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63-635: The framework and urgency for these questions is the ongoing dramatic climate change in the Arctic that is already linked to changes in biological communities. Substantial gaps in the Arctic’s biodiversity inventory hamper the ability to fully detect the magnitude and extent of these changes. ArcOD’s approach has been to compile data on the known, improve taxonomic resolution of already collected materials and begin to fill geographic and taxonomic gaps with new collections. This work has been done across biological realms and on

126-635: A Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy . The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007 , generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources. Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced

189-456: A mental illness prior to the study. While in Antarctica, 7 of the 88 crew members were diagnosed with a mental illness during early winter. The mental illnesses included insomnia disorder (3 diagnosed), depressive disorder (1 diagnosed), adjustment disorder (2 diagnosed), and alcohol use disorder (1 diagnosed). Overall, both Antarctic studies showed a lower amount of sleep beginning at

252-502: A ring species exists and has been described around the Arctic Circle in the form of the Larus gulls. There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on

315-417: A location experiencing polar night does not mean that the location will be in full darkness; in most cases, due to sunlight being refracted over the horizon, a location experiencing polar night will actually be in one of the various phases of polar twilight. As in locations experiencing daylight, the middle of the day will typically be the brightest time in locations experiencing polar twilight. For example,

378-540: A number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists , is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F);

441-573: A pan-Arctic scale. The most substantial limit to the current knowledge is the temporal variability of biodiversity patterns in the Arctic, in particular vulnerability of Arctic biota to climate change and the increasing human footprint in the area. The RUSALCA expeditions are reported to have achieved more than the participants could have done alone. This Arctic -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Arctic The Arctic ( / ˈ ɑːr k t ɪ k / or / ˈ ɑːr t ɪ k / ) (from Greek ἄρκτος, 'bear')

504-511: A person looking at a window from within a brightly lit room might see their reflection even at midday, as the level of outdoor illuminance will still be below that of many illuminated indoor spaces. Northern Hemisphere: Southern Hemisphere: Sufferers of seasonal affective disorder tend to seek out therapy with artificial light, as the psychological benefits of daylight require relatively high levels of ambient light (up to 10,000  lux ) which are not present in any stage of twilight; thus,

567-539: A typical day during civil polar twilight in Vadsø, Norway will begin with night, astronomical twilight, nautical twilight, and civil twilight in that order (with each successive phase including more light than the last). Following civil twilight, the day will progress through the other phases in the opposite order (nautical twilight, then astronomical twilight, then night to end the day). Civil polar twilight occurs at latitudes between about 67°24' and 72°34' North or South, where

630-493: Is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ( Nordland , Troms , Finnmark , Svalbard and Jan Mayen ), northernmost Sweden ( Västerbotten , Norrbotten and Lappland ), northern Finland ( North Ostrobothnia , Kainuu and Lappi ), Russia ( Murmansk , Siberia , Nenets Okrug , Novaya Zemlya ),

693-519: Is a 2 month long polar night, lasting from mid-November to mid-January. An analysis was conducted based on 2015-16 data from a health survey that involved residents of the region over age 40, with the goal being to analyze the seasonal variation of sleeping patterns in Tromsø. The study found that there was a higher prevalence of insomnia among men in the fall and winter months, but not among women. However, overall, sleep duration varied little to none throughout

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756-514: Is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to some time around 2067. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions. Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs , graminoids , herbs , lichens , and mosses , which all grow relatively close to

819-407: Is a period of continuous night where no astronomical twilight occurs at the solar culmination . During a true polar night, stars of the sixth magnitude, which are the dimmest stars visible to the naked eye, will be visible throughout the entire 24-hour day . At solar noon , the sun will be between exactly 18° and approximately 23° 26' below the horizon. These conditions last for about 11 weeks at

882-512: Is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic . The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός ( arktikos ), "near

945-651: Is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean , asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge are an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016,

1008-432: Is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change , as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater climate change in

1071-478: Is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens. Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage , shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising

1134-499: Is day in the Arctic Circle , it is night in the Antarctic Circle , and vice versa. Any planet or moon with a sufficient axial tilt that rotates with respect to its star significantly more frequently than it orbits the star (and with no tidal locking between the two) will experience the same phenomenon (a nighttime lasting more than one rotation period). The length of polar night varies by latitude from 24 hours just inside

1197-707: Is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters , adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes. Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year . The International Arctic Science Committee , hundreds of scientists and specialists of

1260-670: Is the Amundsen–Scott scientific research station in Antarctica , whose winter personnel are completely isolated from mid-February to late October. The South Pole experiences this from about May 11 to August 1, while the North Pole experiences this from about November 12 to January 28. If an observer located on either the North Pole or the South Pole were to define a "day" as the time from

