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46-418: These chat alphabets differ from more formal and academic Arabic transliteration systems, in that they use numerals and multigraphs instead of diacritics for letters such as ṭāʾ ( ط ) or ḍād ( ض ) that do not exist in the basic Latin script ( ASCII ), and in that what is being transcribed is an informal dialect and not Standard Arabic . These Arabic chat alphabets also differ from each other, as each

92-463: A {\displaystyle a} . Note that the second term in the above equation is just twice the vector projection of v {\displaystyle v} onto a {\displaystyle a} . One can easily check that Using the geometric product , the formula is Since these reflections are isometries of Euclidean space fixing the origin they may be represented by orthogonal matrices . The orthogonal matrix corresponding to

138-420: A central inversion ( Coxeter 1969 , §7.2), and exhibits Euclidean space as a symmetric space . In a Euclidean vector space , the reflection in the point situated at the origin is the same as vector negation. Other examples include reflections in a line in three-dimensional space. Typically, however, unqualified use of the term "reflection" means reflection in a hyperplane . Some mathematicians use " flip " as

184-415: A vertical axis (a vertical reflection ) would look like q . Its image by reflection in a horizontal axis (a horizontal reflection ) would look like b . A reflection is an involution : when applied twice in succession, every point returns to its original location, and every geometrical object is restored to its original state. The term reflection is sometimes used for a larger class of mappings from

230-401: A Euclidean space to itself, namely the non-identity isometries that are involutions. The set of fixed points (the "mirror") of such an isometry is an affine subspace , but is possibly smaller than a hyperplane. For instance a reflection through a point is an involutive isometry with just one fixed point; the image of the letter p under it would look like a d . This operation is also known as

276-502: A glottal stop. The use of ch to represent ش demonstrates the influence of French orthography on the romanization of Moroccan Arabic or Darija . French became the primary European language in Morocco as a result of French colonialism . One of the characteristics of Franco-Arabic as it is used to transcribe Darija is the presence of long consonant clusters that are typically unorthodox in other languages. These clusters represents

322-502: A lack of a universal romanization system they will not be pronounced correctly by non-native speakers anyway. The precision will be lost if special characters are not replicated and if a reader is not familiar with Arabic pronunciation. Examples in Literary Arabic : There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to romanize the language. A Beirut newspaper, La Syrie , pushed for

368-444: A synonym for "reflection". In a plane (or, respectively, 3-dimensional) geometry, to find the reflection of a point drop a perpendicular from the point to the line (plane) used for reflection, and extend it the same distance on the other side. To find the reflection of a figure, reflect each point in the figure. To reflect point P through the line AB using compass and straightedge , proceed as follows (see figure): Point Q

414-510: A vector v {\displaystyle v} in Euclidean space R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} , the formula for the reflection in the hyperplane through the origin, orthogonal to a {\displaystyle a} , is given by where v ⋅ a {\displaystyle v\cdot a} denotes the dot product of v {\displaystyle v} with

460-399: Is a mapping from a Euclidean space to itself that is an isometry with a hyperplane as the set of fixed points ; this set is called the axis (in dimension 2) or plane (in dimension 3) of reflection. The image of a figure by a reflection is its mirror image in the axis or plane of reflection. For example the mirror image of the small Latin letter p for a reflection with respect to

506-430: Is free to add phonological (such as vowels) or morphological (such as word boundaries) information. Transcriptions will also vary depending on the writing conventions of the target language; compare English Omar Khayyam with German Omar Chajjam , both for عمر خيام /ʕumar xajjaːm/ , [ˈʕomɑr xæjˈjæːm] (unvocalized ʿmr ḫyām , vocalized ʻUmar Khayyām ). A transliteration

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552-430: Is ideally fully reversible: a machine should be able to transliterate it back into Arabic. A transliteration can be considered as flawed for any one of the following reasons: A fully accurate transcription may not be necessary for native Arabic speakers, as they would be able to pronounce names and sentences correctly anyway, but it can be very useful for those not fully familiar with spoken Arabic and who are familiar with

598-740: Is influenced by the particular phonology of the Arabic dialect being transcribed and the orthography of the dominant European language in the area—typically the language of the former colonists, and typically either French or English . Because of their widespread use, including in public advertisements by large multinational companies, large players in the online industry like Google and Microsoft have introduced tools that convert text written in Arabish to Arabic ( Google Translate and Microsoft Translator ). Add-ons for Mozilla Firefox and Chrome also exist (Panlatin and ARABEASY Keyboard ). The Arabic chat alphabet

644-508: Is never used in formal settings and is rarely, if ever, used for long communications. During the last decades of the 20th century, Western text-based communication technologies, such as mobile phone text messaging , the World Wide Web , email , bulletin board systems , IRC , and instant messaging became increasingly prevalent in the Arab world . Most of these technologies originally permitted

