57-509: Antonello da Messina ( Italian pronunciation: [antoˈnɛllo da (m)mesˈsiːna] ; c. 1425–1430 – February 1479), properly Antonello di Giovanni di Antonio , but also called Antonello degli Antoni and Anglicized as Anthony of Messina , was an Italian painter from Messina , active during the Italian Early Renaissance . His work shows strong influences from Early Netherlandish painting , although there
114-548: A Netherlandish model , the subject being shown bust-length, against a dark background, full face or in three-quarter view, while most previous Italian painters had adopted the medal-style profile pose for individual portraits. John Pope-Hennessy described Antonello as "the first Italian painter for whom the individual portrait was an art form in its own right". Although Antonello is mentioned in many documents between 1460 and 1465, establishing his presence in Messina in those years,
171-644: A gap in the sources between 1465 and 1471 suggests that he may have spent these years on the mainland. In 1474, he painted the Annunciation , now in Syracuse , and the St. Jerome in His Study also dates from around this time. Antonello went to Venice in 1475 and remained there until the fall of 1476. His works of this period begin to show a greater attention to the human figure, regarding both anatomy and expressivity, indicating
228-537: A master painter in Messina. He also shared his home with Paolo di Ciacio, a student from Calabria. The artist's earliest documented commission, in 1457, was for a banner for the Confraternità di San Michele dei Gerbini in Reggio Calabria , where he set up a workshop for the production of such banners and devotional images. At this date, he was already married, and his son Jacobello had been born. In 1460, his father
285-642: A non-English or place adopts the English language or culture; institutional, in which institutions are influenced by those of England or the United Kingdom ; or linguistic , in which a non-English term or name is altered due to the cultural influence of the English language. It can also refer to the influence of English soft power , which includes media, cuisine, popular culture, technology, business practices, laws and political systems. Anglicisation first occurred in
342-592: A perplexing enigma as to the nature of the three men standing at the foreground. Another famous work painted in Urbino is the Double Portrait of Federico and his wife Battista Sforza, in the Uffizi . The portraits in profile take their inspiration from large bronze medals and stucco roundels with the official portraits of Federico and his wife. Other paintings made in Urbino are the monumental Montefeltro Altarpiece (1474) in
399-626: A sculptor who trained him early on. He and his family resided in the Sicofanti district of the city. Antonello is thought to have apprenticed in Rome before going to Naples , where Netherlandish painting was then fashionable. According to a letter written in 1524 by the Neapolitan humanist Pietro Summonte , in about 1450 Antonello was a pupil of the painter Niccolò Colantonio in Naples. This account of his training
456-498: A work illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci . Biographers of his patron Federico da Montefeltro of Urbino record that he was encouraged to pursue the interest in perspective which was shared by the Duke. In the late 1450s, Piero copied and illustrated the following works of Archimedes : On the Sphere and Cylinder , Measurement of a Circle , On Conoids and Spheroids , On Spirals , On
513-538: A world itself apart from this world apart. Mary isn't looking at her child and looks instead at the rose he reaches for. You begin to glean the revelation she is having. The flower represents love, devotion, and beauty. It also symbolizes blood and the crown of thorns Christ will wear. This child who will suffer a horrendous death reaches for his acceptance of fate. Mary does not pull the flower back. You sense an inner agony, noticing her deep-blue robe open to reveal scarlet beneath, symbol of outward passion and pain to come. In
570-755: Is accepted by most art historians. Antonello returned to Messina from Naples during the 1450s. In around 1455, he painted the so-called Sibiu Crucifixion , inspired by Flemish treatments of the subject, which is now in the Muzeul de Artă in Bucharest. A Crucifixion in the Royal Museum of Antwerp dates from the same period. These early works shows a marked Flemish influence, which is now understood to be inspired by his master Colantonio and from paintings by Rogier van der Weyden and Jan van Eyck that belonged to Colantonio's patron, Alfonso V of Aragon . In his biography of
627-598: Is known that Alberti directed the execution of his designs for the church by correspondence with his building supervisor. Thereafter Piero was active in Ancona , Pesaro and Bologna . In 1454, he signed a contract for the Polyptych of Saint Augustine in the church of Sant'Agostino in Sansepolcro. The central panel of this polyptych is lost, and the four panels of the wings, with representations of saints , are now scattered around
