98-445: The Armenoid race was a supposed sub-race in the context of a now-outdated model of dividing humanity into different races which was developed originally by Europeans in support of colonialism . The Armenoid race was variously described (depending on author) as a "sub-race" of the " Aryan race " or the " Caucasian race " (e.g. by Carleton Coon ). The term was used by Austrian anthropologist Felix von Luschan and Eugen Petersen in
196-443: A deeper understanding of disease through evolutionary medicine and to develop evolutionary therapies . Evolution plays a role in resistance of drugs; for example, how HIV becomes resistant to medications and the body's immune system. The mutation of resistance of HIV is due to the natural selection of the survivors and their offspring. The few HIV that survive the immune system reproduced and had offspring that were also resistant to
294-663: A few other physical traits. The article was published anonymously in the Journal des Savants , the earliest academic journal published in Europe, and titled "New Division of the Earth by the Different Species or 'Races' of Man that Inhabit It". In the essay, he distinguished four different races: A product of French salon culture, the essay placed an emphasis on different kinds of female beauty. Bernier emphasized that his novel classification
392-413: A generation of evolutionary biologists. Current research in evolutionary biology covers diverse topics and incorporates ideas from diverse areas, such as molecular genetics and computer science . First, some fields of evolutionary research try to explain phenomena that were poorly accounted for in the modern evolutionary synthesis . These include speciation , the evolution of sexual reproduction ,
490-555: A good servant, that a Kaffir dances and plays the violin, that some Bambara knows arithmetic... Let us leave aside these puerilities and compare together not men, but groups. Gobineau later used the term " Aryans " to describe the Germanic peoples ( la race germanique ). Gobineau's works were also influential to the Nazi Party , which published his works in German. They played a key role in
588-510: A main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. Meiners thought only the white race to be beautiful, and considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral, and animal-like. Meiners wrote about how the dark, ugly peoples were differentiated from the white, beautiful peoples by their "sad" lack of virtue and their "terrible vices". Meiners hypothesized about how the Negro felt less pain than any other race, and lacked in emotions. Meiners wrote that
686-445: A major catastrophe hit the earth approximately 5,000 years ago. Cuvier theorized that the survivors lived in complete isolation from each other, and developed separately as a result. One of Cuvier's pupils, Friedrich Tiedemann , was among the first to make a scientific contestation of racism. Tiedemann asserted that based upon his documentation of craniometric and brain measurements of Europeans and black people from different parts of
784-507: A new consensus among anthropologists that human races are a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one. The term scientific racism is generally used pejoratively when applied to more modern theories, such as those in The Bell Curve (1994). Critics argue that such works postulate racist conclusions, such as a genetic connection between race and intelligence , that are unsupported by available evidence. Publications such as
882-423: A non-contagious form of leprosy , which darkened their skin color. Rush drew the conclusion that "whites should not tyrannize over [blacks], for their disease should entitle them to a double portion of humanity. However, by the same token, whites should not intermarry with them, for this would tend to infect posterity with the 'disorder'... attempts must be made to cure the disease". Christoph Meiners (1747–1810)
980-404: A population. It has a much stronger effect on small populations than large ones. Gene flow : Gene flow is the transfer of genetic material from the gene pool of one population to another. In a population, migration occurs from one species to another, resulting in the change of allele frequency. Natural selection : The survival and reproductive rate of a species depends on the adaptability of
1078-419: A separate species from the whites. Charles Darwin 's views on race have been a topic of much discussion and debate. According to Jackson and Weidman, Darwin was a moderate in the 19th century debates about race. "He was not a confirmed racist — he was a staunch abolitionist, for example — but he did think that there were distinct races that could be ranked in a hierarchy". Darwin's influential 1859 book On
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#17328690684711176-460: A shortened big toe, a characteristic, he said, that connected Negroes closely to apes. The scientific classification established by Carl Linnaeus is requisite to any human racial classification scheme. In the 19th century, unilineal evolution , or classical social evolution, was a conflation of competing sociologic and anthropologic theories proposing that Western European culture was the acme of human socio-cultural evolution. The Christian Bible
1274-451: A tender delicate mixture of sentiment and sensation. Their griefs are transient. Those numberless afflictions, which render it doubtful whether heaven has given life to us in mercy or in wrath, are less felt, and sooner forgotten with them. In general, their existence appears to participate more of sensation than reflection... Comparing them by their faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, it appears to me, that in memory, they are equal to
