Arena Pantanal is a multi-use stadium in Cuiabá , Brazil . Completed on 26 April 2014, it is used mostly for football and hosted four group stage matches during the 2014 FIFA World Cup . During the World Cup, the arena had a capacity of 41,390, and currently can seat 42,788 spectators.
97-515: Prior to its use for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the venue received much criticism. It suffered a fire in October 2013, due to polystyrene insulation panels catching alight. Although nobody was injured, the fire came within 24 hours of the state governor of Mato Grosso warning that it may not be finished for the World Cup. On the day of its opening, on 24 April 2014, 5,000 seats were still to be installed in
194-469: A polymerisation process. About 80 years later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that produces macromolecules , following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger (1881–1965). This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name, polystyrene. The company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen , about 1931, hoping it would be
291-462: A "blowing agent", a material that enables the beads to be expanded. Pentane is commonly used as the blowing agent. The beads are added to a continuously agitated reactor with the blowing agent, among other additives, and the blowing agent seeps into pores within each bead. The beads are then expanded using steam. EPS is used for food containers , molded sheets for building insulation , and packing material either as solid blocks formed to accommodate
388-555: A British POW who had been held at Auschwitz III, told the IG Farben trial : The population at Auschwitz was fully aware that people were being gassed and burned. On one occasion they complained about the stench of the burning bodies. Of course all of the Farben people knew what was going on. Nobody could live in Auschwitz and work in the plant, or even come down to the plant, without knowing what
485-563: A US patent for polystyrene foam as an insulation product in 1935 (USA patent number 2,023,204). PS foams also exhibit good damping properties, therefore it is used widely in packaging. The trademark Styrofoam by Dow Chemical Company is informally used (mainly US & Canada) for all foamed polystyrene products, although strictly it should only be used for "extruded closed-cell" polystyrene foams made by Dow Chemicals. Foams are also used for non-weight-bearing architectural structures (such as ornamental pillars ). Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
582-466: A chain of polystyrene, giving a molar mass of 100,000–400,000 g/mol. Each carbon of the backbone has tetrahedral geometry , and those carbons that have a phenyl group (benzene ring) attached are stereogenic . If the backbone were to be laid as a flat elongated zig-zag chain, each phenyl group would be tilted forward or backward compared to the plane of the chain. The relative stereochemical relationship of consecutive phenyl groups determines
679-498: A few years. Others argued for the formation of a profit pool or Interessen-Gemeinschaft (abbr. IG, lit. "community of interest"). In contrast, the chairman of Bayer, Carl Duisberg , argued for a merger. During a trip to the United States in the spring of 1903, he had visited several of the large American trusts such as Standard Oil , U.S. Steel , International Paper and Alcoa . In 1904, after returning to Germany, he proposed
776-713: A foundation for former captive labourers under the Nazi regime. The remaining property, worth DM 21 million (£6.7 million or €10.7 million), went to a buyer. Each year, the company's annual meeting in Frankfurt was the site of demonstrations by hundreds of protesters. Its stock (denominated in Reichsmarks ) traded on German markets until early 2012. As of 2012 , it still existed as a corporation in liquidation. Film and television Literature Games Also see "Law No. 9" (PDF) . Allied Control Council . Archived (PDF) from
873-463: A friend of Höss, denied knowing about it. Hayes writes that the inmates of Auschwitz III, which supplied the slave labour for IG Farben, were well aware of the gas chambers, in part because of the stench from the Auschwitz II crematoria, and in part because IG Farben supervisors in the camp spoke about the gassings, including using the threat of them to make the inmates work harder. Charles Coward ,
970-465: A grey/black color which distinguishes it from standard EPS. Several EPS producers have produced a variety of these increased thermal resistance EPS usage for this product in the UK and EU. Water vapor diffusion resistance ( μ ) of EPS is around 30–70. ICC-ES ( International Code Council Evaluation Service) requires EPS boards used in building construction meet ASTM C578 requirements. One of these requirements
1067-672: A metallocene catalyst for the polymerisation reaction. Polystyrene is relatively chemically inert. While it is waterproof and resistant to breakdown by many acids and bases, it is easily attacked by many organic solvents (e.g. it dissolves quickly when exposed to acetone ), chlorinated solvents, and aromatic hydrocarbon solvents. Because of its resilience and inertness, it is used for fabricating many objects of commerce. Like other organic compounds, polystyrene burns to give carbon dioxide and water vapor , in addition to other thermal degradation by-products. Polystyrene, being an aromatic hydrocarbon , typically combusts incompletely as indicated by