1323-582: Is then no nautical twilight at the solar culmination , only astronomical twilight . During astronomical polar twilight, the sky is dark enough at midday to permit astronomical observation of point sources of light such as stars , except in regions with more intense skyglow due to light pollution , moonlight , auroras , and other sources of light. There is a location at the horizon with more light than others around midday due to refraction. Some critical observations, such as of faint diffuse items such as nebulae and galaxies , may require observations beyond

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1386-591: The Muttaburrasaurus of Australia. However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River , which is now at about 70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north. The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c.  2500 BCE . AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including

1449-668: The Arctic Council , and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research. While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic , no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and

1512-667: The Arctic poppy ). Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare , lemming , muskox , and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl , Arctic fox , grizzly bear , and Arctic wolf . The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines , moose , Dall sheep , ermines , and Arctic ground squirrels . Marine mammals include seals , walruses , and several species of cetacean — baleen whales and also narwhals , orcas , and belugas . An excellent and famous example of

1575-552: The Ilulissat Declaration , blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims." As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia . The Russian Federation

1638-603: The Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture ( Inuktitut : Tuniit or Tunit ) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE. Supported by genetic testing , evidence shows that descendants of

1701-825: The UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission. Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations regards it as an international strait , which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage. Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations . Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on

1764-541: The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development , on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic Treaty System . The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic. The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to

1827-430: The drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometres by the ice flow. The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants , and in some places

1890-424: The permafrost thaws. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 56 km (35 mi) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There

1953-473: The 2010s, bringing in a total of 82 participants. The study found that participants generally slept for longer periods of time in the summer months than the winter months. Additionally, greater amounts of social jetlag were observed in the winter months. A third study aimed to examine the mental health of 88 Korean crew members at two different research stations in Antarctica, King Sejong Station and Jang Bogo Station . No crew members had been diagnosed with

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2016-680: The Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide. The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost , leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases . Climate change

2079-469: The Bear, northern" and from the word ἄρκτος ( arktos ), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation known as Ursa Major , the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere , or to the constellation Ursa Minor , the "Little Bear", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris , the current north Pole Star, or North Star). There are

2142-591: The Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut , survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands , until the beginning of the 20th century. The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with

2205-517: The Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide." By 1300 CE, the Inuit , present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century ( Inughuit , Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia,

2268-523: The North , and Saami Council ). The council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. Though Arctic policy priorities differ , every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters. Arctic shipping

2331-536: The Sun has sunk 18 degrees below the horizon. Beyond 18 degrees, refracted sunlight is no longer visible. True night is defined as the period when the sun is 18 or more degrees below either horizon. Since the atmosphere refracts sunlight, polar day is longer than polar night, and the area that experiences polar night is somewhat smaller than the area that experiences polar day. The polar circles are located at latitudes between these two areas, at approximately 66.5°. While it

2394-474: The Sun is between 0 and 6° below the horizon, so this phenomenon can also be referred to as civil polar night. Nowhere on mainland Europe is this definition met. The Norwegian territory of Longyearbyen , Svalbard , experiences nautical polar twilight from about 11 November until 30 January. Dikson , in Russia, experiences nautical polar twilight from about 6 December to 6 January. During dense cloud cover, places like

2457-407: The Sun will be below the horizon all day on the winter solstice , but by less than 6° at solar noon . There is then no true daylight at the solar culmination , only civil twilight . During civil polar twilight, there is still enough light for most normal outdoor activities at midday because of light scattering by the upper atmosphere and refraction. However, street lamps may still remain on, and

2520-422: The United States ( Alaska ), Canada ( Yukon , Northwest Territories , Nunavut ), Danish Realm ( Greenland ), and northern Iceland ( Grímsey and Kolbeinsey ), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places. The Arctic region

2583-744: The United States, Canada, and Greenland. Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi , Evenks , Iñupiat , Khanty , Koryaks , Nenets , Sámi , Yukaghir , Gwichʼin , and Yupik . The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council , as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association , Arctic Athabaskan Council , Gwich'in Council International , Inuit Circumpolar Council , Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of

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2646-662: The United States—are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean. Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified

2709-505: The coast of Finnmark (about 70°) in Norway will experience a "day" that is darker than usual. On the Canadian territory of Pond Inlet, Nunavut , however, nautical polar twilight lasts from about 16 December until 26 December. Astronomical polar twilight occurs at latitudes between about 78° 34' and 84° 34' North or South, which is exactly 12° to 18° inside the polar circles. There

2772-499: The coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming , leading to climate change in the Arctic , including Arctic sea ice decline , diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet , and Arctic methane emissions as