1372-474: A want of them is owing merely to the degraded condition of their existence both in Africa & America. I can add with truth that no body wishes more ardently to see a good system commenced for raising the condition both of their body & mind to what it ought to be, as fast as the imbecility of their present existence, and other circumstance which cannot be neglected, will admit. Samuel Stanhope Smith (1751–1819)
1470-496: Is a change in the DNA sequence inside a gene or a chromosome of an organism. Most mutations are deleterious, or neutral; i.e. they can neither harm nor benefit, but can also be beneficial sometimes. Genetic drift : Genetic drift is a variational process, it happens as a result of the sampling errors from one generation to another generation where a random event that happens by chance in nature changes or influences allele frequency within
1568-412: Is also an example of resistance that will cause the bacteria against which the antibiotic is being taken to evolve and continue to spread in the body. When the full dosage of the medication does not enter the body and perform its proper job, the bacteria that survive the initial dosage will continue to reproduce. This can make for another bout of sickness later on that will be more difficult to cure because
1666-557: Is an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism". Writing for The New York Times , historian Paul Finkelman described how as "a scientist, Jefferson nevertheless speculated that blackness might come 'from the color of the blood,' and concluded that blacks were 'inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind'". In his " Notes on the State of Virginia ", Jefferson described black people as follows: They seem to require less sleep. A black, after hard labor through
1764-460: Is marked by black complexion, crisped or woolly hair, compressed cranium, and a flat nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips, evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the most complete state of barbarism. He thought Adam and Eve were Caucasian, and hence, the original race of mankind. The other two races arose by survivors escaping in different directions after
1862-566: Is not linear or hierarchical". In a 2008 essay published by the Linnean Society of London , Marie-Christine Skuncke interpreted Linnaeus' statements as reflecting a view that "Europeans' superiority resides in "culture", and that the decisive factor in Linnaeus' taxa was "culture", not race". Thus, regarding this topic, Skuncke considers Linnaeus' view as merely " eurocentric ", arguing that Linnaeus never called for racist action, and did not use
1960-437: Is that the classical population genetics that catalysed the modern evolutionary synthesis must be updated to take into account modern molecular knowledge. This requires a great deal of mathematical development to relate DNA sequence data to evolutionary theory as part of a theory of molecular evolution . For example, biologists try to infer which genes have been under strong selection by detecting selective sweeps . Fourth,
2058-521: Is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of biological organization , from molecular to cell , organism to population . Another way is by perceived taxonomic group , with fields such as zoology , botany , and microbiology , reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology , experimental evolution , and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up
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#17328690684712156-520: Is the process in which related or distantly related organisms evolve similar characteristics independently. This type of evolution creates analogous structures which have a similar function, structure, or form between the two species. For example, sharks and dolphins look alike but they are not related. Likewise, birds, flying insects, and bats all have the ability to fly, but they are not related to each other. These similar traits tend to evolve from having similar environmental pressures. Divergent evolution
2254-428: Is the process of speciation. This can happen in several ways: The influence of two closely associated species is known as coevolution . When two or more species evolve in company with each other, one species adapts to changes in other species. This type of evolution often happens in species that have symbiotic relationships . For example, predator-prey coevolution, this is the most common type of co-evolution. In this,
2352-579: The Mankind Quarterly , founded explicitly as a "race-conscious" journal, are generally regarded as platforms of scientific racism because they publish fringe interpretations of human evolution , intelligence , ethnography , language , mythology , archaeology , and race. During the Age of Enlightenment (an era from the 1650s to the 1780s), concepts of monogenism and polygenism became popular, though they would only be systematized epistemologically during
2450-576: The Caucasian (white), Mongolian (yellow), and the Ethiopian (black). He rated each for the beauty or ugliness of the skull and quality of their civilizations. Cuvier wrote about Caucasians: "The white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilised people of Europe belong, and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by its genius, courage, and activity". Regarding Negroes, Cuvier wrote: The Negro race ...
