global Justice projects in
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2144-636: The Project on Municipal Innovation; the Forum on Networked Governance; the Social Innovation Project; Better, Faster, Cheaper—Smart Ideas for Government; and the Program on Crisis Leadership. In 2019, the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development joined the Ash Center, adding then nearly 33 years of research in determining what works for tribal nations in their pursuit of good governance, and why. [1] The Data-Smart City Solutions initiative at
2211-632: The Revolution to the Modern Era ", alleges that Sommers "persistently misrepresents scholarly debate, [and] ignores evidence that contradicts her assertions" about a gender war against boys and men. Spanish judge Francisco Serrano Castro made similar claims to Sommers in his 2012 book The Dictatorship of Gender . In 2003, the foundation was critiqued by US news service Jewish Telegraphic Agency , among others, for supporting Palestinian nongovernmental organizations that were accused of promoting antisemitism at
2278-708: The U.S. government during the Cold War . Roy links the Ford Foundation's establishment of an economics course at the Indonesian University with aligning students with the 1965 coup that installed Suharto as president. At the height of the Cold War, the Ford Foundation was involved in several sensitive covert operations. One of these involved the Fighting Group Against Inhumanity. Based in West Berlin,
2345-730: The United States for graduate study around the world. Fellows came from 22 countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Russia and the Palestinian Territories and studied a wide variety of fields. After IFP's early success with identifying candidates and selecting and placing Fellows, and the success of Fellows in completing their degrees, the foundation contributed an additional $ 75 million to IFP in 2006. IFP concluded operations in late 2013 when more than 80 percent of fellows had completed their studies. Fellows have been serving their home communities in
2412-551: The academic year to address critical challenges facing democratic governance. Its Democracy Fellowships program provides financial support for doctoral and postdoctoral students to pursue research related to democratic governance. Under the leadership of Ash Center Director Anthony Saich , Asia Programs, a school-wide initiative integrating Asia-related activities, joined the Ash Center in July 2008. The permanently endowed Rajawali Foundation Institute for Asia consisting of Asia Programs
2479-546: The advancement of human welfare and "urged the foundation to focus on solving humankind's most pressing problems, whatever they might be, rather than work in any particular field...." The report was endorsed by the foundation's board of trustees, and they subsequently voted to move the foundation to New York City in 1953. The board of directors decided to diversify the foundation's portfolio and gradually divested itself of its substantial Ford Motor Company stock between 1955 and 1974. This divestiture allowed Ford Motor to become
2546-494: The air in 1952. These grants continued, and in 1969 the foundation gave $ 1 million to the Children's Television Workshop to help create and launch Sesame Street . Active from 1951 to 1961, this subsidiary of the Ford Foundation supported initiatives in the field of adult education , including educational television and public broadcasting . During its existence, the FAE spent over $ 47 million. Among its funding programs were
2613-472: The conditions under which sustained, self-determined social and economic development is achieved among American Indian nations through applied research and service. Founded by Professors Stephen Cornell and Joseph P. Kalt at Harvard University in 1987, the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development (Harvard Project) is housed within the Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation at
2680-496: The connection between innovation and democratic governance, the gift created the Ash Center. Roy Ash 's own experience in the public and private sector made him aptly positioned to set the vision for the new Ash Center. Ash served as a cabinet member in two U.S. government administrations and is the founder of the modern Office of Management and Budget . “We have to consider the concept of democracy fragile and in need of real and constant hands-on care,” said Roy Ash. “The purpose of
2747-497: The drive for self-determination . Established in 1998, Honoring Nations’ experiences are the foundation for the teaching, advising, and policy analysis from the partnership between the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development and the Native Nations Institute at the University of Arizona . At the heart of Honoring Nations is the principle that tribes themselves hold the key to positive social, political, cultural, and economic prosperity —and that self-governance plays
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2814-653: The field of adult education. In addition to grantmaking to organizations and projects, the FAE established its own programs, including the Test Cities Project and the Experimental Discussion Project. The Experimental Discussion Project produced media that was distributed to local organizations to conduct viewing or listening and discussion sessions. Topics covered included international affairs , world cultures, and United States history. Educational theorist Robert Maynard Hutchins helped to found
2881-462: The fields of creative arts performance. In 2022, another 20 Disability Futures Fellows received awards. Ranked No. 24 on the Forbes 2018 World's Most Innovative Companies list, the Ford Foundation utilized its endowment to invest in innovative and sustainable change leadership shifting the model of grant-making in the 21st century. According to Forbes, "Ford spends between $ 500 million and $ 550 million
