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99-575: Arturo Umberto Illia ( Spanish pronunciation: [aɾˈtuɾo wmˈbeɾto ˈilja] ; 4 August 1900 – 18 January 1983) was an Argentine politician and physician , who was President of Argentina from 12 October 1963, to 28 June 1966. He was part of the Radical Civic Union , and the People's Radical Civic Union during his presidency. Illia reached the presidency of the Nation in elections controlled by

198-657: A C2 category regarding proficiency in the English language, there's a large number of people who are at least able to hold a conversation and make themselves understood. Religion in Argentina (2022) A majority of the population of Argentina is Christian . According to CONICET survey on creeds, about 76.5% of Argentines are Roman Catholic , 11.3% religiously indifferent, 9% Protestant (with 7.9% in Pentecostal denominations), 1.2% Jehovah's Witnesses , and 0.9% Mormons . Argentina

297-524: A Congress dominated by the Peronist Party , he took an active part in the Public Works, Hygiene and Medical Assistance Commissions. The election held on 7 July 1963 marked a return to constitutional government in Argentina after a period of political instability and internal strife following the military overthrow of President Arturo Frondizi on 29 March 1962. Illia's predecessor, José María Guido ,

396-455: A citizen or resident of Argentina. Asian Argentines settled in Argentina in large numbers during several waves of immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 19th century, West Asian immigrants, primarily from Lebanon and Syria came as a result of the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war . In the early 20th century, a small wave of East Asian immigrants, particularly from Japan came to the country. The first Argentines of East Asian descent were

495-661: A dialect called Patagonian Welsh , which has developed since the start of the Welsh settlement in Argentina in 1865. A high percentage of Argentines are proficient in the English language since its teaching is included in educational establishments as early as kindergarten. According to the 2023 edition of the English Proficiency Index, Argentines have the highest level of English proficiency in Latin America , ranking 28th worldwide. While of course not everybody falls under

594-405: A further 20% state they do not know whether or not they have any black ancestors. Genetic studies carried out in 2005 showed that the average level of African genetic contribution in the population of Buenos Aires is 2.2%, but that this component is concentrated in 10% of the population who display notably higher levels of African ancestry. Today there is still a notable Afro-Argentine community in

693-910: A general put in charge of the Federal District Police , though he confirmed Onganía as head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and named numerous "Blue" generals to key posts. Illia started his presidency with an attempt to promote reconciliation and stability. His inaugural address included both praise for the armed forces and a call to reduce poverty and income inequality, citing encyclicals issued by then-Pope John XIII, Mater et Magistra and Pacem in Terris . Countering military objections, however, he made political rights an early policy centerpiece with an emphasis on constitutionality. His first act consisted in eliminating all restrictions over Peronism and its allied political parties, causing anger and surprise among

792-518: A joint session of Congress. Domestically, Illia pursued a pragmatic course, restoring Frondizi's vigorous public works and lending policies, but with more emphasis on the social aspect and with a marked, nationalist shift away from Frondizi's support for foreign investment . This shift was most dramatic in Illia's controversial petroleum policy. Yet Illia struggled to reconcile the adversarial social forces that prevailed in Argentina during his term. The UCRP

891-478: A lesser extent from French, Germans, Arabs, Slavs, Irish, Sub-Saharan Africans, East Asians, and others. Immigration of recent decades includes mainly Paraguayans , Bolivians , Peruvians , and Brazilians , among other Latin Americans , Eastern Europeans, Africans, Arabs, and Asians. Genetic ancestry of the average Argentine gene pool according to Caputo et al. (2021) using X-DIPs (matrilineal). The average

990-468: A low profile, and is accepted by greater Argentine society. Primarily living in their own neighbourhoods in Buenos Aires, many currently own their own businesses of varying sizes – largely textiles, grocery stores, and buffet-style restaurants. Arabs and Argentines with partial Arab ancestry represent about 3.2 million people, whose ancestry traces back to any of various waves of immigrants, largely from

1089-524: A military dictatorship. Like in most elections after 1955, Peronists were banned from running in the 1963 election. The UCR had been divided since their contentious 1956 convention into the mainstream "People's UCR" (UCRP) and the center-left UCRI . The leader of the UCRP, Ricardo Balbín , withdrew his name from the March 10 nominating convention and instead supported a less conservative, less anti-Peronist choice, and

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1188-452: A negative impact on capital investment. By 1965, imports of capital goods had fallen to only a quarter of the level seen during the 1960-1961 investment boom under Frondizi. Given the constant pressures on the country's balance of payments, Illia's administration tightly controlled access to foreign currency, required exporters to convert their earnings into pesos, and introduced measures to prevent capital flight. Yet Illia's exchange rate policy

