An okrug is a type of administrative division in some Slavic -speaking states. The word okrug is a loanword in English, alternatively translated as area , district , county , or region .
54-712: The Ardahan okrug was a district ( okrug ) of the Kars Oblast of the Russian Empire between 1878 and 1918. The district was eponymously named for its administrative center, the town of Ardagan (present-day Ardahan ), presently part of the Ardahan Province of Turkey . The okrug bordered with the Kars okrug to the south, the Olti okrug in the west, the Batum Oblast in the north,
108-633: A Soviet republic . A majority of the Armenian leadership agreed that it was impossible to resist both the Russians and the Turks and that the Armenian army and population were exhausted. Drastamat Kanayan and Hambardzum Terterian were authorized to enter negotiations with Boris Legran to accept Soviet rule in Armenia. On 2 December 1920, the Armenian government signed an agreement with Legran declaring its resignation and
162-552: A cease-fire agreement. During the invasion the Turkish Army carried out mass atrocities against Armenian civilians in Kars and Alexandropol . These included rapes and massacres where tens of thousands of civilians were executed. As the terms of defeat were being negotiated between Karabekir and Armenian Foreign Minister Alexander Khatisyan , Joseph Stalin , on the command of Vladimir Lenin , ordered Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze to enter Armenia from Azerbaijan in order to establish
216-925: A municipal district. The Republic of Serbia is divided into twenty-nine okrugs as well as the City of Belgrade . The term okrug in Serbia is often translated as either district or county . Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian War Armenian resistance during Hamidian massacres Armenians in World War I Armenian resistance during the Armenian genocide Caucasus campaign First Republic of Armenia Caucasus campaign Armenian–Azerbaijani war Armeno-Georgian War Turkish–Armenian War Soviet-Armenian conflict The Turkish–Armenian War ( Armenian : Հայ-թուրքական պատերազմ ), known in Turkey as
270-593: A new pro- Bolshevik government in the country. On the night of 28–29 November, the Soviet Eleventh Army under the command of Anatoli Gekker invaded Armenia at Karavansarai (present-day Ijevan ), meeting little to no resistance. That same day, the Armenian Revolutionary Committee (a committee of Armenian Bolsheviks formed in Baku a week earlier to facilitate Armenia's sovietization) declared Armenia
324-571: A result of the 1920 Turkish occupation of those territories and subsequent massacre and expulsion of their inhabitants, only 59,843 Armenians and Yazidis arrived in modern-day Armenia—less than half of the 130,753 Armenians and Yazidis in those areas in 1919. A commission's findings of atrocities carried out by the Turkish invaders in Shirak revealed that a total of 11,886 corpses were buried, 90 percent of whom were women and children and 10 percent were men: In
378-417: A type of municipal formation. In Tver Oblast , the term okrug also denotes a type of an administrative division which is equal in status to that of the districts. Furthermore, the designation okrug denotes several selsoviet -level administrative divisions: In some cities, the term okrug is used to refer to the administrative divisions of those cities. Administrative okrugs are such divisions in
432-605: The obwody by powiat s. Okrugs were one of the several types of administrative division for oblasts and selected governorates in Imperial Russia . Until the 1920s, okrugs were administrative districts in Cossack hosts such as the Don Cossacks . Inherited from Imperial Russia, in the 1920s, okrugs were administrative divisions of several other primary divisions such as oblasts , krais , and others. For some time in
486-663: The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic . The Treaty of Moscow (March 1921) between Soviet Russia and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the related Treaty of Kars (October 1921) confirmed most of the territorial gains made by Karabekir and established the modern Turkish – Armenian border. The dissolution of the Russian Empire in the wake of the February Revolution saw the Armenians of
540-799: The Eastern Front ( Turkish : Doğu Cephesi ) of the Turkish War of Independence , was a conflict between the First Republic of Armenia and the Turkish National Movement following the collapse of the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. After the provisional government of Ahmet Tevfik Pasha failed to win support for ratification of the treaty, remnants of the Ottoman Army's XV Corps under the command of Kâzım Karabekir attacked Armenian forces controlling
594-751: The First World War , the Kars Oblast became the site of intense battles between the Russian Caucasus Army supplemented by Armenian volunteers and the Ottoman Third Army , the latter of whom was successful in briefly occupying Ardahan on 25 December 1914 before they were dislodged in early January 1915. On 3 March 1918, in the aftermath of the October Revolution the Russian SFSR ceded