2948-663: The firm of Roche-Dinkeloo , the Ford Foundation Center for Social Justice in New York City (originally the Ford Foundation Building) was the first large-scale architectural building in the country to devote a substantial portion of its space to horticultural pursuits. Its atrium was designed with the notion of having urban greenspace accessible to all and is an example of the application in architecture of environmental psychology . The building, 321 E. 42nd St.,
3015-534: The first Ford family member to serve on the board since his grandfather resigned in 1976. For many years, the foundation topped annual lists compiled by the Foundation Center of US foundations with the most assets and the highest annual giving. The foundation has fallen a few places in those lists in recent years, especially with the establishment of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2000. As of May 4, 2013,
3082-466: The first baby, Louise Brown born from the technique. The Ford Foundation provided $ 1,170,194 towards the research. The foundation began awarding postdoctoral fellowships in 1980 to increase the diversity of the nation's academic faculties. In 1986, the foundation added predoctoral and dissertation fellowships to the program. The foundation awards 130 to 140 fellowships annually, and there are 4,132 living fellows. The University of California, Berkeley
3149-593: The foundation are roughly a third of NIF's donor-advised giving, which totals about $ 15 million a year. In June 2020, Ford Foundation decided to raise $ 1 billion through a combination of 30 and 50- year bonds. The main aim was to help nonprofits hit by the pandemic. In October 2020, Ford Foundation partnered with the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to establish the Disability Future Fellowship, awarding $ 50,000 annually to disabled writers, actors, and directors in
3216-558: The foundation to finish his studies at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota. Under its "Program for Playwrights", the foundation helped to support writers in professional regional theaters such as San Francisco's Actor's Workshop and offered similar help to Houston's Alley Theatre and Washington's Arena Stage . In the 1960s and 1970s, the foundation gave money to government and non-government contraceptive initiatives to support population control , peaking at an estimated $ 169 million in
3283-653: The foundation was second in terms of assets and tenth in terms of annual grant giving. In 2012, the foundation declared that it was not a research library and transferred its archives from New York City to the Rockefeller Archive Center in Sleepy Hollow, New York . In 1951, the foundation made its first grant to support the development of the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), then known as National Educational Television (NET), which went on
3350-567: The foundation. In 1974, the foundation contributed funds to the Southwest Voter Registration Education Project . In 1967 and 1968, the foundation provided financial support for decentralization and community control of public schools in New York City. Decentralization in Ocean Hill–Brownsville led to the firing of some white teachers and administrators, which provoked a citywide teachers' strike led by
3417-577: The foundation. The Ford Foundation makes grants through its headquarters and ten international field offices. For many years, the foundation's financial endowment was the largest private endowment in the world; it remains among the wealthiest . For fiscal year 2014, it reported assets of $ 12.4 billion and approved $ 507.9 million in grants. According to the OECD , the Ford Foundation provided $ 194 million for development in 2019, all of which related to its grant-making activities. After its establishment in 1936,
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#17328837583133484-426: The future and it is not eligible for any other funding," Amanda Simon, a spokeswoman for the Ford Foundation, said at the time. Simon added, "We will not be funding them in the future." The allegations of terrorism links were proven false ; Alliance for Global Justice was found to be funding an organisation that attempts to secure the human rights of Palestinian prisoners held in Israel. Completed in 1968 by
3551-542: The grant (Chester, Covert Network, pp. 89–94). American author, philosopher, and critic of feminism Christina Hoff Sommers , criticized The Ford Foundation in her book The War Against Boys (2000) as well as other institutions in education and government. Sommers alleged that the Ford Foundation funded feminist ideologies that marginalize boys and men. A Washington Post book review by E. Anthony Rotundo, author of "American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from
3618-482: The impact of the internationalization of Chinese firms. In addition to the Innovations in American Government Awards Program, the Innovations in Government Program includes five additional projects that work together to produce a cohesive marketplace for best practices and successful innovations in the public sector. These include the following projects: the Liaison Group for Innovations in Governance and Public Action;
3685-474: The last 1960s. The foundation ended most support for contraception programs by the 1970s. The foundation remains supportive of access to abortion, granting funds to organizations that support reproductive rights . In 1968, the foundation began disbursing $ 12 million to persuade law schools to make "law school clinics" part of their curriculum. Clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to