2835-399: The concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze , which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's ( polychlorinated biphenyls ) in Arctic wildlife and people. There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at

2898-413: The convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories. On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes , MIR-1 and MIR-2 , for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there

2961-446: The gradual transition to and from darkness when the Sun is below the horizon. "Civil" twilight occurs when the Sun is between 0 and 6 degrees below the horizon. Nearby planets like Venus and bright stars like Sirius are visible during this period. "Nautical" twilight continues until the Sun is 12 degrees below the horizon. During nautical twilight, the horizon is visible enough for navigation. "Astronomical" twilight continues until

3024-429: The ground, forming tundra . An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry . As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause

3087-424: The increase. The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to

3150-981: The limit of astronomical twilight. Nautical twilight happens when the Sun is between 6 and 12° degrees below the horizon, so this phenomenon can also be referred to as nautical polar night. The Norwegian territory of Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , experiences this from about December 12 to 30. Its antipode ( 78°55′S 168°4′W  /  78.917°S 168.067°W  / -78.917; -168.067 ) experiences this from about June 12 to July 1. The Canadian territory of Eureka, Nunavut , experiences this from about December 2 to January 8. Its antipode ( 79°59′S 94°4′E  /  79.983°S 94.067°E  / -79.983; 94.067 ) experiences this from about June 1 to July 11. The Russian territory of Franz Josef Land experiences this from about November 27 to January 15. Its antipode ( 81°S 125°W  /  81°S 125°W  / -81; -125 ) experiences this from about May 25 to July 17. Alert , Nunavut ,

3213-406: The major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming. The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet . Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates ,

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3276-407: The maximal elevation of the Sun above the horizon during one period of daylight, until the maximal elevation of the Sun above the horizon of the next period of daylight, then a "polar day" as experienced by such an observer would be one Earth-year long. Numerous analyses have been conducted to examine the effects of polar night on humans. In Tromsø, Norway , a city located at 69 degrees north, there

3339-550: The midday twilights experienced anywhere inside the polar circles are still "polar nights" for this purpose. Nautical polar twilight occurs at latitudes between about 72° 34' and 78° 34' North or South, which is exactly 6° to 12° inside the polar circles. There is then no civil twilight at the solar culmination , only nautical twilight . During nautical polar twilight, the human eye may distinguish general outlines of ground objects at midday but cannot participate in detailed outdoor operations. Civil twilight happens when

3402-464: The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region. The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and

3465-668: The northernmost settlement in Canada and the world, experiences this from about November 19 to January 22. Its antipode ( 82°30′S 117°38′E  /  82.500°S 117.633°E  / -82.500; 117.633 ) experiences this from about May 19 to July 25. Oodaaq , a gravel bank at the northern tip of Greenland and a disputed northernmost point of land , experiences this from about November 15 to January 27. Its antipode ( 83°40′S 150°7′E  /  83.667°S 150.117°E  / -83.667; 150.117 ) experiences this from about May 13 to July 31. A true polar night

3528-407: The polar circles to 179 days at the poles. As there are various kinds of twilight , there also exist various kinds of polar twilight that progress towards true polar night. Each kind of polar night is defined as when it is darker than the corresponding kind of twilight. The descriptions below are based on relatively clear skies, so the sky will be darker in the presence of dense clouds. As mentioned,

3591-441: The poles. Astronomical twilight happens when the Sun is between twelve and eighteen degrees below the horizon, so this phenomenon can also be referred to as astronomical polar night. Thus, the true polar night is limited to latitudes above roughly 84° 34' North or South, which is exactly 18° within the polar circles, or approximately five and a half degrees from the poles. The only permanent settlement on Earth at these latitudes

3654-655: The possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route . One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over

3717-510: The predecessor culture. The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, who through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people some time after 1300 CE. The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out

3780-756: The region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply. During the Cretaceous time period , the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , Troodon , and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as

3843-432: The size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges , mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like

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3906-489: The waters of the Arctic. Polar night Polar night is a phenomenon that occurs in the northernmost and southernmost regions of Earth when the Sun remains below the horizon for more than 24 hours. This only occurs inside the polar circles . The opposite phenomenon, polar day or midnight sun , occurs when the Sun remains above the horizon for more than 24 hours. There are multiple ways to define twilight,

3969-446: The year despite the extreme changes in daylight; it is worthwhile to note that a factor in this result may be the significant amount of artificial light in Tromsø. A similar study was conducted among men who overwintered at Belgrano II , an Argentine research station in Antarctica . The station is located at 77 degrees south, resulting in a polar night 4 months in length. The study was conducted across 5 different winter campaigns in

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