1287-486: A part of his medical studies, Illia begun working in the San Juan de Dios Hospital in the city of La Plata , obtaining his degree in 1927. In 1928 he had an interview with President Hipólito Yrigoyen , the longtime leader of the centrist UCR, and the first freely-elected President of Argentina. Illia offered him his services as a physician, and Yrigoyen, in turn, offered him a post as railroad physician in different parts of

1386-400: A significantly higher estimate of European ancestry at 78.5% of the average Argentine's autosomal DNA. Argentina has 35 officially recognized indigenous people groups. As of the 2010 census [ INDEC ] , some 955,032 Argentines (2.38% of the country's population) self-identify as indigenous or first-generation descendants of indigenous peoples. The most populous indigenous groups were

1485-558: A small group of Japanese immigrants, mainly from the Okinawa prefecture , which came in the period between the early and mid 20th century. In the 1960s, Koreans began to arrive, and in the 1980s, Taiwanese immigrants. The 1990s brought the largest wave of Asian immigration so far to Argentina, from mainland Chinese immigrants, eventually becoming the fourth largest immigrant community in 2013, after Paraguayans, Bolivians, and Peruvians. The small East Asian Argentine population has generally kept

1584-786: A village community. Different people in a family or community had different rights to access this land for different purposes and at different times. Such rights were often conveyed through oral history and not formally documented. These different ideas of land ownership and tenure are sometimes referred to using different terminology. For example, "formal" or "statutory" land systems refer to ideas of land control more closely affiliated with individual land ownership. "Informal" or "customary" land systems refer to ideas of land control more closely affiliated with land tenure. Terms dictating control over and use of land can therefore take many forms. Some specific examples of present-day or historic forms of formal and informal land ownership include: Land reform

1683-412: Is Castizo (with Spanish and Italian ancestry): Large comprehensive studies across Argentina's many regions in order to characterize the genetic admixture have been lacking. Small sample size studies give the following composition. A team led by Daniel Corach conducted a study in 2010, analyzing 246 samples from eight provinces and three different regions of the country. The results were as follows:

1782-559: Is a commonly cited example of the perils of such large-scale reforms, whereby land redistribution contributed to economic decline and increased food insecurity in the country. In cases where land reform has been enacted as part of socialist collectivization , many of the arguments against collectivization more generally apply. An early example of land reform was the Irish Land Acts of 1870–1909. Most all newly independent countries of Eastern and Central Europe implemented land reforms in

1881-507: Is a deeply political process and therefore many arguments for and against it have emerged. These arguments vary tremendously over time and place. In the twentieth century, many land reforms emerged from a particular political ideology, such as communism or socialism. In the 19th century in colonized states, a colonial government may have changed the laws dictating land ownership to better consolidate political power or to support its colonial economy. In more recent times, electoral mobilization and

1980-505: Is a great-grandniece of Illia. Arturo Illia became a member of the Radical Civic Union when he reached adulthood, in 1918, under the strong influence of the radical militancy of his father and of his brother, Italo. That same year, he began his university studies, with the events of the aforementioned Universitarian Reform taking place in the country. From 1929 onwards, after moving to Cruz del Eje, he began intense political activity, which he alternated with his professional life. In 1935 he

2079-536: Is an intensely political process. Thus, many of those opposed to land reform are nervous as to the underlying motivations of those initiating the reform. For example, some may fear that they will be disadvantaged or victimized as a result of the reforms. Others may fear that they will lose out in the economic and political power struggles (especially in under developed countries) that underlie many land reforms. Other groups and individuals express concerns about land reforms focused on formalization of property rights. While

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2178-440: Is home to people of many different ethnic, racial, religious, and denominational backgrounds. Argentina is a melting pot of different peoples. In the mid-19th century a large wave of immigration started to arrive in Argentina due to new Constitutional policies that encouraged immigration, and issues in the countries the immigrants came from, such as wars, poverty, hunger, and famines. The main immigration sources were from Europe,

2277-543: Is home to the largest Jewish population in Latin America and 6th in the world, numbering 182,300 individuals or 0.45% of the population. On a city level, Buenos Aires has the second largest population of Jews in the Americas, second only to New York City. Argentina is also home to the largest Muslim minority in Latin America (see Islam in Argentina ). Although accurate statistics on religion are not available (because

2376-561: Is modification or replacement of existing institutional arrangements governing possession and use of land. Thus, while land reform may be radical in nature, such as through large-scale transfers of land from one group to another, it can also be less dramatic, such as regulatory reforms aimed at improving land administration. Nonetheless, any revision or reform of a country's land laws can still be an intensely political process, as reforming land policies serves to change relationships within and between communities, as well as between communities and