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#17328757079251164-455: A nationwide merger of the producers of dye and pharmaceuticals in a memorandum to Gustav von Brüning, the senior manager at Hoechst. Hoechst and several pharmaceutical firms refused to join. Instead, Hoechst and Cassella made an alliance based on mutual equity stakes in 1904. This prompted Duisberg and Heinrich von Brunck, chairman of BASF, to accelerate their negotiations. In October 1904 an Interessen-Gemeinschaft between Bayer, BASF and Agfa
1261-703: A permanent exhibition on campus, the Norbert Wollheim memorial , for the slave labourers and those killed by Zyklon B. At the beginning of the 20th century, the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes . Three major firms BASF , Bayer and Hoechst , produced several hundred different dyes. Five smaller firms, Agfa , Cassella , Kalle & Co. [ de ] , Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron and Chemische Fabrik vorm. Weiler-ter Meer, concentrated on high-quality specialty dyes. In 1913, these eight firms produced almost 90 percent of
1358-413: A result of the research; the camp had asked for RM 200 per person, but Bayer had said that was too high. A Bayer employee wrote to Rudolf Höss , the Auschwitz commandant: "The transport of 150 women arrived in good condition. However, we were unable to obtain conclusive results because they died during the experiments. We would kindly request that you send us another group of women to the same number and at
1455-716: A smoke-developed index of less than 450. ICC-ES requires the use of a 15-minute thermal barrier when EPS boards are used inside of a building. According to the EPS-IA ICF organization, the typical density of EPS used for insulated concrete forms ( expanded polystyrene concrete ) is 1.35 to 1.80 pounds per cubic foot (21.6 to 28.8 kg/m ). This is either Type II or Type IX EPS according to ASTM C578. EPS blocks or boards used in building construction are commonly cut using hot wires. Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) consists of closed cells. It offers improved surface roughness, higher stiffness and reduced thermal conductivity. The density range
1552-556: A split via a channel system of gates and runners. EPS is colloquially called "styrofoam" in the Anglosphere , an genericization of Dow Chemical's brand of extruded polystyrene . Sheets of EPS are commonly packaged as rigid panels (common in Europe is a size of 100 cm x 50 cm, usually depending on an intended type of connection and glue techniques, it is, in fact, 99.5 cm x 49.5 cm or 98 cm x 48 cm; less common
1649-496: A sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation. Oriented polystyrene (OPS) is produced by stretching extruded PS film, improving visibility through the material by reducing haziness and increasing stiffness. This is often used in packaging where the manufacturer would like the consumer to see the enclosed product. Some benefits to OPS are that it is less expensive to produce than other clear plastics such as polypropylene (PP), (PET), and high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and it
1746-502: A suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene through a heated tube and cutter, producing polystyrene in pellet form. Ray McIntire (1918–1996), a chemical engineer of Dow Chemical, rediscovered a process first patented in early 1930s by Swedish inventor Carl Munters . According to the Science History Institute, "Dow bought
1843-490: Is 120 x 60 cm; size 4 by 8 ft (1.2 by 2.4 m) or 2 by 8 ft (0.61 by 2.44 m) in the United States). Common thicknesses are from 10 mm to 500 mm. Many customizations, additives, and thin additional external layers on one or both sides are often added to help with various properties. An example of this is lamination with cement board to form a structural insulated panel . Thermal conductivity
1940-476: Is a distinct compound). By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist John Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the same transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen. They called the product "meta styrol"; analysis showed that it was chemically identical to Simon's Styroloxyd. In 1866 Marcellin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of meta styrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as
2037-524: Is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam with a normal density range of 11 to 32 kg/m . It is usually white and made of pre-expanded polystyrene beads. The manufacturing process for EPS conventionally begins with the creation of small polystyrene beads. Styrene monomers (and potentially other additives) are suspended in water, where they undergo free-radical addition polymerization. The polystyrene beads formed by this mechanism may have an average diameter of around 200 μm. The beads are then permeated with
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#17328757079252134-450: Is about 28–34 kg/m . Extruded polystyrene material is also used in crafts and model building, in particular architectural models. Because of the extrusion manufacturing process, XPS does not require facers to maintain its thermal or physical property performance. Thus, it makes a more uniform substitute for corrugated cardboard . Thermal conductivity varies between 0.029 and 0.039 W/(m·K) depending on bearing strength/density and
2231-437: Is commonly injection molded , vacuum formed , or extruded, while expanded polystyrene is either extruded or molded in a special process. Polystyrene copolymers are also produced; these contain one or more other monomers in addition to styrene. In recent years the expanded polystyrene composites with cellulose and starch have also been produced. Polystyrene is used in some polymer-bonded explosives (PBX). Polystyrene (PS)