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#1732876470234648-565: The Mountain ASSR of the Russian SFSR in 1921 as units of the Soviet autonomy and additional national okrugs were created in the Russian SFSR for the peoples of the north and Caucasus region. In 1977, all national okrugs were renamed autonomous okrugs. In the present-day Russian Federation , the term okrug is either translated as district or rendered directly as okrug , and is used to describe
702-622: The Ottoman Empire . Approximately 1.5 million Armenians had perished during the Armenian genocide . Although the armies of the Ottoman Empire eventually occupied the South Caucasus in the summer of 1918 and stood poised to crush the republic, Armenia resisted until the end of October, when the Ottoman Empire capitulated to the Allied powers . Though the Ottoman Empire was partially occupied by
756-549: The Straits . Despite the concessions made by the Turks, the financial and military supplies were slow in coming. Only after the decisive Battle of Sakarya (August–September 1921), the aid started to flow in faster. After much delays, the Armenians received from the Allies in July 1920 about 40,000 uniforms and 25,000 rifles with a great amount of ammunition. It was not until August 1920 that
810-631: The Tiflis Governorate in the northeast, and from 1883 to 1903 the Kutais Governorate whilst the latter included the Artvin and Batum okrugs . The Ardahan okrug was one of the four territorial administrative subunits (counties) of the Kars oblast created after its annexation into the Russian Empire in 1878 through the Treaty of San Stefano , following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire . During
864-615: The Treaty of Alexandropol on 3 December 1920. Turkey's annexation of Kars and the adjacent Surmalu Uyezd was confirmed in the treaties of Kars and Moscow in 1921, by virtue of the new Soviet regime in Armenia . The prefectures ( участки , uchastki ) of the Ardahan okrug were: According to the Russian Empire Census , the Ardahan okrug had a population of 65,763 on 28 January [ O.S. 15 January] 1897, including 34,930 men and 30,833 women. The plurality of
918-622: The eastern provinces of the empire to the nascent Armenian republic. But the Allies were more concerned with concluding the peace treaties with Germany and the other European members of the Central Powers. In matters related to the Near East, the principal powers, Great Britain , France , Italy and the United States , had conflicting interests over the spheres of influence they were to assume. While there were crippling internal disputes between
972-516: The 1920s they also served as the primary unit upon the abolishment of guberniyas and were divided into raions . On 30 July 1930 most of the okrugs were abolished. The remaining okrugs were phased out in the Russian SFSR during 1930–1946, although they were retained in Zakarpattia Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR in a status equivalent to that of a raion. National okrugs were first created in
1026-483: The 38,000 wounded, 20,000 were men, 10,000 women, 5,000 young girls, and 3,000 children. Of the 18,000 men taken prisoner, 2,000 survived (the rest were executed or died of exposure or starvation). In 1919, there were 31,236 Armenians and 10,092 Yazidis in the Surmalu uezd (present-day Iğdır Province ), and 62,007 Armenians and 27,418 Yazidis in the Kars Oblast (present-day Kars and Ardahan provinces) within Armenia. As
1080-551: The Allies drafted the peace settlement of the Near East in the form of the Treaty of Sèvres . Under the terms of the treaty, portions of four northeastern vilayets of the Ottoman Empire were allotted to the First Republic of Armenia and subsequently came to be known as Wilsonian Armenia , after the US President Woodrow Wilson . The Treaty of Sèvres served to confirm Kemal's suspicions about Allied plans to partition
1134-651: The Allies, and the United States was reluctant to accept a mandate over Armenia, disaffected elements in the Ottoman Empire in 1920 began to disavow the decisions made by the Ottoman government in Constantinople, coalesced and formed the Turkish National Movement , under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha . The Turkish Nationalists considered any partition of formerly Ottoman lands (and subsequent distribution to non-Turkish authorities) to be unacceptable. Their avowed goal
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#17328764702341188-566: The Allies, and while being invaded by Franco-Armenian forces during the Cilicia Campaign , the Turks did not withdraw their forces to the pre-war Russo-Turkish boundary until February 1919 and maintained many troops mobilized along this frontier. During the First World War and in the ensuing peace negotiations in Paris , the Allies had vowed to punish the Turks and reward some, if not all, of