2475-506: Is not easy to find a president more denigrated and attacked during the exercise of power than Arturo Umberto Illia. Until the end, he remained calm and prudent in governing an intense country." Under the preceding Guido administration, Argentina had endured a sharp two-year recession under an orthodox stabilization program. Once in office, Illia implemented a pro-growth policy characterized by expansionary fiscal and monetary policy and deepening of import substituting industrialization. The result

2574-564: The Aonikenk , Kolla , Qom , Wichí , Diaguita , Mocoví , Huarpe peoples , Mapuche and Guarani Many Argentines also identify as having at least one indigenous ancestor; a genetic study conducted by the University of Buenos Aires in 2011 showed that 56% of the 320 Argentines sampled were shown to have at least one indigenous ancestor in one parental lineage and around 11% had indigenous ancestors in both parental lineages. Jujuy Province , in

2673-586: The Argentine Northwest , is home to the highest percentage of households (15%) with at least one indigenous resident or a direct descendant of an indigenous person; Chubut and Neuquén Provinces , in Patagonia , have upwards of 12%. According to the Argentine national census of 2010, 149,493 (0.37% of the country's overall population) identified as Afro-Argentine , although according to gene pools studies,

2772-540: The Armed Forces in which Peronism was outlawed and while the previous constitutional president Arturo Frondizi was detained. During his government, the national industry was promoted, 23% of the national budget was allocated to education (the highest figure in the history of the country), unemployment fell, the external debt decreased, a literacy plan was carried out and sanctioned the Minimum, Vital and Mobile Salary law and

2871-507: The Buenos Aires districts of San Telmo and La Boca . There are also quite a few African-descended Argentines in Merlo and Ciudad Evita , in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area. Immigration from Cape Verde was one of the earliest African migratory flows in the post-colonial era, beginning as early as the late 19th century and well into the 20th century. Today, Cape Verdeans constitute one of

2970-644: The Eastern Bloc , and started exporting industrial products, including a small but symbolically important number of motor vehicles to Paraguay, Ecuador, and Guatemala. Illia promoted regional integration with Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) members, issuing Decree 1188 in February 1965 to allow increased imports of auto parts in exchange for compensatory exports to the same countries. However, Argentina's balance of payments were burdened by

3069-660: The French (including francophone Basques ), the Irish , Portuguese , the Dutch , among others in smaller number. There are approximately 300,000 Romani descendants in Argentina. They belong to the Romani subgroups Greek, Moldavian and Russian Kalderash , some Lovari and some Chilean Xoraxane. There are also Spanish Kalé and Boyash living in Argentina. Within the population totals, there may be an imprecise amount of mixed population. In one of

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3168-780: The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank . During his election campaign, Illia had denounced the IMF in particular as an economic intruder and refused a meeting with IMF officials upon assuming office. Relations with the Inter-American Development Bank were more constructive. The Inter-American Development Bank granted Illia's government a USD $ 92.6 million credit for development and educational projects shortly after his inauguration in October 1963, and in early 1965

3267-560: The International Organization for Migration there have been about 806,369 since 2001. The first wave of emigration occurred during the military dictatorship between 1976 and 1983, principally to Spain, the United States, Mexico and Venezuela. During the 1990s, due to the abolition of visas between Argentina and the United States, thousands of Argentines emigrated to North America. The last major wave of emigration occurred during

3366-619: The Levantine region of Western Asia, from what is now Syria and Lebanon ; and from Cilicia and Palestine in a lesser extent. Due to the fact that many Arab countries were under control of the Ottoman Empire by the time the large immigration wave took place, most Arabs entered the country with Turkish passports, and so they are colloquially referred to as los turcos . There are also 80,000 to 135,000 descendants of Armenians in Argentina, most of them in Buenos Aires , representing one of

3465-645: The United Kingdom and Germany . The most popular immigration destinations in the Americas are: the United States and Brazil , and to a lesser degree, mostly to ( Uruguay and Canada ): Chile , Paraguay and Bolivia , while other communities settled in Venezuela , Peru , Colombia , Ecuador and Costa Rica . Israel is home to the largest Argentine diaspora in the Middle East. In Oceania, Australia has

3564-534: The University of Buenos Aires in 1918. That year, he joined the movement for University reform in Argentina ( Reforma Universitaria ), which first emerged in the city of Córdoba , and set the basis for a free, open and public university system less influenced by the Catholic Church . This development changing the concept and administration of higher education in Argentina, and in a good portion of Latin America. As

3663-626: The 1963 elections. The 1963 elections were made possible due to support from the moderate "Blue" faction ( Azules in Spanish) of the Argentine military led by the head of the Joint Chiefs, General Juan Carlos Onganía and by the Internal Affairs Minister, General Osiris Villegas. The Azules defeated an attempted revolt in late 1962 and early 1963 by the rival "Red" faction ( Colorados in Spanish), which consisted of hard-liners who favored