2328-484: Is exploited for extrusion (as in Styrofoam ) and also for molding and vacuum forming , since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. The temperatures behavior can be controlled by photocrosslinking. Under ASTM standards, polystyrene is regarded as not biodegradable . It is accumulating as a form of litter in the outside environment , particularly along shores and waterways, especially in its foam form, and in
2425-468: Is generally considered to be non-biodegradable. However, certain organisms are able to degrade it, albeit very slowly. In 2015, researchers discovered that mealworms , the larvae form of the darkling beetle Tenebrio molitor , could digest and subsist healthily on a diet of EPS. About 100 mealworms could consume between 34 and 39 milligrams of this white foam in a day. The droppings of mealworm were found to be safe for use as soil for crops. In 2016, it
2522-410: Is initiated with free radicals . Ziegler–Natta polymerization can produce an ordered syndiotactic polystyrene with the phenyl groups positioned on alternating sides of the hydrocarbon backbone. This form is highly crystalline with a T m (melting point) of 270 °C (518 °F). Syndiotactic polystyrene resin is currently produced under the trade name XAREC by Idemitsu corporation, who use
2619-470: Is less hazy than HIPS or PP. The main disadvantage of OPS is that it is brittle, and will crack or tear easily. IG Farben I. G. Farbenindustrie AG ("dye industry syndicate"), commonly known as IG Farben , was a German chemical and pharmaceutical conglomerate . It was formed in 1925 from a merger of six chemical companies: Agfa , BASF , Bayer , Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron [ de ] , Hoechst , and Weiler-ter-Meer . It
2716-557: Is measured according to EN 12667. Typical values range from 0.032 to 0.038 W/(m⋅K) depending on the density of the EPS board. The value of 0.038 W/(m⋅K) was obtained at 15 kg/m while the value of 0.032 W/(m⋅K) was obtained at 40 kg/m according to the datasheet of K-710 from StyroChem Finland. Adding fillers (graphites, aluminum, or carbons) has recently allowed the thermal conductivity of EPS to reach around 0.030–0.034 W/(m⋅K) (as low as 0.029 W/(m⋅K)) and as such has
2813-548: Is naturally transparent , but can be colored with colorants. Uses include protective packaging (such as packing peanuts and optical disc jewel cases ), containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, disposable cutlery , in the making of models, and as an alternative material for phonograph records . As a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature . It becomes rigid again when cooled. This temperature behaviour
2910-412: Is not produced commercially. [REDACTED] The only commercially important form of polystyrene is atactic , in which the phenyl groups are randomly distributed on both sides of the polymer chain. This random positioning prevents the chains from aligning with sufficient regularity to achieve any crystallinity . The plastic has a glass transition temperature T g of ~90 °C. Polymerization
3007-732: Is often done to introduce polar groups. Much of modern biomedical research relies on the use of such products; they, therefore, play a critical role in pharmaceutical research. Thin sheets of polystyrene are used in polystyrene film capacitors as it forms a very stable dielectric , but has largely fallen out of use in favor of polyester . Polystyrene foams are 95–98% air. Polystyrene foams are good thermal insulators and are therefore often used as building insulation materials, such as in insulating concrete forms and structural insulated panel building systems. Grey polystyrene foam, incorporating graphite , has superior insulation properties. Carl Munters and John Gudbrand Tandberg of Sweden received
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3104-404: Is that the limiting oxygen index of EPS as measured by ASTM D2863 be greater than 24 volume %. Typical EPS has an oxygen index of around 18 volume %; thus, a flame retardant is added to styrene or polystyrene during the formation of EPS. The boards containing a flame retardant when tested in a tunnel using test method UL 723 or ASTM E84 will have a flame spread index of less than 25 and
3201-450: Is their special duty to represent National Socialist Germany . ... The Sales Combines are also requested to see to it that their agents are adequately supplied with National Socialist literature. This message was repeated by Wilhelm Rudolf Mann , who chaired a meeting of the Bayer division board of directors on 16 February 1938, and who in an earlier meeting had referred to the "miracle of
3298-723: Is used for producing disposable plastic cutlery and dinnerware , CD "jewel" cases , smoke detector housings, license plate frames, plastic model assembly kits, and many other objects where a rigid, economical plastic is desired. Production methods include thermoforming ( vacuum forming ) and injection molding . Polystyrene Petri dishes and other laboratory containers such as test tubes and microplates play an important role in biomedical research and science. For these uses, articles are almost always made by injection molding, and often sterilized post-molding, either by irradiation or by treatment with ethylene oxide . Post-mold surface modification, usually with oxygen -rich plasmas ,
3395-454: The Federal Cross of Merit . Those who served prison sentences included: Those acquitted included: Agfa , BASF and Bayer remained in business; Hoechst spun off its chemical business in 1999 as Celanese AG before merging with Rhône-Poulenc to form Aventis , which later merged with Sanofi-Synthélabo to form Sanofi . Two years earlier, another part of Hoechst was sold in 1997 to