690-706: Is now "a high degree of normativization or standardisation in Arabizi orthography." Because of the informal nature of this system, there is no single "correct" or "official" usage. There may be some overlap in the way various letters are transliterated. Most of the characters in the system make use of the Latin character (as used in English and French) that best approximates phonetically the Arabic letter that one would otherwise use (for example, ب corresponds to b ). Regional variations in

736-467: Is then the reflection of point P through line AB . The matrix for a reflection is orthogonal with determinant −1 and eigenvalues −1, 1, 1, ..., 1. The product of two such matrices is a special orthogonal matrix that represents a rotation. Every rotation is the result of reflecting in an even number of reflections in hyperplanes through the origin, and every improper rotation is the result of reflecting in an odd number. Thus reflections generate

782-423: Is used to represent غ ). Each of the different varieties of Arabic chat alphabets is influenced by the particular phonology of the Arabic dialect being transcribed and the orthography of the dominant European language in the area—typically the language of the former colonists. Below are some examples of Arabic chat alphabet varieties. The frequent use of y and w to represent ى and و demonstrates

828-474: The QWERTY or AZERTY keyboard layout . Online communication systems, such as IRC, bulletin board systems, and blogs , are often run on systems or over protocols that do not support code pages or alternate character sets. Thus, the Arabic chat alphabet has become commonplace. It can be seen even in domain names , like Qal3ah . According to one 2020 paper based on a survey done in and around Nazareth , there

874-505: The orthogonal group , and this result is known as the Cartan–Dieudonné theorem . Similarly the Euclidean group , which consists of all isometries of Euclidean space, is generated by reflections in affine hyperplanes. In general, a group generated by reflections in affine hyperplanes is known as a reflection group . The finite groups generated in this way are examples of Coxeter groups . Reflection across an arbitrary line through

920-401: The sound of the language, since short vowels and geminate consonants, for example, do not usually appear in Arabic writing. As an example, the above rendering munāẓaratu l-ḥurūfi l-ʻarabīyah of the Arabic : مناظرة الحروف العربية is a transcription, indicating the pronunciation; an example transliteration would be mnaẓrḧ alḥrwf alʻrbyḧ . Early Romanization of

966-504: The Academy, asserted that the movement to romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon. After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and reemphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and

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1012-478: The Arabic Chat Alphabet as a detrimental form of Westernization . Arabic chat alphabets emerged amid a growing trend among Arab youth, from Morocco to Iraq, to incorporate former colonial languages—especially English and French—into Arabic through code switching or as a form of slang. These improvised chat alphabets are used to replace Arabic script , and this raises concerns regarding the preservation of

1058-535: The Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. He believed and desired to implement romanization in a way that allowed words and spellings to remain somewhat familiar to the Egyptian people. However, this effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet, particularly the older generation. Reflection (mathematics) In mathematics , a reflection (also spelled reflexion )

1104-403: The Arabic language was standardized in the various bilingual Arabic-European dictionaries of the 16–19th centuries: Any romanization system has to make a number of decisions which are dependent on its intended field of application. One basic problem is that written Arabic is normally unvocalized ; i.e., many of the vowels are not written out, and must be supplied by a reader familiar with

1150-463: The Arabic letter is typically respelled to either تش ‎ or چ ‎. The phenomenon of writing Arabic with these improvised chat alphabets has drawn sharp rebuke from a number of different segments of Arabic-speaking communities. While educators and members of the intelligentsia mourn the deterioration and degradation of the standard, literary, academic language, conservative Muslims, as well as Pan-Arabists and some Arab nationalists , view

1196-415: The Arabic letter that one would otherwise use (e.g. ع is represented using the numeral 3 because the latter looks like a vertical reflection of the former). Since many letters are distinguished from others solely by a dot above or below the main portion of the character, the transliterations of these letters frequently use the same letter or number with an apostrophe added before or after (e.g. ' 3

1242-415: The Arabic script). Most issues related to the romanization of Arabic are about transliterating vs. transcribing; others, about what should be romanized: A transcription may reflect the language as spoken, typically rendering names, for example, by the people of Baghdad ( Baghdad Arabic ), or the official standard ( Literary Arabic ) as spoken by a preacher in the mosque or a TV newsreader. A transcription

1288-537: The Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet. A scholar, Salama Musa , agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Egyptian Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in script, he believed, would solve

1334-468: The Roman alphabet. An accurate transliteration serves as a valuable stepping stone for learning, pronouncing correctly, and distinguishing phonemes. It is a useful tool for anyone who is familiar with the sounds of Arabic but not fully conversant in the language. One criticism is that a fully accurate system would require special learning that most do not have to actually pronounce names correctly, and that with

1380-482: The above reflection is the matrix where I {\displaystyle I} denotes the n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} identity matrix and a T {\displaystyle a^{T}} is the transpose of a. Its entries are where δ ij is the Kronecker delta . The formula for the reflection in the affine hyperplane v ⋅

1426-503: The change from Arabic script to Latin script in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon , a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at romanization failed as the Academy and the population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of