2548-440: The anatomy of the Negro, and came to the conclusion that Negroes were all carnivores , based upon his observations that Negroes had bigger teeth and jaws than any other race. Meiners claimed the skull of the Negro was larger, but the brain of the Negro was smaller than any other race. Meiners theorized that the Negro was the most unhealthy race on Earth because of its poor diet, mode of living, and lack of morals. Meiners studied
2646-487: The diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. Evolution holds that all species are related and gradually change over generations. In a population, the genetic variations affect the phenotypes (physical characteristics) of an organism. These changes in the phenotypes will be an advantage to some organisms, which will then be passed on to their offspring . Some examples of evolution in species over many generations are
2744-432: The human species is divided into biologically distinct taxa called " races ", and that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racial discrimination , racial inferiority, or racial superiority . Before the mid-20th century, scientific racism was accepted throughout the scientific community, but it is no longer considered scientific. The division of humankind into biologically separate groups, along with
2842-476: The master race theory of Nazism . Another polygenist evolutionist was Carl Vogt (1817–1895) who believed that the Negro race was related to the ape. He wrote the white race was a separate species to Negroes. In Chapter VII of his Lectures of Man (1864) he compared the Negro to the white race whom he described as "two extreme human types". The difference between them, he claimed are greater than those between two species of ape; and this proves that Negroes are
2940-449: The peppered moth and flightless birds . In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics , and paleontology . The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation , molecular evolution , and
3038-642: The " Great Chain of Being ", and he tried to scientifically prove that human races had distinct origins from each other. He speculated that whites and Negroes were two different species. White was a believer in polygeny , the idea that different races had been created separately. His Account of the Regular Gradation in Man (1799) provided an empirical basis for this idea. White defended the theory of polygeny by rebutting French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 's interfertility argument, which said that only
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3136-764: The 1889 book Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratis ("Travel in Lycia, Milyas and Kibyratis"). Carleton Coon (1904–81) described the regions of West Asia such as Anatolia , the Caucasus , Iraq , Iran , and the Levant as the center of distribution of the Armenoid race. Anthropologist J.M Grintz considered the ancient Assyrians , the ancient Babylonians , as well as some ancient Egyptians (specifically of Sinai and Palestine ) to have been Armenoid. In his works, Hans F. K. Günther portrayed
3234-439: The 19th century. Monogenism contends that all races have a single origin, while polygenism is the idea that each race has a separate origin. Until the 18th century, the words "race" and "species" were interchangeable. François Bernier (1620–1688) was a French physician and traveller. In 1684, he published a brief essay dividing humanity into what he called "races", distinguishing individuals, particularly women, by skin color and
3332-624: The 6,000 years of the prevailing Ussher chronology subscribed to by most of the monogenists. Opponents of monogenism believed that it would have been difficult for races to change markedly in such a short period of time. Benjamin Rush (1745–1813), a Founding Father of the United States and a physician, proposed that being black was a hereditary skin disease , which he called "negroidism", and that it could be cured. Rush believed non-whites were actually white underneath, but that they were stricken with
3430-512: The Americas, and India—although culturally very different from one another—belonged to roughly the same racial group, and he explained the differences between the civilizations of India (his main area of expertise) and Europe through climate and institutional history. By contrast, he emphasized the biological difference between Europeans and Africans, and made very negative comments towards the Sámi (Lapps) of
3528-540: The Armenoid as a sub-race of the Caucasoid race . Armenoids were said to be found throughout Eurasia – predominantly in the South Caucasus , Iran , and Mesopotamia . This racial type was believed to be prevalent among Armenians , Assyrians , as well as northern, central and southeastern Iraqis . Scientific racism Scientific racism , sometimes termed biological racism , is the pseudoscientific belief that
3626-610: The Human Races (1853–55) which proposed three human races (black, white and yellow) were natural barriers and claimed that race mixing would lead to the collapse of culture and civilization. He claimed that "The white race originally possessed the monopoly of beauty, intelligence and strength" and that any positive accomplishments or thinking of blacks and Asians were due to an admixture with whites. His works were praised by many white supremacist American pro-slavery thinkers such as Josiah C. Nott and Henry Hotze . Gobineau believed that
3724-497: The Jewish people as a specifically non-European racial mixture comprising Armenoid, Semitic , and Negroid elements. The German physical anthropologist Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt characterized the Jews as a racial mixture that is primarily of the Armenoid type. According to Croatian fascist Ustaše ideologists, only 5% of Croats , but 35% of Serbs were of the Armenoid race. They described