3492-765: The Frankfurt area , this allowed them to cooperate more successfully than the Dreibund , although they also did not rationalize or consolidate their production facilities. IG Farben was founded in December 1925 as a merger of six companies: BASF (27.4 percent of equity capital); Bayer (27.4 percent); Hoechst , including Cassella and Chemische Fabrik Kalle (27.4 percent); Agfa (9 percent); Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron (6.9 percent); and Chemische Fabrik vorm. Weiler Ter Meer (1.9 percent). The supervisory board members became widely known as, and were said to call themselves jokingly,
3589-504: The Third Reich ", in the 1940s the company relied on slave labour from concentration camps , including 30,000 from Auschwitz , and was involved in medical experiments on inmates at both Auschwitz and Mauthausen . One of its subsidiaries supplied the poison gas Zyklon B , which killed over one million people in gas chambers during the Holocaust . The Allies seized the company at
3686-402: The aromatic hydrocarbon styrene . Polystyrene can be solid or foamed . General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a poor barrier to air and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics , with the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year. Polystyrene
3783-578: The coal liquefaction process. IG Farben scientists made fundamental contributions to all areas of chemistry. Otto Bayer discovered the polyaddition for the synthesis of polyurethane in 1937. Several IG Farben scientists were awarded a Nobel Prize . Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1931 "in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods". Gerhard Domagk
3880-401: The sooty flame. The process of depolymerizing polystyrene into its monomer , styrene , is called pyrolysis . This involves using high heat and pressure to break down the chemical bonds between each styrene compound. Pyrolysis usually goes up to 430 °C. The high energy cost of doing this has made commercial recycling of polystyrene back into styrene monomer difficult. Polystyrene
3977-428: The tacticity , which affects various physical properties of the material. In polystyrene, tacticity describes the extent to which the phenyl group is uniformly aligned (arranged at one side) in the polymer chain. Tacticity has a strong effect on the properties of the plastic. Standard polystyrene is atactic. The diastereomer where all of the phenyl groups are on the same side is called isotactic polystyrene, which
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4074-471: The "Council of Gods" ( Rat der Götter ). The designation was used as the title of an East German film, The Council of the Gods (1950). In 1926, IG Farben had a market capitalization of 1.4 billion ℛ︁ℳ︁ (equivalent to 6 billion 2021 euros) and a workforce of 100,000, of which 2.6 percent were university educated, 18.2 percent were salaried professionals and 79.2 percent were workers. BASF
4171-563: The 1930s, the company underwent a process of Aryanization , and by 1938 Jewish employees had been dismissed and the Jews on the board had resigned. The remaining few left in 1938 after Hermann Göring issued a decree, as part of the Nazis' Four Year Plan (announced in 1936), that the German government would make foreign exchange available to German firms to fund construction or purchases overseas only if certain conditions were met, which included making sure
4268-543: The German government's disposal. The minutes of a meeting of the Commercial Committee on 10 September 1937 noted: It is generally agreed that under no circumstances should anybody be assigned to our agencies abroad who is not a member of the German Labor Front and whose positive attitude towards the new era has not been established beyond any doubt. Gentlemen who are sent abroad should be made to realize that it
4365-675: The IG Farben trial, was the sixth of 12 trials for war crimes the U.S. authorities held in their occupation zone in Germany ( Nuremberg ) against leading industrialists of Nazi Germany . There were five counts against the IG Farben directors: Of the 24 defendants arraigned , one fell ill and his case was discontinued. The indictment was filed on 3 May 1947; the trial lasted from 27 August 1947 until 30 July 1948. The judges were Curtis Grover Shake (presiding), James Morris , Paul M. Hebert , and Clarence F. Merrell as an alternate judge. Telford Taylor
4462-590: The Pacific Ocean. Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon , an apothecary from Berlin. From storax , the resin of the Oriental sweetgum tree Liquidambar orientalis , he distilled an oily substance, that he named styrol, now called styrene . Several days later, Simon found that it had thickened into a jelly, now known to have been a polymer , that he dubbed styrol oxide ("Styroloxyd") because he presumed that it had resulted from oxidation ( styrene oxide
4559-418: The U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, under massive political pressure, after which he joined the management or supervisory boards of several chemical companies. The company destroyed most of its records as it became clear that Germany was losing the war. In September 1944, Fritz ter Meer , a member of IG Farben's supervisory board and future chair of Bayer's board of directors, and Ernst Struss, secretary of