1242-462: The Armenians had suffered at least 200 casualties and been forced to retreat east towards Sarıkamış . As neither the Allied powers nor Soviet Russia reacted to Turkish operations, on September 20 Kemal authorized Karabekir to push onwards and take Kars and Kağızman . By this time, Karabekir's XV Corps had grown to the size of four divisions. At 3:00 in the morning of 28 September, the four divisions of
1296-712: The GNAT, ceded Adjara to Soviet Georgia in exchange for the Kars territory (today the Turkish provinces of Kars , Iğdır , and Ardahan ). Under the treaties, an autonomous Nakhichevan oblast was established under Azerbaijan 's protectorate. The Treaty of Kars effectively confirmed Armenia's territorial losses to Turkey as stipulated by the invalid Treaty of Alexandropol and established the Armenia–Turkey border that exists to this day. According to Soviet historiography, 60,000 Armenian civilians had been killed, including 30,000 men, 15,000 women, 5,000 children, and 10,000 young girls; Of
1350-523: The Kars Oblast largely came under the Armenian civil governorship of Stepan Korganian who wasted no time in facilitating the repatriation of the region's exiled refugees. Despite the apparent defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish agitators were reported by Armenian intelligence to have been freely roaming the countryside of Kars encouraging sedition among the Muslim villages, culminating in a series of anti-Armenian uprisings on 1 July 1919 . The Kars Oblast for
1404-560: The Lenin government supplied the Kemalists with 6,000 rifles, more than five million rifle cartridges, and 17,600 projectiles, as well as 200.6 kg of gold bullion; in the following two years the amount of aid increased. In the negotiations of the Treaty of Moscow (1921) , the Bolsheviks demanded that the Turks cede Batum and Nakhichevan ; they also asked for more rights in the future status of
1458-807: The Near East were concentrated on crushing the Kurdish tribal uprisings in Iraq with the help of the Assyrians , while France and Italy were also fighting the Turkish revolutionaries near Syria and Italian controlled Antalya . Neighboring Georgia declared neutrality during the conflict. On 11 October, Soviet plenipotentiary Boris Legran arrived in Yerevan with a text to negotiate a new Soviet-Armenian agreement. The agreement signed on 24 October secured Soviet support. The most important part of this agreement dealt with Kars, which Armenia agreed to secure. The Turkish national movement
1512-544: The Red Army. The Red Army entered Yerevan on 4 December 1920, joined by the Armenian Revolutionary Committee the next day. State authority in Armenia formally passed over to the committee. Finally, on 6 December, the Cheka , Soviet Russia's secret police, entered Yerevan. Though nominally an independent Soviet republic, Armenia had effectively ceased to exist as an independent state. Reneging on their agreement not to subject members of
1566-402: The South Caucasus declaring their independence and formally establishing the First Republic of Armenia . In its two years of existence, the republic, with its capital in Yerevan , was beset with a number of debilitating problems, including fierce territorial disputes with its neighbors and a severe refugee crisis. Armenia's most crippling problem was its dispute with its neighbor to the west,
1620-527: The Turkish National Pact." According to Turkish and Soviet sources, Turkish plans to take back formerly Ottoman-controlled lands in the east were already in place as early as June 1920. Using Turkish sources, historian Bilâl Şamşir has identified mid-June as to when exactly the Ankara government began to prepare for a campaign in the east. Hostilities were first begun by Kemalist forces. Kâzım Karabekir
1674-505: The Turkish army during the war at 100,000 —this is evident in the marked decline (−25.1%) of the population of modern-day Armenia from 961,677 in 1919 to 720,000 in 1920. According to historian Raymond Kévorkian, only the Soviet occupation of Armenia prevented another Armenian genocide . The Turkish military victory was followed by the Bolshevik occupation of Armenia and the establishment of
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1728-461: The XV Army Corps advanced towards Sarıkamış, creating such panic that Armenian residents had abandoned the town by the time the Turks entered the next day. The armed forces started toward Kars but were delayed by Armenian resistance. In early October, the Armenian government pleaded that the Allies intervene and put a halt to the Turkish advance, but to no avail. Most of Britain's available forces in
1782-607: The area surrounding Kars , eventually recapturing most of the territory in the South Caucasus that had been part of the Ottoman Empire prior to the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and was subsequently ceded by Soviet Russia as part of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . Karabekir had orders from the Ankara Government to "eliminate Armenia physically and politically". One estimate places the number of Armenians massacred by