3822-605: The Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras (between 299 million to 12,000 years ago). Other fields related to generic exploration of evolution ("what happened and when?" ) include systematics and phylogenetics . Third, the modern evolutionary synthesis was devised at a time when nobody understood the molecular basis of genes. Today, evolutionary biologists try to determine the genetic architecture of interesting evolutionary phenomena such as adaptation and speciation. They seek answers to questions such as how many genes are involved, how large are
3920-411: The Negro had thick nerves, and thus, was not sensitive like the other races. He went so far as to say that the Negro possessed "no human, barely any animal, feeling". Meiners described a story where a Negro was condemned to death by being burned alive. Halfway through the burning, the Negro asked to smoke a pipe, and smoked it like nothing was happening while he continued to be burned alive. Meiners studied
4018-698: The Origin of Species did not discuss human origins. The extended wording on the title page, which adds by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life , uses the general terminology of biological races as an alternative for " varieties " such as "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage", and does not carry the modern connotation of human races . In The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871), Darwin examined
Armenoid race - Misplaced Pages Continue
4116-751: The assignment of particular physical and mental characteristics to these groups through constructing and applying corresponding explanatory models , is referred to as racialism , race realism , or race science by those who support these ideas. Modern scientific consensus rejects this view as being irreconcilable with modern genetic research . Scientific racism misapplies, misconstrues, or distorts anthropology (notably physical anthropology ), craniometry , evolutionary biology , and other disciplines or pseudo-disciplines through proposing anthropological typologies to classify human populations into physically discrete human races, some of which might be asserted to be superior or inferior to others. Scientific racism
4214-434: The bacteria involved will be resistant to the first medication used. Taking the full course of medicine that is prescribed is a vital step in avoiding antibiotic resistance. Individuals with chronic illnesses, especially those that can recur throughout a lifetime, are at greater risk of antibiotic resistance than others. This is because overuse of a drug or too high of a dosage can cause a patient's immune system to weaken and
4312-500: The changes in the environment, this makes the organism suitable to its habitat. This change increases the chances of survival and reproduction of the organism (this can be referred to as an organism's fitness ). For example, Darwin's Finches on Galapagos island developed different shaped beaks in order to survive for a long time. Adaptive evolution can also be convergent evolution if two distantly related species live in similar environments facing similar pressures. Convergent evolution
4410-516: The coldest climates of Northern Europe, and about Africans living at the Cape of Good Hope . For example, Bernier wrote: "The 'Lappons' compose the 4th race. They are a small and short race with thick legs, wide shoulders, a short neck, and a face that I don't know how to describe, except that it's long, truly awful, and seems reminiscent of a bear's face. I've only ever seen them twice in Danzig , but according to
4508-422: The concept that all races have a single origin. Buffon and Blumenbach believed a "degeneration theory" of the origins of racial difference. Both asserted that Adam and Eve were white, and that other races came about by degeneration owing to environmental factors, such as climate, disease, and diet. According to this model, Negroid pigmentation arose because of the heat of the tropical sun; that cold wind caused
4606-509: The day, will be induced by the slightest amusements to sit up till midnight, or later, though knowing he must be out with the first dawn of the morning. They are at least as brave, and more adventuresome. But, this may perhaps proceed from a want of forethought, which prevents their seeing a danger till it be present. When present, they do not go through it with more coolness or steadiness than the whites. They are more ardent after their female: but love seems with them to be more an eager desire, than
4704-534: The degeneration could be reversed if proper environmental control was taken, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original white race. According to Blumenbach, there are five races, all belonging to a single species: Caucasian , Mongolian , Negroid , American , and the Malay race . Blumenbach stated: "I have allotted the first place to the Caucasian for the reasons given below, which make me esteem it
4802-519: The diet of the Americans, and said they fed off any kind of "foul offal ", and consumed copious amounts of alcohol. He believed their skulls were so thick that the blades of Spanish swords shattered on them. Meiners also claimed the skin of an American is thicker than that of an ox. Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts . This was based upon assertions that they were able to conquer various parts of
4900-399: The different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection , genetic drift , and biogeography . Moreover, the newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryogenesis is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis. Evolution