4656-588: The US to disperse "ownership and control of such of the plants and equipment seized under this order as have not been transferred or destroyed". The French followed suit in the areas they controlled. On 30 November 1945, Allied Control Council Law No. 9, "Seizure of Property owned by I.G. Farbenindustrie and the Control Thereof", formalized the seizure for "knowingly and prominently ... building up and maintaining German war potential". The division of property followed
4753-598: The West was split in 1951 into its six constituent companies, then again into three: BASF, Bayer, and Hoechst. These companies continued to operate as an informal cartel and played a major role in the West German Wirtschaftswunder . Following several later mergers the main successor companies are Agfa, BASF, Bayer and Sanofi . In 2004, the University of Frankfurt , housed in the former IG Farben head office , set up
4850-416: The average value is ~0.035 W/(m·K). Water vapor diffusion resistance (μ) of XPS is around 80–250. Commonly extruded polystyrene foam materials include: Although it is a closed-cell foam, both expanded and extruded polystyrene are not entirely waterproof or vapor proof. In expanded polystyrene there are interstitial gaps between the expanded closed-cell pellets that form an open network of channels between
4947-635: The birth of the German nation": "The chairman points out our incontestable being in line with the National Socialist attitude in the association of the entire 'Bayer' pharmaceutica and insecticides; beyond that, he requests the heads of the offices abroad to regard it as their self-evident duty to collaborate in a fine and understanding manner with the functionaries of the Party, with the DAF (German Workers' Front), et cetera. Orders to that effect again are to be given to
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#17328757079255044-694: The bonded pellets, and this network of gaps can become filled with liquid water. If the water freezes into ice, it expands and can cause polystyrene pellets to break off from the foam. Extruded polystyrene is also permeable by water molecules and can not be considered a vapor barrier. Water-logging commonly occurs over a long period in polystyrene foams that are constantly exposed to high humidity or are continuously immersed in water, such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to groundwater. Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic sheeting or
5141-540: The chemical spin-off of Sandoz, the Muttenz (Switzerland) based Clariant . The successor companies remain some of the world's largest chemical and pharmaceutical companies. Although IG Farben was officially put into liquidation in 1952, this did not end the company's legal existence. The purpose of a corporation's continuing existence, being "in liquidation", is to ensure an orderly wind-down of its affairs. As almost all its assets and all its activities had been transferred to
5238-455: The company as a United States Justice Department lawyer, quoted an American report: "Without I.G.'s immense productive facilities, its far-reaching research, varied technical expertise and overall concentration of economic power, Germany would not have been in a position to start its aggressive war in September 1939." The company placed its resources, technical capabilities and overseas contacts at
5335-506: The company by the SS for a low daily rate. One of IG Farben's subsidiaries supplied the poison gas, Zyklon B , that killed over one million people in gas chambers. Company executives said after the war that they had not known what was happening inside the camps. According to the historian Peter Hayes , "the killings were an open secret within Farben, and people worked at not reflecting upon what they knew." In 1978, Joseph Borkin, who investigated
5432-453: The company employed no Jews. IG Farben's products included synthetic dyes , nitrile rubber , polyurethane , prontosil , and chloroquine . The nerve agent Sarin was first discovered by IG Farben. The company is perhaps best known for its role in producing the poison gas Zyklon B . One product crucial to the operations of the Wehrmacht was synthetic fuel , made from lignite using
5529-707: The company was split into its original constituent companies. The four largest quickly bought the smaller ones. In January 1955, the Allied High Commission issued the I.G. Liquidation Conclusion Law, naming IG Farben's legal successor as IG Farbenindustrie AG in Abwicklung (IGiA) ("I.G. Farbenindustrie AG in Liquidation). In 1947, the American government put IG Farben's directors on trial. The United States of America vs. Carl Krauch, et al. (1947–1948), also known as
5626-618: The company's managing board, are said to have made plans to destroy company files in Frankfurt in the event of an American invasion. As the Red Army approached Auschwitz in January 1945 to liberate it , IG Farben reportedly destroyed the company's records inside the camp, and in the spring of 1945, the company burned and shredded 15 tons of paperwork in Frankfurt. The Americans seized the company's property under "General Order No. 2 pursuant to Military Government Law No. 52", 2 July 1945, which allowed
5723-582: The conglomerate in Frankfurt am Main , Germany, was completed in 1931. In 1938, the company had 218,090 employees. IG Farben was controversial on both the far left and far right, partly for the same reasons, related to the size and international nature of the conglomerate and the Jewish background of several of its key leaders and major shareholders . Far-right newspapers of the 1920s and early 1930s, accused it of being an "international capitalist Jewish company". The liberal and business-friendly German People's Party