3762-467: The 19th and 20th century immigrants from Europe . The most common ethnic groups are Caucasians (mostly Spanish and Italian descent) and/or Mestizos (mixed European and Native American ancestry). According to Argentine government websites, it is estimated that more than 20 million Argentines, more than 46% of the total population, have Italian ancestry, wholly or in part. Argentines descend mostly from Spaniards, Italians, Native Americans and to

3861-534: The 2001 crisis, mainly to Europe, especially Spain, although there was also an increase in emigration to neighboring countries, particularly Brazil, Chile and Paraguay. The rate of Argentine emigration to Europe (especially to Spain and Italy ) peaked in the late 1970s and early 1980s and is noteworthy. Spain and Italy have the largest Argentine communities in Europe, however, there are also important communities in France ,

3960-440: The Argentine descendants of colonists from Spain during the colonial period prior to 1810, and mainly of immigrants from Europe in the great immigratory wave from the mid 19th century to the mid 20th century. No recent Argentine census has included comprehensive questions on ethnicity, although numerous studies have determined that European Argentines have been a majority in the country since 1914. Some international sources claim

4059-503: The Argentine population with some degree of Sub-Saharan African descent would be around 7.5%. World Bank and Argentine government estimates have suggested the Argentine population with at least some African ancestry could number over 2 million, or between 4% and 6% of the population. Despite the fact that in the 1960s it was calculated that Argentina owed two thirds of the volume of its population to European immigration, over 5% of Argentines state they have at least one black ancestor, and

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4158-482: The Bank approved USD $ 30 million in funding for Argentine industry. The expansion of heavy industry during Illia's time in office, while impressive at face value, created new burdens on Argentina's balance of payments. Import substitution in many cases simply replaced imports of finished goods with imports of capital and intermediate goods. Foreign direct investment brought an influx of external capital (although frequently in

4257-687: The European ancestry in Argentina comes mainly from the Iberian Peninsula and Italy with a much lower contribution from Central and Northern Europe . The Italian component appears strongest in the East and Center-West, while the Spanish influence dominates in the North East and North West. Argentines of total or partial European descent constitute the majority of Argentina's population. Ethnic Europeans include

4356-433: The European component of the population to be at around 97%. The most numerous immigrant European communities are: Spaniards (including Basques , Asturians and Galicians ), Italians (62.5% of the population have some degree of Italian descent), Germans , Scandinavians (mainly Danes and Swedes ), Slavs (including Russians , Ukrainians , Poles , Czechs , Bulgarians , Slovenes , Serbs and Croats ), Finns ,

4455-549: The Investment Guarantee Agreement, as well as the oil contracts that were made during the Arturo Frondizi government without complying with legal regulations. Once in power, Illia announced that contracts that had been made illegally would be annulled, on 15 November 1963, Illia issued the decrees 744/63 and 745/63, which rendered said oil contracts null and void, for being considered "illegitimate and harmful to

4554-549: The Law of Supplies was passed, destined to control prices of basic foodstuffs and setting minimum standards for pensions. Since Perón's exile, the labor movement functioned as the representation of Peronism in the country. Led by the leader of the powerful metalworkers' union UOM, Augusto Vandor , the unions deployed a large-scale "Plan de Lucha" (Plan of Struggle). Between May and July of 1964, 3.9 million workers occupied more than 11,000 industrial establishments. Given his sympathy for

4653-587: The Medications Laws. He was noted for his honesty and trustworthiness, an example of this being the fact that Illia lived almost all his life in his humble home in Cruz del Eje , where he devoted himself to medicine , and that he never used his influence to his advantage, to the point such as having to sell his car while in office and refusing to use public funds to finance his medical treatments. After his government, he maintained his active political militancy, rejected

4752-526: The analysis of Y-Chromosome DNA revealed a 94.1% of European contribution, and only 4.9% and 0.9% of Native American and Black African contribution, respectively. Mitochondrial DNA analysis again showed a great Amerindian contribution by maternal lineage, at 53.7%, with 44.3% of European contribution, and a 2% African contribution. The study of 24 autosomal markers also proved a large European contribution of 78.5%, against 17.3% of Amerindian and 4.2% Black African contributions. Several studies found out that

4851-410: The costs of their drugs and to formalize all their existing contracts. Argentine Argentines are the people identified with the country of Argentina . This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Argentines, several (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Argentine . In the past the demonym for citizens of Argentina

4950-502: The countries from the Near and the Middle East, Russia, and Japan. Eventually, Argentina became the country with the second-largest number of immigrants in the period, with 6.6 million, second only to the United States with 27 million. Therefore, most Argentines are of full or partial European descent (with a significant indigenous component, and a less prominent black component), and are either descendants of colonial-era settlers and/or of