4998-498: The different races originated in different areas, the white race had originated somewhere in Siberia, the Asians in the Americas and the blacks in Africa. He believed that the white race was superior, writing: I will not wait for the friends of equality to show me such and such passages in books written by missionaries or sea captains, who declare some Wolof is a fine carpenter, some Hottentot
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#17328690684715096-454: The effects of each gene, how interdependent are the effects of different genes, what do the genes do, and what changes happen to them (e.g., point mutations vs. gene duplication or even genome duplication ). They try to reconcile the high heritability seen in twin studies with the difficulty in finding which genes are responsible for this heritability using genome-wide association studies . One challenge in studying genetic architecture
5194-437: The established taxonomic bases of binomial nomenclature for fauna and flora, and also made a classification of humans into different subgroups. In the twelfth edition of Systema Naturae (1767), he labeled five " varieties " of human species. Each one was described as possessing the following physiognomic characteristics "varying by culture and place": There are disagreements about the basis for Linnaeus' human taxa. On
5292-409: The evolution of cooperation , the evolution of ageing , and evolvability . Second, some evolutionary biologists ask the most straightforward evolutionary question: "what happened and when?". This includes fields such as paleobiology , where paleobiologists and evolutionary biologists, including Thomas Halliday and Anjali Goswami, studied the evolution of early mammals going far back in time during
5390-430: The existence and significance of racial categories and a hierarchy of superior and inferior races. During the 20th century, anthropologist Franz Boas and biologists Julian Huxley and Lancelot Hogben were among the earliest leading critics of scientific racism. Skepticism towards the validity of scientific racism grew during the interwar period , and by the end of World War II, scientific racism in theory and action
5488-477: The fact that necessity is the mother of invention, because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers, and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want, and misery, which, in their many forms, were brought about by the climate. This they had to do to make up for the parsimony of nature, and out of it all came their high civilization. Franz Ignaz Pruner (1808–1882)
5586-445: The illness will evolve and grow stronger. For example, cancer patients will need a stronger and stronger dosage of medication because of their low functioning immune system. Some scientific journals specialise exclusively in evolutionary biology as a whole, including the journals Evolution , Journal of Evolutionary Biology , and BMC Evolutionary Biology . Some journals cover sub-specialties within evolutionary biology, such as
5684-435: The immune system. Drug resistance also causes many problems for patients such as a worsening sickness or the sickness can mutate into something that can no longer be cured with medication. Without the proper medicine, a sickness can be the death of a patient. If their body has resistance to a certain number of drugs, then the right medicine will be harder and harder to find. Not completing the prescribed full course of antibiotic
5782-535: The journals Systematic Biology , Molecular Biology and Evolution and its sister journal Genome Biology and Evolution , and Cladistics . Other journals combine aspects of evolutionary biology with other related fields. For example, Molecular Ecology , Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B , The American Naturalist and Theoretical Population Biology have overlap with ecology and other aspects of organismal biology. Overlap with ecology
5880-486: The kind of worm itself. Other structures like the development of Hox genes and sensory organs such as eyes can also be traced with this practice. Phylogenetic Trees are representations of genetic lineage. They are figures that show how related species are to one another. They formed by analyzing the physical traits as well as the similarities of the DNA between species. Then by using a molecular clock scientists can estimate when
5978-479: The modern discipline of evolutionary biology. Theodosius Dobzhansky and E. B. Ford established an empirical research programme. Ronald Fisher , Sewall Wright , and J. B. S. Haldane created a sound theoretical framework. Ernst Mayr in systematics , George Gaylord Simpson in paleontology and G. Ledyard Stebbins in botany helped to form the modern synthesis. James Crow , Richard Lewontin , Dan Hartl , Marcus Feldman , and Brian Charlesworth trained
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#17328690684716076-895: The modern evolutionary synthesis involved agreement about which forces contribute to evolution, but not about their relative importance. Current research seeks to determine this. Evolutionary forces include natural selection , sexual selection , genetic drift , genetic draft , developmental constraints, mutation bias and biogeography . This evolutionary approach is key to much current research in organismal biology and ecology, such as life history theory . Annotation of genes and their function relies heavily on comparative approaches. The field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how developmental processes work, and compares them in different organisms to determine how they evolved. Many physicians do not have enough background in evolutionary biology, making it difficult to use it in modern medicine. However, there are efforts to gain