5820-612: The construction of an IG Farben Buna-N (synthetic rubber) plant—known as Monowitz Buna Werke (or Buna)—near the Monowitz concentration camp , part of the Auschwitz concentration camp complex in German-occupied Poland . (Monowitz came to be known as Auschwitz III; Auschwitz I was the administrative centre and Auschwitz II-Birkenau the extermination camp.) The IG Farben plant's workforce consisted of slave labour from Auschwitz, leased to
5917-456: The division of Germany into four zones: American , British , French and Soviet . In the Western occupation zone, the idea of destroying the company was abandoned as the policy of denazification evolved, in part because of a need for industry to support reconstruction, and in part because of the company's entanglement with American companies, notably the successors of Standard Oil . In 1951,
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#17328757079256014-403: The drugs the women would experience circulation problems, bloody vomiting, and painful diarrhea "containing fragments of mucus membrane". Of the 50 typhoid sufferers given 3852, 15 died; 40 of the 75 tuberculosis patients given Rutenol died. For one experiment, which tested an anaesthetic, Bayer had 150 women sent from Auschwitz to its own facility. They paid RM 150 per woman, all of whom died as
6111-407: The end of the war in 1945 and the US authorities put its directors on trial. Held from 1947 to 1948 as one of the subsequent Nuremberg trials , the IG Farben trial saw 23 IG Farben directors tried for war crimes and 13 convicted. However, by 1951 all of them were released from prison early after the U.S. military instituted good time credits in its war crime program. What remained of IG Farben in
6208-506: The experiments were conducted in Birkenau in Block 20, the women's camp hospital. The patients were suffering from, and in many cases had been deliberately infected with, typhoid , tuberculosis , diphtheria and other diseases, then were given preparations named Rutenol, Periston, B-1012, B-1034, B-1036, 3582 and P-111. According to prisoner-physicians who witnessed the experiments, after being given
6305-416: The former captive labourers for its inability to be legally dissolved and have the remaining assets distributed as reparations. On 10 November 2003, its liquidators filed for insolvency , but this did not affect the existence of the company as a legal entity. While it did not join a national compensation fund set up in 2001 to pay the victims, it contributed 500,000 DM (£160,000 stg or €255,646) towards
6402-404: The gas to Auschwitz to fumigate clothing that was infested with lice, which carried typhus . Fumigation took place within a closed room, but it was a slow process, so Degesch recommended building small gas chambers, which heated the gas to over 30 °C and killed the lice within one hour. The idea was that the inmates would be shaved and showered while their clothes were being fumigated. The gas
6499-532: The gassings. The general manager of Degesch is said to have learned about the gassings from Kurt Gerstein of the SS. According to the post-war testimony of Rudolf Höss , the Auschwitz commandant, he was asked by Walter Dürrfeld [ de ] , technical manager of the IG Farben Auschwitz plant, whether it was true that Jews were being cremated at Auschwitz. Höss replied that he could not discuss it and thereafter assumed that Dürrfeld knew. Dürrfeld,
6596-430: The gut of superworms that contain encoded enzymes associated with the degradation of polystyrene and the breakdown product styrene. The bacterium Pseudomonas putida is capable of converting styrene oil into the biodegradable plastic PHA . This may someday be of use in the effective disposing of polystyrene foam. It is worthy to note the polystyrene must undergo pyrolysis to turn into styrene oil. Polystyrene
6693-425: The increase in sales of Zyklon B to Auschwitz. IG Farben owned 42.5 percent of Degesch shares, and three members of Degesch's 11-person executive board, Wilhelm Rudolf Mann , Heinrich Hörlein and Carl Wurster , were directors of IG Farben. Mann, who had been an SA - Sturmführer , was the chair of Degesch's board. Peter Hayes writes that the board did not meet after 1940, and that although Mann "continued to review
6790-471: The item being protected or as loose-fill "peanuts" cushioning fragile items inside boxes. EPS also has been widely used in automotive and road safety applications such as motorcycle helmets and road barriers on automobile race tracks . A significant portion of all EPS products are manufactured through injection molding. Mold tools tend to be manufactured from steels (which can be hardened and plated), and aluminum alloys. The molds are controlled through
6887-519: The leading German gentlemen so that there may be no misunderstanding in their execution." By 1943, IG Farben was manufacturing products worth three billion marks in 334 facilities in occupied Europe; almost half its workforce of 330,000 men and women consisted of slave labour or conscripts, including 30,000 Auschwitz prisoners. Altogether its annual net profit was around 500 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ (equivalent to 2 billion 2021 euros). In 1945, according to Raymond G. Stokes , it manufactured all
6984-467: The molecules consist of thousands of atoms, the cumulative attractive force between the molecules is large. When heated (or deformed at a rapid rate, due to a combination of viscoelastic and thermal insulation properties), the chains can take on a higher degree of confirmation and slide past each other. This intermolecular weakness (versus the high intramolecular strength due to the hydrocarbon backbone) confers flexibility and elasticity. The ability of