1836-531: The cities of Murmansk , Omsk , and Tyumen ; city okrugs are used in Krasnodar ; municipal okrugs are the divisions of Nazran ; okrugs exist in Belgorod , Kaluga , Kursk , and Novorossiysk ; and territorial okrugs are the divisions of Arkhangelsk and Lipetsk . The term okrug is also used to describe a type of a municipal formation , the municipal urban okrug—a municipal urban settlement not incorporated into
1890-482: The city, which by 30 October came under full Turkish occupation. Turkish forces continued to advance, and, a week after the capture of Kars, took control of Alexandropol (present-day Gyumri , Armenia ). On 12 November, the Turks also captured the strategic village of Aghin , northeast of the ruins of the former Armenian capital of Ani , and planned to move toward Yerevan . On 13 November, Georgia broke its neutrality. It had concluded an agreement with Armenia to invade
1944-493: The command of Yakub Shevki Pasha , the occupying force of the district by the time of the Mudros Armistice , were permitted to winter in Kars until early 1919, after which on 7 January 1919 Major General G.T. Forestier-Walker ordered their complete withdrawal to the pre-1914 Ottoman-frontier. Intended to hinder the westward expansion of the fledgling Armenian and Georgian republics into the Kars Oblast, Yukub Shevki backed
1998-613: The defense of Armenia and aware that the leaders of the Republic of Armenia had failed to gain recognition of its independence by Soviet Russia, Kemal gave the order to commanding general Kâzım Karabekir to advance into Armenian-held territory. At 2:30 in the morning of 13 September, five battalions from the Turkish XV Army Corps attacked Armenian positions, surprising the thinly spread and unprepared Armenian forces at Oltu and Penek . By dawn, Karabekir's forces had occupied Penek and
2052-658: The disputed region of Lori , which was established as a Neutral Zone (the Shulavera Condominium) between the two nations in early 1919. The Turks, headquartered in Alexandropol, presented the Armenians with an ultimatum which they were forced to accept. They followed it with a more radical demand which threatened the existence of Armenia as a viable entity. The Armenians at first rejected this demand, but when Karabekir's forces continued to advance, they had little choice but to capitulate. On November 18, 1920, they concluded
2106-438: The emergence of the short-lived South-West Caucasus Republic with moral support, also furnishing it with weapons, ammunition and instructors. The South-West Caucasus Republic administered the Ardahan okrug and neighboring formerly occupied districts for three months before provoking British intervention by order of General G.F. Milne , leading to its capitulation by Armenian and British forces on 10 April 1919. Consequently,
2160-507: The empire. According to historian Richard G. Hovannisian , Kemal's decision to order attacks on Armenian troops in Oltu District in the erstwhile Kars Oblast that eventually expanded into an invasion of Armenia proper was intended to show the Allies that "the treaty would not be accepted and that there would be no peace until the West was ready to offer new terms in keeping with the principles of
2214-502: The entire Kars Oblast including the Ardahan okrug through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk to the Ottoman Empire, who had been unreconciled with its loss of the territory since 1878. Despite the ineffectual resistance of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic which had initially rejected the aforementioned treaty, the Ottoman Third Army was successful in occupying the Kars Oblast and forcefully expelling its 100,000 panic-stricken Armenian inhabitants. The Ottoman Ninth Army under
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2268-423: The following types of divisions: After the series of mergers in 2005–2008, several autonomous okrugs of Russia lost their federal subject status and are now considered to be administrative territories within the federal subjects they had been merged into: Okrug is also used to describe the administrative divisions of the two " federal cities " in Russia: In the federal city of Sevastopol , municipal okrugs are
2322-423: The former ruling party, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation , to repressions, the new Soviet Armenian authorities arrested numerous members of the ARF and conducted expropriations in the countryside, triggering an anti-Bolshevik uprising in February 1921 , during which Soviet power was briefly overthrown in Armenia. The Red Army intervened to restore Soviet authority, although anti-Bolshevik resistance continued in