6174-407: The older departments of botany and zoology . Palaeontology is often grouped with earth science . Microbiology too is becoming an evolutionary discipline now that microbial physiology and genomics are better understood. The quick generation time of bacteria and viruses such as bacteriophages makes it possible to explore evolutionary questions. Many biologists have contributed to shaping
6272-414: The one hand, his harshest critics say the classification was not only ethnocentric, but seemed to be based upon skin colour. Renato G. Mazzolini argued that classifications based on skin colour, at its core, were a white/black polarity, and that Linnaeus' thinking became paradigmatic for later racist beliefs. On the other hand, Quintyn (2010) points out that some authors believed that Linnaeus' classification
6370-432: The phylogenetic process is what allows for this kind of understanding of biology to be possible. By looking at different processes during development, and going through the evolutionary tree, one can determine at which point a specific structure came about. For example, the three germ layers can be observed to not be present in cnidarians and ctenophores, which instead present in worms, being more or less developed depending on
6468-453: The portraits I've seen, and from what I've heard from a number of people, they're ugly animals". The significance of Bernier's ideology for the emergence of what Joan-Pau Rubiés called the "modern racial discourse" has been debated, with Siep Stuurman considering it the beginning of modern racial thought, while Rubiés believes it is less significant if Bernier's entire view of humanity is taken into account. An early scientist who studied race
6566-579: The predator must evolve to become a more effective hunter because there is a selective pressure on the prey to steer clear of capture. The prey in turn need to develop better survival strategies. The Red Queen hypothesis is an example of predator-prey interations. The relationship between pollinating insects like bees and flowering plants, herbivores and plants, are also some common examples of diffuse or guild coevolution. The mechanisms of evolution focus mainly on mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. Mutation : Mutation
6664-415: The primeval one". Before James Hutton and the emergence of scientific geology, many believed the Earth was only 6,000 years old. Buffon had conducted experiments with heated balls of iron, which he believed were a model for the Earth's core, and concluded that the Earth was 75,000 years old, but did not extend the time since Adam and the origin of humanity back more than 8,000 years—not much further than
6762-445: The question of "Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species" and reported no racial distinctions that would indicate that human races are discrete species. The historian Richard Hofstadter wrote: Evolutionary biology Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes ( natural selection , common descent , speciation ) that produced
6860-586: The race as being "characterized by a dark complexion and a personality prone to trickery, fawning and cheating". Carleton S. Coon wrote that the Armenoid racial type is similar to the Dinaric race , most probably due to racial mixture with the Mediterraneans (who often have olive skin ) and the Alpines (who often have pale skin). The only difference is that Armenoids have a slightly darker pigmentation . He described
6958-419: The racist tradition", and that Linnaeus' division was influenced by the medical theory of humors , which said that a person's temperament may be related to biological fluids. In a 1994 essay, Gould added: "I don't mean to deny that Linnaeus held conventional beliefs about the superiority of his own European variety over others... nevertheless, and despite these implications, the overt geometry of Linnaeus' model
7056-561: The rigorous Northern climate: The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians , are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste, or race, is fairer in colour than the rest, and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmins , the Inca , and the rulers of the South Sea Islands . All this is due to
7154-522: The role of climate and diet in explaining degrees of human diversity. Bernier had been the first to extend the concept of "species of man" to racially classify the entirety of humanity, but he did not establish a cultural hierarchy between the so-called "races" that he had conceived. On the other hand, he clearly placed white Europeans as the norm from which other "races" deviated. The qualities which he attributed to each race were not strictly Eurocentric , because he thought that peoples of temperate Europe,
7252-432: The same species can interbreed. White pointed to species hybrids, such as foxes, wolves , and jackals , which were separate groups that were still able to interbreed. For White, each race was a separate species, divinely created for its own geographical region. The French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) and the German anatomist Johann Blumenbach (1752–1840) were proponents of monogenism ,
7350-605: The savages to the north of the Esquimaux Indians, of the new continent, appear to be of one common race". Scholar Stanley A. Rice agrees that Linnaeus' classification was not meant to "imply a hierarchy of humanness or superiority"; however, modern critics regard Linnaeus' classification as obviously stereotyped and erroneous for having included anthropological , non-biological features, such as customs or traditions. Charles White (1728–1813), an English physician and surgeon, believed that races occupied different stations in