7081-458: The monthly sales figures for Degesch, he could not necessarily have inferred from them the uses to which the Auschwitz camp was putting the product". IG Farben executives did visit Auschwitz but not Auschwitz II-Birkenau , where the gas chambers were located. Other IG Farben staff appear to have known. Ernst Struss, secretary of the IG Farben's managing board, testified after the war that the company's chief engineer at Auschwitz had told him about
7178-460: The original constituent companies, IG Farben was from 1952, largely a shell company with no real activity. In 2001, IG Farben announced that it would formally wind up its affairs in 2003. It had been continually criticized over the years for failing to pay compensation to the former labourers; its stated reason for its continued existence after 1952 was to administer its claims and pay its debts. The company, in turn, blamed ongoing legal disputes with
7275-434: The polymerization, the carbon-carbon π bond of the vinyl group is broken and a new carbon-carbon σ bond is formed, attaching to the carbon of another styrene monomer to the chain. Since only one kind of monomer is used in its preparation, it is a homopolymer. The newly formed σ bond is stronger than the π bond that was broken, thus it is difficult to depolymerize polystyrene. About a few thousand monomers typically comprise
7372-649: The raw material for molding parts or extruding sheets. BASF and Stastny applied for a patent that was issued in 1949. The molding process was demonstrated at the Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf. Products were named Styropor. The crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta . In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania, developed expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam under
7469-423: The rights to Munters's method and began producing a lightweight, water-resistant, and buoyant material that seemed perfectly suited for building docks and watercraft and for insulating homes, offices, and chicken sheds." In 1944, Styrofoam was patented. Before 1949, chemical engineer Fritz Stastny (1908–1985) developed pre-expanded PS beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are
7566-566: The same price." Between 1942 and 1945, a cyanide -based pesticide, Zyklon B , was used to kill over one million people, mostly Jews, in gas chambers in Europe, including in the Auschwitz II and Majdanek extermination camps in German-occupied Poland. The poison gas was supplied by an IG Farben subsidiary, Degesch (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Schädlingsbekämpfung MbH, or German Company for Pest Control). Degesch originally supplied
7663-526: The stadium. Next to the football stadium is the Ginásio Aecim Tocantins . Arena Pantanal was one of the five venues to host matches of the 2021 Copa América . This article about a sports venue in Brazil is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Polystyrene Polystyrene ( PS ) / ˌ p ɒ l i ˈ s t aɪ r iː n / is a synthetic polymer made from monomers of
7760-411: The synthesis of polyurethane in 1937, and three company scientists became Nobel laureates : Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius in 1931 "for their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods", and Gerhard Domagk in 1939 "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil ". In the 1920s, the company had ties to the liberal German People's Party and
7857-707: The synthetic rubber and methanol in Germany, 90 percent of its plastic and "organic intermediates", 84 percent of its explosives, 75 percent of its nitrogen and solvents , around 50 percent of its pharmaceuticals, and around 33 percent of its synthetic fuel . Staff of the Bayer group at IG Farben conducted medical experiments on concentration-camp inmates at Auschwitz and at the Mauthausen concentration camp . At Auschwitz they were led by Bayer employee Helmuth Vetter , an Auschwitz camp physician and SS captain, and Auschwitz physicians Friedrich Entress and Eduard Wirths . Most of
7954-458: The system to be readily deformed above its glass transition temperature allows polystyrene (and thermoplastic polymers in general) to be readily softened and molded upon heating. Extruded polystyrene is about as strong as an unalloyed aluminium but much more flexible and much less dense (1.05 g/cm for polystyrene vs. 2.70 g/cm for aluminium). Polystyrene is an addition polymer that results when styrene monomers polymerize (interconnect). In
8051-511: The top-level decision-making of the leading German chemical firms, which was in the hands of professional salaried managers. Because of this unique situation, the economic historian Alfred Chandler called the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises". With the world market for synthetic dyes and other chemical products dominated by the German industry, German firms competed vigorously for market shares. Although cartels were attempted, they lasted at most for
8148-523: The trade name Dylite. In 1960, Dart Container , the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order. In chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups (a derivative of benzene ). Polystyrene's chemical formula is (C 8 H 8 ) n ; it contains the chemical elements carbon and hydrogen . The material's properties are determined by short-range van der Waals attractions between polymer chains. Since