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#1732869513252684-494: Is mentioned leasing a brigantine to bring back Antonello and his family from Amantea in Calabria. In that year, Antonello painted the so-called Salting Madonna , in which standard iconography and Flemish style are combined with a greater attention in the volumetric proportions of the figures, probably indicating a knowledge of works by Piero della Francesca . Also from around 1460 are two small panels depicting Abraham Served by
741-538: Is no documentary evidence that he ever travelled beyond Italy. Giorgio Vasari credited him with the introduction of oil painting into Italy, although this is now regarded as wrong. Unusually for a southern Italian artist of the Renaissance, his work proved influential on painters in northern Italy, especially in Venice . Antonello was born at Messina around 1429–1431, to Garita (Margherita) and Giovanni de Antonio Mazonus,
798-576: Is only a fragment of a much larger original). It is also likely that Antonello passed on both the techniques of using oil paints and the principles of calmness on subjects' faces and in the composition of paintings to Giovanni Bellini and other Venetian painters during that visit. While in Venice he was offered, but did not accept, the opportunity to become the court portrait painter to the Duke of Milan . Antonello had returned to Sicily by September 1476. Works from near
855-623: The Brera Gallery in Milan and the Madonna of Senigallia . In Urbino Piero met the painters Melozzo da Forlì , Fra Carnevale , and the Flemish Justus van Gent , the mathematician Fra Luca Pacioli , the architect Francesco di Giorgio Martini , and probably also Leon Battista Alberti . In his later years, painters such as Perugino and Luca Signorelli frequently visited his workshop. He completed
912-560: The British Isles , when Celts under the sovereignty of the king of England underwent a process of anglicisation. The Celtic language decline in England was mostly complete by 1000 AD, but continued in Cornwall and other regions until the 18th century. In Scotland , the decline of Scottish Gaelic began during the reign of Malcolm III of Scotland to the point where by the mid-14th century
969-866: The Danish city København ( Copenhagen ), the Russian city of Moskva ( Moscow ), the Swedish city of Göteborg ( Gothenburg ), the Dutch city of Den Haag ( The Hague ), the Spanish city of Sevilla ( Seville ), the Egyptian city of Al-Qāhira ( Cairo ), and the Italian city of Firenze ( Florence ). The Indian city of Kolkata used to be anglicised as Calcutta , until the city chose to change its official name back to Kolkata in 2001. Anglicisation of words and names from indigenous languages occurred across
1026-601: The English-speaking world in former parts of the British Empire . Toponyms in particular have been affected by this process. In the past, the names of people from other language areas were anglicised to a higher extent than today. This was the general rule for names of Latin or (classical) Greek origin. Today, the anglicised name forms are often retained for the more well-known persons, like Aristotle for Aristoteles, and Adrian (or later Hadrian ) for Hadrianus. During
1083-675: The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands . Until the 19th century, most significant period for anglicisation in those regions was the High Middle Ages . Between 1000 and 1300, the British Isles became increasingly anglicised. Firstly, the ruling classes of England, who were of Norman origin after the Norman Conquest of 1066, became anglicised as their separate Norman identity, different from
1140-543: The Scots language was the dominant national language among the Scottish people . In Wales , however, the Welsh language has continued to be spoken by a large part of the country's population due to language revival measures aimed at countering historical anglicisation measures such as the Welsh not . In the early parts of the 19th century, mostly due to increased immigration from
1197-456: The Welsh educational system . English "was perceived as the language of progress, equality, prosperity, mass entertainment and pleasure". This and other administrative reforms resulted in the institutional and cultural dominance of English and marginalisation of Welsh, especially in the more urban south and north-east of Wales. In 2022, the Commission for Welsh-speaking Communities warned that
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#17328695132521254-727: The conquest of Wales by Edward I , which involved English and Flemish settlers being "planted" in various newly established settlements in Welsh territory. English settlers in Ireland mostly resided in the Pale , a small area concentrated around Dublin . However, much of the land the English settled was not intensively used or densely populated. The culture of settling English populations in Wales and Ireland remained heavy influenced by that of England. These communities were also socially and culturally segregated from
1311-570: The Angels and St. Jerome Penitent now in the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia in Reggio Calabria . In 1461 Antonello's younger brother Giordano entered his workshop, signing a three-year contract. In that year Antonello painted a Madonna with Child , now lost, for the Messinese nobleman Giovanni Mirulla. Historians believe that Antonello painted his first portraits in the late 1460s. They follow