7448-479: The snow. Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) was an American politician, scientist, and slave owner. His contributions to scientific racism have been noted by many historians, scientists, and scholars. According to an article published in the McGill Journal of Medicine : "One of the most influential pre-Darwinian racial theorists, Jefferson's call for science to determine the obvious 'inferiority' of African Americans
7546-420: The species diverged. An example of a phylogeny would be the tree of life. Genes that have shared ancestry are homologs. If a speciation event occurs and one gene ends up in two different species the genes are now orthologous. If a gene is duplicated within the a singular species then it is a paralog. A molecular clock can be used to estimate when these events occurred. The idea of evolution by natural selection
7644-468: The species to their environment. This process is called natural selection . Some species with certain traits in a population have higher survival and reproductive rate than others ( fitness ), and they pass on these genetic features to their offsprings. In evolutionary developmental biology, scientists look at how the different processes in development play a role in how a specific organism reaches its current body plan. The genetic regulation of ontogeny and
7742-810: The subject have been combined with evolutionary biology to create subfields like evolutionary ecology and evolutionary developmental biology . More recently, the merge between biological science and applied sciences gave birth to new fields that are extensions of evolutionary biology, including evolutionary robotics , engineering , algorithms , economics , and architecture. The basic mechanisms of evolution are applied directly or indirectly to come up with novel designs or solve problems that are difficult to solve otherwise. The research generated in these applied fields, contribute towards progress, especially from work on evolution in computer science and engineering fields such as mechanical engineering. Adaptive evolution relates to evolutionary changes that happen due to
7840-548: The tawny colour of the Eskimos ; and that the Chinese had fairer skins than the Tartars , because the former kept mostly in towns, and were protected from environmental factors. Environmental factors, poverty, and hybridization could make races "degenerate", and differentiate them from the original white race by a process of "raciation". Interestingly, both Buffon and Blumenbach believed that
7938-553: The whites; in reason, much inferior, as I think one [black] could scarcely be found capable of tracing and comprehending the investigations of Euclid; and that in imagination, they are dull, tasteless, and anomalous... I advance it, therefore, as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind. However, by 1791, Jefferson had to reassess his earlier suspicions of whether blacks were capable of intelligence when he
8036-475: The word "race", which was only introduced later "by his French opponent, Buffon ". However, the anthropologist Ashley Montagu , in his book Man's Most Dangerous Myth: the Fallacy of Race , points out that Buffon, indeed "the enemy of all rigid classifications", was diametrically opposed to such broad categories, and did not use the word "race" to describe them. "It was quite clear, after reading Buffon, that he uses
8134-676: The word in no narrowly defined, but rather in a general sense", wrote Montagu, pointing out that Buffon did employ the French word la race , but as a collective term for whatever population he happened to be discussing at the time; for instance: "The Danish, Swedish, and Muscovite Laplanders, the inhabitants of Nova-Zembla, the Borandians, the Samoiedes, the Ostiacks of the old continent, the Greenlanders, and
8232-405: The world, that the then-common European belief that Negroes have smaller brains, and are thus intellectually inferior, was scientifically unfounded, and based merely on the prejudice of travellers and explorers. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) attributed civilizational primacy to the white races, who gained sensitivity and intelligence via the refinement caused by living in
8330-506: The world, they were more sensitive to heat and cold, and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed that Slavs are an inferior race, "less sensitive and content with eating rough food". He described stories of Slavs allegedly eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm. He claimed that their medical techniques were also counterproductive; as an example, Meiners described their practice of warming up sick people in ovens, then making them roll in
8428-790: Was Robert Boyle (1627–1691), an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher , chemist , physicist, and inventor. Boyle believed in what today is called monogenism , that is, that all races, no matter how diverse, came from the same source: Adam and Eve . He studied reported stories of parents' giving birth to differently coloured albinos , so he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally white, and that whites could give birth to different coloured races. Theories of Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton about color and light via optical dispersion in physics were also extended by Robert Boyle into discourses of polygenesis , speculating that perhaps these differences were due to "seminal impressions". However, Boyle's writings mentioned that at his time, for "European Eyes", beauty