5049-406: The country of a critical source of foreign currency. On 15 June 1964, the Law 16.459 was passed, establishing a minimum wage for the country. " Avoiding the exploitation of workers in those sectors in which an excess of workforce may exist ", " Securing an adequate minimum wage " and " Improving the income of the poorest workers " were listed among the objectives of the project. With the same aims,

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5148-578: The country's external debt . Although Illia reduced external debt from USD $ 3.4 billion to USD $ 2.7 billion, annual servicing costs remained high and were equivalent to 40% of annual exports. Scheduled repayments caused Argentina's foreign reserves to fall from USD $ 280 million in 1963 to only USD $ 70 million in 1965, requiring negotiations with the Paris Club group of creditors to refinance and defer payments. Resolution of Argentina's balance of payments issues were complicated by Illia's strained relationship with

5247-558: The country, upon which Illia decided to move to scenic Cruz del Eje , in Cordoba Province . He worked there as a physician from 1929 until 1963, except for three years (1940–1943) in which he was vice-governor of the province. On 15 February 1939, he married Silvia Elvira Martorell, and had three children: Emma Silvia, Martín Arturo and Leandro Hipólito. Martín Illia was elected to Congress in 1995, and served until his death in 1999. Gabriela Michetti , elected vice president in 2015,

5346-688: The economic and pro-poor benefits of increased formalized land rights are still inconclusive according to some critics (see "Arguments against land reform" below). Other arguments in support of land reform point to the need to alleviate conflicting land laws, particularly in former colonies, where formal and informal land systems may exist in tension with each other. Such conflicts can make marginalized groups vulnerable to further exploitation. For example, in many countries in Africa with conflicting land laws, AIDS stigmatization has led to an increasing number of AIDS widows being kicked off marital land by in-laws. While

5445-583: The economic and social benefits of formalized land rights are often touted, some research suggests that such reforms are either ineffective or may cause further hardship or conflict. Additional arguments against land reform focus on concerns over equity issues and potential elite capture of land, particularly in regards to reforms focused on greater land formalization. If improperly or inadequately implemented, critics worry that such reforms may further disadvantage marginalized groups such as indigenous communities or women. These concerns also lead to questions about

5544-467: The economy. Industrial production grew by 18.7% in 1964 and 13.8% in 1965, led by capital intensive sectors such as steel, plastics, and chemicals. Motor vehicle production, which increased from 105,000 units in 1963 to 195,000 in 1965, became a highly visible symbol of Argentina's industrialization. Agriculture returned to growth after two decades of stagnation. Cereals production and cattle stock increased by 60% and 25% respectively between 1963 and 1965,

5643-536: The elections that took place on 10 March 1940, he was elected Vice-Governor of Córdoba Province , with Santiago del Castillo, who became governor. He occupied this post until the provincial government was replaced by the newly installed dictatorship of General Pedro Ramírez , in 1943. From 1948 to 1952, Illia served in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies and frequently spoke out against the Peronist regime. Working in

5742-523: The end of 1965. Illia modestly expanded Argentina's welfare state. The most significant program was the increase in value and coverage of family allowances. The government also opened approximately 250 maternal and infant health care centers and started planning for the Villa Lugano public housing development to replace what was then one of the largest villa miseria slums in Buenos Aires. During Illia's government, education acquired an important presence in

5841-444: The end of his administration. However, production stagnated under Illia and oil imports resumed. The annulment of oil contracts created tensions with the United States, which placed a hold on Argentina's requests for multilateral assistance, including financing for aircraft imports, housing, and agricultural equipment. As a result, American aid to Argentina decreased from USD $ 135 million in 1963 to only USD $ 21 million in 1964, depriving

5940-470: The expansionary fiscal policy that dated back to the Perón administration. The budget deficit increased by 60% in 1964 to 5.8% of GDP due to his freezing of public utility rates, which reduced government revenue in real terms. Limited progress was made to balance the budget in 1965 with a fiscal deficit of 3.8% of GDP; a steep increase in tax revenue due to the economic recovery and elimination of many tax deductions

6039-403: The fiscal deficit was financed primarily by printing money. The money supply grew by 61% during Illia's first 18 months in office alone, contributing to an inflation rate that averaged 25% per year during his presidency. Due to record agricultural exports, Argentina enjoyed a substantial current account surplus during Illia's presidency. The country penetrated new markets such as Italy, Japan, and

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6138-598: The form of second-hand equipment rather than cash investment), technology, and know-how, but subsequently led to capital outflows (profit repatriation, transfer pricing, and royalty payments) from Argentine subsidiaries to U.S. and European parent companies. As result, the Central Bank of Argentina in 1965 estimated that the motor vehicle industry imposed a foreign exchange burden of USD $ 200 million per year. Illia's administration therefore maintained Argentina's current account surplus through strict controls on imports, which had