3752-579: The late 20th century through the 21st century have contributed to substantial data and scholarship including national surveys such as the Nelson Diversity Surveys in STEM. The foundation was established January 15, 1936, in Michigan by Edsel Ford (president of the Ford Motor Company ) and two other executives "to receive and administer funds for scientific, educational and charitable purposes, all for
3819-738: The media, scholars, students, and others interested in promoting and fostering excellence in governance. To date, Honoring Nations has recognized 142 exemplary tribal government programs, practices, and initiatives and held five tribal government symposia . —1999 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2000 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2002 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2003 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2005 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2006 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2008 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2010 Honorees— High Honors: Honors: —2014 Honorees— High Honors: —2015 Honorees— —2016 Honorees— —2021 Honorees— Honoring Nations
3886-497: The middle of the 20th century, many of the Ford Foundation's programs have focused on increased under-represented or "minority" group representation in education, science and policy-making. For over eight decades their mission decisively advocates and supports the reduction of poverty and injustice among other values including the maintenance of democratic values, promoting engagement with other nations, and sustaining human progress and achievement at home and abroad. The Ford Foundation
3953-452: The poor. Conservative critic Heather Mac Donald contends that the financial involvement of the foundation instead changed the clinics' focus from giving students practical experience to engaging in leftwing advocacy. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, the foundation expanded into civil rights litigation, granting $ 18 million to civil rights litigation groups. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund
4020-516: The presidency of the foundation fell to Edsel's eldest son, Henry Ford II . It quickly became clear that the foundation would become the largest philanthropic organization in the world. The board of trustees then commissioned the Gaither Study Committee to chart the foundation's future. The committee, headed by California attorney H. Rowan Gaither , recommended that the foundation become an international philanthropic organization dedicated to
4087-540: The program. In 1987, the foundation began making grants to fight the AIDS epidemic and in 2010 made grant disbursements totaling $ 29,512,312. In 2001, the foundation launched the International Fellowships Program (IFP) with a 12-year, $ 280 million grant, the largest in its history. IFP identified approximately 4,300 emerging social justice leaders representing historically disadvantaged groups from outside
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#17328837583134154-543: The public welfare." It was a reaction to FDR 's 1935 tax reform introducing 70% tax on large inheritances . During its early years, the foundation operated in Michigan under the leadership of Ford family members and their associates and supported the Henry Ford Hospital and the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village , among other organizations. After the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947,
4221-662: The public, private, and nonprofit sectors guides the evaluation process, in which up to ten programs are selected for “High Honors” or “Honors.” All honorees receive national recognition. At each stage of the selection process, programs are evaluated on the basis of effectiveness, significance to sovereignty , cultural relevance, transferability , and sustainability. To facilitate the dissemination of best practices, honorees receive financial awards to share their success stories with other governments. The Harvard Project also produces reports, case studies, and other curricular materials that are disseminated to tribal leaders, public servants,
4288-471: Was affiliated with 346 fellows at the time of award, the most of any institution, followed by the University of California, Los Angeles at 205, Harvard University at 191, Stanford University at 190, and Yale University at 175. The 10-campus University of California system accounts for 947 fellows, and the Ivy League is affiliated with 726. In 2022, the foundation announced that it would be sunsetting
4355-621: Was established on January 1, 2010, through support from the Rajawali Foundation in Indonesia . The new Institute is designed to bring together academics and practitioners from around the world to enhance research, teaching, and training on public policy and governance issues of critical importance in Asia . The gift also established the HKS Indonesia Program, which promotes research, education, and capacity building in support of democratic governance and institutional development in Indonesia . Both
4422-707: Was incorporated in 1967 with a $ 2.2 million grant from the foundation. In the same year, the foundation funded the establishment of the Southwest Council of La Raza, the predecessor of the National Council of La Raza . In 1972, the foundation provided a three-year $ 1.2 million grant to the Native American Rights Fund . The same year, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund opened with funding from numerous organizations, including
4489-401: Was recognized in 1968 by the Architectural Record as "a new kind of urban space". This design concept was used by others for many of the indoor shopping malls and skyscrapers built in subsequent decades. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building a landmark in 1997. Source : History of Ford Foundation ° Eric Thomas Chester, Covert Network, Progressives,
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