8526-499: Was a polygenist ; he believed God had created different races on Earth in separate regions. In his 1734 book Sketches on the History of Man , Home claimed that the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks. Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), the Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist, modified
8624-399: Was a German polygenist , and believed that each race had a separate origin. Meiners studied the physical, mental, and moral characteristics of each race, and built a race hierarchy based on his findings. Meiners split mankind into two divisions, which he labelled the "beautiful white race " and the "ugly black race ". In his book titled The Outline of History of Mankind , Meiners argued that
8722-596: Was a German physician, ophthalmologist, and anthropologist who studied the racial structure of Negroes in Egypt. In a book Pruner wrote in 1846, he claimed that Negro blood had a negative influence on the Egyptian moral character. He published a monograph on Negroes in 1861. He claimed that the main feature of the Negro's skeleton is prognathism , which he claimed was the Negro's relation to the ape. He also claimed that Negroes had brains very similar to those of apes and that Negroes have
8820-678: Was an American Presbyterian minister and author of the Essay on the Causes of Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species (1787). Smith claimed that Negro pigmentation was nothing more than a huge freckle that covered the whole body as a result of an oversupply of bile, which was caused by tropical climates. Racial studies by Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), the French naturalist and zoologist , influenced both scientific polygenism and scientific racism. Cuvier believed there were three distinct races:
8918-410: Was based on his personal experience as a traveler in different parts of the world. Bernier offered a distinction between essential genetic differences and accidental ones that depended on environmental factors. He also suggested that the latter criterion might be relevant to distinguish sub-types. His biological classification of racial types never sought to go beyond physical traits, and he also accepted
9016-407: Was based upon geographical distribution, being cartographically-based, and not hierarchical. In the opinion of Kenneth A. R. Kennedy (1976), Linnaeus certainly considered his own culture as superior, but his motives for the classification of human varieties were not race-centered. Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1994) argued that the taxa was "not in the ranked order favored by most Europeans in
9114-460: Was common during the period from the 1600s to the end of World War II , and was particularly prominent in European and American academic writings from the mid-19th century through the early-20th century. Since the second half of the 20th century, scientific racism has been discredited and criticized as obsolete, yet has persistently been used to support or validate racist world-views based upon belief in
9212-603: Was formally denounced, especially in UNESCO 's early antiracist statement, " The Race Question " (1950): "The biological fact of race and the myth of 'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes, 'race' is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of 'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years, it has taken a heavy toll in human lives, and caused untold suffering". Since that time, developments in human evolutionary genetics and physical anthropology have led to
9310-511: Was interpreted to sanction slavery and from the 1820s to the 1850s was often used in the antebellum Southern United States, by writers such as the Rev. Richard Furman and Thomas R. Cobb , to enforce the idea that Negroes had been created inferior, and thus suited to slavery. The French aristocrat and writer Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882), is best known for his book An Essay on the Inequality of
9408-952: Was not measured so much in colour, but in "stature, comely symmetry of the parts of the body, and good features in the face". Various members of the scientific community rejected his views, and described them as "disturbing" or "amusing". Richard Bradley (1688–1732) was an English naturalist. In his book titled Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature (1721), Bradley claimed there to be "five sorts of men" based on their skin colour and other physical characteristics: white Europeans with beards; white men in America without beards (meaning Native Americans); men with copper-coloured skin, small eyes, and straight black hair; Blacks with straight black hair; and Blacks with curly hair. It has been speculated that Bradley's account inspired Linnaeus' later categorisation. The Scottish lawyer Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696–1782)
9506-458: Was presented with a letter and almanac from Benjamin Banneker , an educated black mathematician. Delighted to have discovered scientific proof for the existence of black intelligence, Jefferson wrote to Banneker: No body wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit, that nature has given to our black brethren, talents equal to those of the other colors of men, & that the appearance of
9604-429: Was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, but evolutionary biology, as an academic discipline in its own right, emerged during the period of the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1980s that many universities had departments of evolutionary biology. In the United States, many universities have created departments of molecular and cell biology or ecology and evolutionary biology , in place of
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