6237-437: The great owners, who must lose their land in an upheaval, the great owners with access to history, with eyes to read history and to know the great fact: when property accumulates in too few hands it is taken away. And that companion fact: when a majority of the people are hungry and cold they will take by force what they need. And the little screaming fact that sounds through all history: repression works only to strengthen and knit

6336-416: The indigenous population, nearly all Argentines or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries. Among countries in the world that have received the most immigrants in modern history, Argentina, with 6.6 million, ranks second to the United States (27 million), and ahead of other immigrant destinations such as Canada, Brazil and Australia. Argentina is a multiethnic society , which means that it

6435-507: The institutional capacity of governments to implement land reforms as they are designed. Even if a country does have this capacity, critics worry that corruption and patrimonialism will lead to further elite capture . In looking at more radical reforms, such as large-scale land redistribution, arguments against reform include concerns that redistributed land will not be used productively and that owners of expropriated land will not be compensated adequately or compensated at all. Zimbabwe, again,

6534-492: The land will be better stewards of it. Land reforms carried out in Japan, Taiwan and South Korea are credited with contributing to the industrial development. The equitable distribution of land led to increasing agricultural outputs, high rural purchasing power and social mobility. Many of the arguments in support of land reform speak to its potentially positive social and economic outcomes. Yet, as mentioned previously, land reform

6633-583: The languages (such as Vilela , Puelche , Tehuelche and Selknam ). There are also other communities of immigrants that speak their native languages, such as the Chinese language spoken by at least half of the over 60,000 Chinese immigrants (mostly in Buenos Aires ) and an Occitan-speaking community in Pigüé, Buenos Aires Province . Welsh is also spoken by over 35,000 people in the Chubut Province . This includes

6732-573: The largest Armenian diasporas in the world. Although Spanish is dominant, being the national language spoken by virtually all Argentines, at least 40 languages are spoken in Argentina. Languages spoken by at least 100,000 Argentines include Amerindian languages such as Southern Quechua , Guaraní and Mapudungun , and immigrant languages such as German , Italian, English, French or Levantine Arabic . Two native languages are extinct ( Abipón and Chané ), while some others are endangered , spoken by elderly people whose descendants do not speak

6831-556: The largest African immigrant communities, numbering over 15,000; they mainly live in port cities in Buenos Aires Province , such as Ensenada and Dock Sud . Immigration from Senegal, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Angola and other African countries in recent decades has caused a surge in the country's black population as well. Argentines of Asian ancestry are defined as either born within Argentina , or born elsewhere and later to become

6930-432: The largest Argentine community, followed by New Zealand . Land reform Land reform may also entail the transfer of land from individual ownership—even peasant ownership in smallholdings —to government-owned collective farms; it has also, in other times and places, referred to the exact opposite: division of government-owned collective farms into smallholdings. The common characteristic of all land reforms

7029-429: The late 1980s, Argentina's Ministry of Public Works found that this system resulted in an additional USD $ 2 billion in spending per year. Deteriorating provincial finances similarly consumed a growing proportion of central government resources. Transfers to provincial governments represented 22% of central government revenue in 1964 vs. less than 15% in the mid-1950s. With the government avoiding additional foreign debt,

7128-553: The military (particularly the right-wing "Red" faction). Political demonstrations from the Peronist party were forbidden after the 1955 coup, by the Presidential Decree 4161/56 , however, five days after Illia's inaugural, a Peronist commemorative act for the 17 October (in honor of the date in 1945 when labor demonstrations propelled Perón to power) took place in Buenos Aires' Plaza Miserere without any official restrictions. Illia similarly lifted electoral restrictions, allowing

7227-399: The most comprehensive genetic studies involving the population of Argentina, 441 Argentines from across the North East, North West, Southern, and Central provinces (especially the urban conglomeration of Buenos Aires) of the country, it was observed that the sample population comprised on average of 65% European, followed by 31% Amerindian, and finally 4% of African ancestry; however, this study

7326-574: The national budget. In 1963, it represented 12% of the budget, rising to 17% in 1964 and to 23% in 1965. On November 5, 1964, the National Literacy Plan was started, with the purpose of diminishing and eliminating illiteracy (At the time, nearly 10% of the adult population was still illiterate). By June 1965, the program comprised 12,500 educational centers and was assisting more than 350,000 adults of all ages. Law 16.462, also known as 'Oñativia Law' (in honor of Minister of Health Arturo Oñativia),