8245-440: The uses to which its production was being put". In 1949, Mann became head of pharmaceutical sales at Bayer . Hörlein became chair of Bayer's supervisory board. Wurster became chair of the IG Farben board, helped to reestablish BASF as a separate company, and became an honorary professor at the University of Heidelberg . Dürrfeld was sentenced to eight years, but had his sentence commuted to time served in 1951 by John McCloy ,
8342-421: The world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80 percent of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials, and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals , photographic film , agricultural chemicals and electrochemicals . Contrary to other industries, the founders and their families had little influence on
8439-519: Was accused by the Nazis of being an "international capitalist Jewish company". A decade later, it was a Nazi Party donor and, after the Nazi takeover of Germany in 1933, a major government contractor, providing significant material for the German war effort. Throughout that decade it purged itself of its Jewish employees; the remainder left in 1938. Described as "the most notorious German industrial concern during
8536-474: Was also reported that superworms ( Zophobas morio ) may eat expanded polystyrene (EPS). A group of high school students in Ateneo de Manila University found that compared to Tenebrio molitor larvae, Zophobas morio larvae may consume greater amounts of EPS over longer periods of time. In 2022 scientists identified several bacterial genera, including Pseudomonas , Rhodococcus and Corynebacterium , in
8633-475: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1939 "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil ". IG Farben has been described as "the most notorious German industrial concern during the Third Reich ". When World War II began, it was the fourth largest corporation in the world and the largest in Europe. In February 1941, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler signed an order supporting
8730-413: Was common knowledge to everybody. Mann, Hörlein and Wurster (directors of both IG Farben and Degesch) were acquitted at the IG Farben trial in 1948 of having supplied Zyklon B for the purpose of mass extermination. The judges ruled that the prosecution had not shown that the defendants or executive board "had any persuasive influence on the management policies of Degesch or any significant knowledge as to
8827-449: Was first used on human beings in Auschwitz (650 Soviet POWs and 200 others) in September 1941. Peter Hayes compiled the following table showing the increase in Zyklon B ordered by Auschwitz (figures with an asterisk are incomplete). One ton of Zyklon B was enough to kill around 312,500 people. Several IG Farben executives said after the war that they did not know about the gassings, despite
8924-545: Was formed, also known as the Dreibund or little IG. Profits of the three firms were pooled, with BASF and Bayer getting 43 percent each and Agfa 14 percent of all profits. The two alliances were loosely connected with each other through an agreement between BASF and Hoechst to jointly exploit the patent on the Heumann-Pfleger indigo synthesis . Within the Dreibund , Bayer and BASF concentrated on dye, while Agfa increasingly concentrated on photographic film. Although there
9021-470: Was its most pronounced supporter. Not a single member of the management of IG Farben before 1933 supported the Nazi Party; four members, or a third, of the IG Farben supervisory board were themselves Jewish. The company ended up being the "largest single contribution" to the successful Nazi election campaign of 1933; there is also evidence of "secret contributions" to the party in 1931 and 1932. Throughout
9118-511: Was seized by the Allies after World War II and split into its constituent companies; parts in East Germany were nationalized. IG Farben was once the largest company in Europe and the largest chemical and pharmaceutical company in the world. IG Farben scientists made fundamental contributions to all areas of chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry. Otto Bayer discovered the polyaddition for
9215-445: Was some cooperation between the technical staff in production and accounting, there was little cooperation between the firms in other areas. Neither were production or distribution facilities consolidated nor did the commercial staff cooperate. In 1908 Hoechst and Cassella acquired 88 percent of the shares of Chemische Fabrik Kalle. As Hoechst, Cassella and Kalle were connected by mutual equity shares and were located close to each other in
9312-623: Was the chief counsel for the prosecution. Thirteen defendants were found guilty, with sentences ranging from 18 months to eight years. All were cleared of the first count of waging war. The heaviest sentences went to those involved with Auschwitz, which was IG Farben's Upper Rhine group. Ambros, Bütefisch, Dürrfeld, Krauch and ter Meer were convicted of "participating in ... enslavement and deportation for slave labor". All defendants who were sentenced to prison received early release. Most were quickly restored to their directorships and other positions in post-war companies, and some were awarded
9409-523: Was the nominal survivor; all shares were exchanged for BASF shares. Similar mergers took place in other countries. In the United Kingdom Brunner Mond , Nobel Industries , United Alkali Company and British Dyestuffs merged to form Imperial Chemical Industries in September 1926. In France Établissements Poulenc Frères and Société Chimique des Usines du Rhône merged to form Rhône-Poulenc in 1928. The IG Farben Building , headquarters for
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