1368-679: The Equilibrium of Planes , The Quadrature of the Parabola , and The Sand Reckoner . The manuscript consists of 82 folio leaves, is held in the collection of the Biblioteca Riccardiana and is a copy of the translation of the Archimedean corpus made by Italian humanist Iacopo da San Cassiano . Bohuslav Martinů wrote a three movement work for orchestra entitled Les Fresques de Piero della Francesca . Dedicated to Rafael Kubelik , it
1425-525: The Five Regular Solids ) and De Prospectiva pingendi ( On Perspective in painting ). The subjects covered in these writings include arithmetic , algebra , geometry and innovative work in both solid geometry and perspective . Much of Piero's work was later absorbed into the writing of others, notably Luca Pacioli . Piero's work on solid geometry was translated in Pacioli's Divina proportione ,
1482-566: The Frick Collection] on the Sant'Agostino altarpiece". Piero's deep interest in the theoretical study of perspective and his contemplative approach to his paintings are apparent in all his work. In his youth, Piero was trained in mathematics, which most likely was for mercantilism. Three treatises written by Piero have survived to the present day: Trattato d'Abaco (Abacus Treatise) [ fr ] , De quinque corporibus regularibus ( On
1539-649: The Islands. The upper class in the Channel Islands supported anglicising the Islands, due to the social and economic benefits it would bring. Anglophiles such as John Le Couteur strove to introduce English culture to Jersey . Anglicisation was an essential element in the development of British society and of the development of a unified British polity. Within the British Isles , anglicisation can be defined as influence of English culture in Scotland , Wales , Ireland ,
1596-419: The Welsh people did not move abroad in search of employment during the early modern era, and thus did not have to learn to speak English. Furthermore, migration patterns created a cultural division of labour, with national migrants tending to work in coalfields or remain in rural villages, while non-national migrants were attracted to coastal towns and cities. This preserved monocultural Welsh communities, ensuring
1653-523: The anglicisation of the Welsh culture and language. Motives for anglicising Wales included securing Protestant England against incursions from Catholic powers in Continental Europe and promoting the power of the Welsh Tudor dynasty in the rest of England. Scholars have argued that industrialisation prevented Wales from being anglicised to the extent of Ireland and Scotland, as the majority of
1710-494: The artist, Giorgio Vasari remarked that Antonello saw an oil painting by Van Eyck (the Lomellini Tryptych ) belonging to King Alfonso V of Aragon at Naples and consequently introduced oil painting to Italy. Recent evidence indicates that an "Antonello di Sicilia" (di Sicilia meaning 'from Sicily') was in contact with Van Eyck's most accomplished follower, Petrus Christus , in Milan in early 1456. It appears likely that this
1767-523: The church of Sant'Egidio in Florence, now lost. In Florence he must have met leading masters like Fra Angelico , Luca della Robbia , Donatello , and Brunelleschi . The classicism of Masaccio 's frescoes and his majestic figures in the Santa Maria del Carmine were for him an important source of inspiration. Dating of Piero's undocumented work is difficult because his style does not seem to have developed over
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1824-631: The church. In a 2013 exhibition, the Frick Collection in New York collected seven of the eight paintings of Piero known to exist in the United States. Of the seven paintings in the exhibit, critic Jerry Saltz writing in New York magazine singled out Piero's Virgin and Child Enthroned With Four Angels for its exemplary qualities. Saltz wrote, "The Virgin and child are elevated two steps. They are in
1881-519: The continued prominence of the Welsh language and customs within them. However, other scholars argue that industrialisation and urbanisation led to economic decline in rural Wales, and given that the country's large towns and cities were anglicised, this led to an overall anglicisation of the nation. The Elementary Education Act 1870 and the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889 introduced compulsory English-language education into
1938-669: The dead-center vertical line of the painting is Christ's right palm that will be nailed to the cross." By contrast, Walter Kaiser, reviewing the exhibition in The New York Review of Books , wrote, "The most splendid picture in the Frick exhibition is the magnificent figure of Saint Augustine from the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga in Lisbon, a companion to Saint John the Evangelist [owned by