7425-702: The national census does not solicit religious data), the actual size of Argentina 's Muslim community is estimated to be around 1% of the total population (400,000 to 500,000 members), according to the International Religious Freedom Report in 2015. Buenos Aires hosts the largest mosque in Latin America . Buenos Aires also features notable Greek , Armenian and Russian Orthodox churches, Presbyterian Korean and Anglican churches, as well as Buddhist temples, among other minority religions. According to official estimates there are 600,000 Argentines worldwide, and according to estimates by

7524-481: The participation of Peronists in the 1965 legislative elections . The prohibition over the Communist Party of Argentina and the pro-industry MID (which many in the military, then controlled by cattle barons, termed "economic criminals") was also lifted. Among Illia's early landmark legislation was an April 1964 bill issuing felony penalties for discrimination and racial violence, which he presented in an address to

7623-466: The party nominated Dr. Illia for president and Entre Ríos Province lawyer Carlos Perette as his running-mate. In the electoral college on 31 July 1963, the Illia-Perette ticket obtained 169 votes out of 476 on the first round of voting (70 short of an absolute majority), but the support of three centrist parties on the second round gave them 270 votes, thus formalizing their election. Illia assumed

7722-415: The past several centuries to place greater emphasis on individual land ownership, formalized through documents such as land titles. Control over land may also be perceived less in terms of individual ownership and more in terms of land use , or through what is known as land tenure. Historically, in many parts of Africa for example, land was not owned by an individual, but rather used by an extended family or

7821-594: The poor in formal legal and economic systems, increase the poor's ability to access credit and contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction. Many international development organizations and bilateral and multilateral donors, such as the World Bank, have embraced de Soto's ideas, or similar ideas, about the benefits of greater formalized land rights. This has translated into a number of development programs that work with governments and civil society organizations to initiate and implement land reforms. Evidence to support

7920-555: The presidency on 12 October 1963. Arturo Illia became president on 12 October 1963, and promptly steered a moderate political course, while remaining mindful of the spectre of a coup d'état. A UCRP majority in the Senate contrasted with their 73 seats in the 192-seat Lower House, a disadvantage complicated by Illia's refusal to include UCRI men in the cabinet (which, save for Internal Affairs Minister Juan Palmero, would all be figures close to Balbín). Illia also refused military requests to have

8019-702: The repressed. Arguments in support of such reforms gained particular momentum after the publication of The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else by Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2000. The poor, he argues, are often unable to secure formal property rights, such as land titles, to the land on which they live or farm because of poor governance, corruption and/or overly complex bureaucracies. Without land titles or other formal documentation of their land assets, they are less able to access formal credit. Political and legal reforms within countries, according to de Soto, will help to include

8118-402: The result of substantial investment after 1955 by the private sector in tractors, irrigation systems, and storage facilities, and by the government in public research and extension services. With favorable prices on world markets in the mid-1960s, Argentina's exports reached new records, rising from an average of USD $ 950 million between 1954 and 1961 to USD $ 1.6 billion by 1966. Illia maintained

8217-624: The retirement perks he had earned as president, and returned home to continue dedicating himself to medicine. Arturo Umberto Illia was born in Pergamino , Buenos Aires to Italian immigrants. Martino Illia (1861–1948) was born in Samolaco , province of Sondrio , Lombardy , while his mother Emma Francesconi (1874–1940) was born in Gratacazolo, province of Brescia . He enrolled in the School of Medicine at

8316-444: The rights and interests of the Nation." Frondizi had begun, during his 1958–62 presidency, a policy of oil exploration based on concessions of oil wells to foreign private corporations, leaving the state oil company Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF) the sole responsibility of exploration and buying oil from private extractors. Arguing that such contracts were negative for the Argentine state and its people (YPF had to assume all

8415-577: The risks of investing in exploration of new wells, the price of oil had risen steadily since the contracts were negotiated, etc.), Illia denounced the Frondizi policy as negative for national Argentine interests, and promised to render the contracts of concession void, renegotiating them. Although popular with the Argentine public, Illia's petroleum policy created headwinds for the economy and balance of payments. Under Frondizi, oil production had tripled between 1958 and 1962, resulting in self-sufficiency in oil by

8514-600: The state. Thus even small-scale land reforms and legal modifications may be subject to intense debate or conflict. Land ownership and tenure can be perceived as controversial in part because ideas defining what it means to access or control land, such as through "land ownership" or "land tenure", can vary considerably across regions and even within countries. Land reforms, which change what it means to control land, therefore create tensions and conflicts between those who lose and those who gain from these redefinitions (see next section). Western conceptions of land have evolved over