2376-522: The government it represented no longer existed, making the treaty illegal. The treaty required Armenia to disarm most of its military forces, renounce the Treaty of Sèvres , and cede the entire territory of the former Kars Oblast and the district of Surmalu to Turkey, as well as make territorial concessions to Azerbaijan in Nakhichevan. The decision to sign the illegal treaty was justified by Khatisyan as necessary to prevent Karabekir's army from advancing further and reaching Echmiadzin and Yerevan ahead of
2430-482: The later part of the Congress Poland period, from 1842, when the name was applied to the former powiats (the name powiat being transferred to the former obwody ). See: subdivisions of Congress Poland . Okręgi were also created temporarily from 1945 to 1946, in the areas annexed to Poland from Germany as a result of the Soviet military advance. An okręg was then subdivided into obwody . These okręgi were later replaced by voivodeships , and
2484-461: The population indicated Turkish to be their mother tongue, with significant Kurdish , Karapapakh , Greek , and Turkmen speaking minorities. According to the 1917 publication of Kavkazskiy kalendar , the Ardahan okrug had a population of 89,036 on 14 January [ O.S. 1 January] 1916, including 44,387 men and 44,649 women, 82,260 of whom were the permanent population, and 6,376 were temporary residents. The statistics indicated
2538-475: The southern region of Zangezur until July 1921. The warfare in Transcaucasia was settled in a friendship treaty between the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) (which proclaimed the Turkish Republic in 1923), and Soviet Russia ( RSFSR ). The "Treaty on Friendship and Brotherhood", called the Treaty of Moscow , was signed on 16 March 1921. The succeeding Treaty of Kars , signed by the representatives of Azerbaijan SSR , Armenian SSR , Georgian SSR , and
2592-405: The third time in six years saw invading Turkish troops, this time under the command of General Kâzım Karabekir in September 1920 during the Turkish-Armenian War . The disastrous war for Armenia resulted in the permanent expulsion of the region's ethnic Armenian population, many who inexorably remained befalling massacre, resulting in the region being integrated into the Republic of Turkey through
2646-686: The town Ardahan to be overwhelmingly Armenian with a significant Sunni Muslim minority. Conversely, the rest of the okrug was mainly Sunni Muslim, with sizeable Kurdish, Roma, and Yazidi minorities: According to the 1897 census, there were 12 settlements in the Ardahan okrug with a population over 500 inhabitants. The religious composition of the settlements was as follows: 41°06′40″N 42°42′08″E / 41.11111°N 42.70222°E / 41.11111; 42.70222 Okrug Etymologically, okrug literally means ' circuit ', derived from Proto-Slavic * okrǫgъ , in turn from * ob- "around" + * krǫgъ "circle". In meaning,
2700-400: The transfer of power in Armenia to a Soviet government. Drastamat Kanayan would temporarily lead the country pending the arrival of the Armenian Revolutionary Committee in Yerevan. On behalf of Soviet Russia, Legran guaranteed the restoration of Armenia's pre-war borders. The Armenian delegation led by Khatisyan signed the Treaty of Alexandropol with Kemalist Turkey on 3 December 1920, though
2754-504: The word is similar to the German term Bezirk or Kreis (' district ') and the French word arrondissement ; all of which refer to something "encircled" or "surrounded". In Bulgaria , okrag s are the abolished primary unit of the administrative division and implied "districts" or "counties". They existed in the postwar Bulgaria between 1946 and 1987 and corresponded approximately to today's oblasts . As historical administrative subdivisions of Poland , okręgi existed in
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#17328764702342808-414: Was assigned command of the newly formed Eastern Front on 9 June 1920 and was given authority over a field army and all civil and military officials in the Eastern Front on 13 or 14 June. Skirmishes between Turkish and Armenian forces in the area surrounding Kars were frequent during that summer, although full-scale hostilities did not break out until September. Convinced that the Allies would not come to
2862-441: Was not happy with possible agreement between the Soviets and Armenia. Karabekir was informed by the Government of the Grand National Assembly regarding the Boris Legran agreement and ordered to resolve the Kars issue. The same day the agreement between Armenia and Soviet Russia was signed, Karabekir moved his forces toward Kars. On 24 October, Karabekir's forces launched a new, massive campaign against Kars. The Armenians abandoned
2916-512: Was to "guarantee the safety and unity of the country". The Bolsheviks sympathized with the Turkish Movement due to their mutual opposition to "Western Imperialism", as the Bolsheviks referred to it. In his message to Vladimir Lenin , the leader of the Bolsheviks , dated 26 April 1920, Kemal promised to coordinate his military operations with the Bolsheviks' "fight against imperialist governments" and requested five million lira in gold as well as armaments "as first aid" to his forces. In 1920,
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