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1472-518: The deletion of short vowels and the syllabification of medial consonants in the phonology of Darija, a feature shared with and derived from Amazigh languages . The use of ch to represent ك ‎ ( kāf ) indicates one of the Palestinian Arabic variant pronunciations of the letter in one of its subdialects, in which it is sometimes palatalized to [ t͡ʃ ] (as in English "chip"). Where this palatalization appears in other dialects,

1518-435: The formula above can also be written as saying that a reflection of v {\displaystyle v} across l {\displaystyle l} is equal to 2 times the projection of v {\displaystyle v} on l {\displaystyle l} , minus the vector v {\displaystyle v} . Reflections in a line have the eigenvalues of 1, and −1. Given

1564-514: The influence of English orthography on the romanization of Egyptian Arabic . Additionally, the letter qāf ( ق ) is usually pronounced as a glottal stop , like a hamza ( ء ) in Metropolitan (Cairene) Egyptian Arabic—unlike Standard Arabic in which it represents a voiceless uvular stop . Therefore, in Egyptian Arabizi , the numeral 2 can represent either a Hamza or a qāf pronounced as

1610-448: The inherent problems of rendering various Arabic varieties in the Latin script. Examples of such problems are the symbols for Arabic phonemes that do not exist in English or other European languages; the means of representing the Arabic definite article , which is always spelled the same way in written Arabic but has numerous pronunciations in the spoken language depending on context; and

1656-464: The language in scientific publications by linguists . These formal systems, which often make use of diacritics and non-standard Latin characters and are used in academic settings or for the benefit of non-speakers, contrast with informal means of written communication used by speakers such as the Latin-based Arabic chat alphabet . Different systems and strategies have been developed to address

1702-676: The language. Hence unvocalized Arabic writing does not give a reader unfamiliar with the language sufficient information for accurate pronunciation. As a result, a pure transliteration , e.g., rendering قطر as qṭr , is meaningless to an untrained reader. For this reason, transcriptions are generally used that add vowels, e.g. qaṭar . However, unvocalized systems match exactly to written Arabic, unlike vocalized systems such as Arabic chat, which some claim detracts from one's ability to spell. Most uses of romanization call for transcription rather than transliteration : Instead of transliterating each written letter, they try to reproduce

1748-452: The numeral "3" is used to represent the Arabic letter ⟨ ع ⟩ ( ʿayn )—note the choice of a visually similar character, with the numeral resembling a mirrored version of the Arabic letter. Many users of mobile phones and computers use Arabish even though their system is capable of displaying Arabic script. This may be due to a lack of an appropriate keyboard layout for Arabic , or because users are already more familiar with

1794-488: The origin in two dimensions can be described by the following formula where v {\displaystyle v} denotes the vector being reflected, l {\displaystyle l} denotes any vector in the line across which the reflection is performed, and v ⋅ l {\displaystyle v\cdot l} denotes the dot product of v {\displaystyle v} with l {\displaystyle l} . Note

1840-475: The problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi , two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for romanization. The idea that romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for

1886-514: The pronunciation of an Arabic letter can also produce some variation in its transliteration (e.g. ﺝ might be transliterated as j by a speaker of the Levantine dialect , or as g by a speaker of the Egyptian dialect ). Those letters that do not have a close phonetic approximation in the Latin script are often expressed using numerals or other characters, so that the numeral graphically approximates

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1932-453: The quality of the language. Romanization of Arabic The romanization of Arabic is the systematic rendering of written and spoken Arabic in the Latin script . Romanized Arabic is used for various purposes, among them transcription of names and titles, cataloging Arabic language works, language education when used instead of or alongside the Arabic script, and representation of

1978-432: The representation of short vowels (usually i u or e o , accounting for variations such as Muslim /Moslem or Mohammed /Muhammad/Mohamed ). Romanization is often termed "transliteration", but this is not technically correct. Transliteration is the direct representation of foreign letters using Latin symbols, while most systems for romanizing Arabic are actually transcription systems, which represent

2024-433: The same sound in the Arabic script, e.g. alif ا vs. alif maqṣūrah ى for the sound /aː/ ā , and the six different ways ( ء إ أ آ ؤ ئ ) of writing the glottal stop ( hamza , usually transcribed [ʼ ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 2) ( help ) ). This sort of detail is needlessly confusing, except in a very few situations (e.g., typesetting text in

2070-432: The sound of the words according to the orthography rules of the target language: Qaṭar . This applies equally to scientific and popular applications. A pure transliteration would need to omit vowels (e.g. qṭr ), making the result difficult to interpret except for a subset of trained readers fluent in Arabic. Even if vowels are added, a transliteration system would still need to distinguish between multiple ways of spelling

2116-423: The use of the Latin script only, and some still lack support for displaying Arabic script . As a result, Arabic-speaking users frequently transliterate Arabic text into Latin script when using these technologies to communicate. To handle those Arabic letters that do not have an approximate phonetic equivalent in the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated known as "code switching". For example,

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