8613-594: The time Illia was removed from office in mid-1966, economic stagnation had returned. Opponents characterized Illia's administration as a "do-nothing regime." With a full term in office, Illia might have made more progress in improving Argentina's economic fundamentals. His administration's five-year National Development Plan was released in 1965 and was received favorably by economists and foreign officials. However, Illia's emphasis on compromise and gradualism frustrated business and military leaders who perceived an urgent need for more drastic restructuring and modernization of

8712-530: The use of land as a patronage resource have been proposed as possible motivations for land reform efforts, such as the extensive redistributive land reforms of Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe. Arguments in support of land reform focus on its potential social and economic benefits, particularly in developing countries , that may emerge from reforms focused on greater land formalization. Such benefits may include eradicating food insecurity and alleviating rural poverty. And

8811-562: The woman may have both customary and statutory rights to the land, confusion over which set of laws has primacy, or even a lack of knowledge of relevant laws, leave many AIDS widows at a significant disadvantage. Also, conflicting formal and informal land laws can also clog a country's legal system, making it prone to corruption. Additional arguments for land reform focus on the potential environmental benefits of reform. For example, if reform leads to greater security of land ownership , through either formal or informal means, then those that use

8910-411: The working class, Illia refrained from using force to expel the occupiers, leading to charges from the business establishment of leniency toward the labor movement. Workers benefitted from a rising standard of living during Illia's administration. Median real wages grew by 9.6% during 1964 alone, and had expanded by almost 25% by the time of the coup. Unemployment declined from 8.8% in 1963 to 4.6% by

9009-493: Was a strong recovery with annual real GDP growth of nearly 10% in both 1964 and 1965, record agricultural exports, and double-digit growth in manufacturing output. However, Illia's opponents credited the boom to record harvests and therefore a "turn of good luck, thanks to the gods or to the pampas." Illia's administration moreover made limited progress in resolving labor unrest, persistent inflation, and foreign exchange shortages – all of which remain challenges for Argentina today. By

9108-753: Was elected Provincial Senator for the Department of Cruz del Eje, in the elections that took place on 17 November. In the Provincial Senate, he actively participated in the approval of the Law of Agrarian Reform , which was passed in the Córdoba Legislature but rejected in the National Congress. He was also head of the Budget and Treasury Commission, and pressed for the construction of dams, namely Nuevo San Roque, La Viña , Cruz del Eje and Los Alazanes. In

9207-497: Was installed as head of a nominally civilian administration when Frondizi was deposed. A "virtual captive" of the armed forces during his nineteen months in office, Guido dissolved Congress and annulled the results of the March 1962 mid-term election that had seen Peronists sweep 45 of the 95 Chamber of Deputies seats and 10 of the 14 governorships at stake. However, Guido succeeded in his top priority of convincing military leaders to allow

9306-459: Was mistakenly translated as Argentinians , a term that is no longer considered accurate. Argentina is a multiethnic society, home to people of various ethnic , racial , religious , denomination , and national origins, with the majority of the population made up of Old World immigrants and their descendants. As a result, Argentines do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, but with citizenship and allegiance to Argentina. Aside from

9405-647: Was more than offset by increased social security benefits and a 50% wage increase for public sector employees. Losses at state-owned companies remained a burden on public finances despite Illia's creation of the Syndicate of State Businesses to encourage efficiency in state-owned companies. The annual subsidy to cover losses at the national railway company accounted for almost 20% of central government expenditures in 1965. Government procurement costs increased due to legislation passed by Illia's administration that gave preferential status to domestic vendors in public contracts; by

9504-410: Was passed on August 28, 1964. It established a policy of price and quality controls for pharmaceuticals, freezing prices for patented medicines at the end of 1963, establishing limits to advertising expenditures and to money sent outside the country for royalties and related payments. The regulation of this law by Decree 3042/65 also required pharmaceutical corporations to present to a judge an analysis of

9603-413: Was significantly more flexible than in prior administrations with a " crawling peg " exchange rate that devalued the peso in line with inflation, preventing the overvalued currency that had resulted in prior administrations that used a fixed exchange rate regime. Illia's economic record was strongly impacted by his petroleum policy. During his presidential campaign, Arturo Illia promised to dissolve both

9702-567: Was unable to broaden its electoral base beyond its core middle-class constituency, which left the most powerful interest groups – Peronists, the military, and business leaders – excluded from formal sources of political authority. Illia refused to give the military a direct role in government, which he viewed as a violation of constitutional legality. Meanwhile, Illia's reluctance to engage in the clientelism that characterized Argentine politics left him isolated even within his own party. The newspaper La Nación would later write of his presidency, "It

9801-407: Was unweighted and meant to be a representation of the diversity of Argentine DNA rather than a demonstration of the average ethnic composition of the country. It was also found there were great differences in the ancestry amongst Argentines as one traveled across the country. A study by Daniel Corach that attempted to find the average Argentine ancestry by weighing the population of various regions gave

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