1995-434: The decline of French brought about the adoption of more values and social structures from Victorian era England. Eventually, this led to the Channel Islands's culture becoming mostly anglicised, which supplanted the traditional Norman-based culture of the Islands. From 1912, the educational system of the Channel Islands was delivered solely in English, following the norms of the English educational system . Anglicisation
2052-544: The emigration of Anglophones to Welsh-speaking villages and towns was putting the Welsh language at risk. During the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a nationwide effort in the United States to anglicise all immigrants to the US . This was carried out through methods including (but not limited to) mandating the teaching of American English and having all immigrants change their first names to English-sounding names. This movement
2109-757: The end of his life include the famous Virgin Annunciate , now in the Palazzo Abatellis in Palermo , and the San Gregorio Polyptych . He died at Messina in 1479. His testament dates from February of that year, and he is documented as no longer alive two months later. Some of his last works remained unfinished, but were completed by his son Jacobello. Antonello's style is remarkable for its union of Italian simplicity with Flemish concern for detail. He exercised an enormous influence on Italian painting, not only by
2166-617: The frescoes of the basilica of San Francesco . The work was finished in 1464. The History of the True Cross cycle of frescoes is generally considered among his masterworks and those of Renaissance painting in general. The story in these frescoes derives from legendary medieval sources as to how timber relics of the True Cross came to be found. These stories were collected in the Golden Legend of Jacopo da Varazze (Jacopo da Varagine) of
2223-403: The identity of the native Anglo-Saxons , became replaced with a single English national identity . Secondly, English communities in Wales and Ireland emphasised their English identities, which became established through the settlement of various parts of Wales and Ireland between the 11th and 17th centuries under the guidance of successive English kings. In Wales, this primarily occurred during
2280-611: The influence of Piero della Francesca and Giovanni Bellini. His most famous pictures from this period include the Condottiero (Louvre), the San Cassiano Altarpiece and the St. Sebastian . The San Cassiano Altarpiece was especially influential on Venetian painters, as it was one of the first of the large compositions in the sacra conversazione format which was perfected by Giovanni Bellini (Antonello's surviving work in Vienna
2337-432: The introduction of the Flemish invention, but also by the transmission of Flemish tendencies. However, no school of painting formed after his death, with the exception of the Sicilian Marco Costanzo . Anglicization Anglicisation or Anglicization is a form of cultural assimilation whereby something non-English becomes assimilated into or influenced by the culture of England . It can be sociocultural, in which
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2394-446: The mid-13th century. At some point, Giovanni Santi invited Piero to Urbino , where Piero "executed several commissions for Duke Federico da Montefeltro ." The Flagellation is generally considered Piero's oldest work in Urbino (c. 1455–1470). It is one of the most famous and controversial pictures of the early Renaissance. As discussed in its own entry, it is marked by an air of geometric sobriety, in addition to presenting
2451-427: The native Irish and Welsh, a distinction which was reinforced by government legislation such as the Statutes of Kilkenny . During the Middle Ages , Wales was gradually conquered by the English. The institutional anglicisation of Wales was finalised with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , which fully incorporated Wales into the Kingdom of England . This not only institutionally anglicised Wales, but brought about
2508-476: The rest of the British Isles, the town of St Helier in the Channel Islands became a predominantly English-speaking place, though bilingualism was still common. This created a divided linguistic geography, as the people of the countryside continued to use forms of Norman French , and many did not even know English. English became seen in the Channel Islands as "the language of commercial success and moral and intellectual achievement". The growth of English and
2565-418: The style of the Netherlandish masters, suggesting that Antonello was personally instructed by Christus. Also, the calmer expressions on human faces and calmness in the overall composition of Antonello's works appear to be owing to a Netherlandish influence. He is believed to have shared Van Eyck's techniques with Gentile and Giovanni Bellini . Between the years of 1456 and 1457, Antonello proved himself to be
2622-628: The time in which there were large influxes of immigrants from Europe to the United States and United Kingdom during the 19th and 20th centuries, the names of many immigrants were never changed by immigration officials but only by personal choice. Piero della Francesca Piero della Francesca ( / ˌ p j ɛər oʊ ˌ d ɛ l ə f r æ n ˈ tʃ ɛ s k ə / PYAIR -oh DEL -ə fran- CHESK -ə , US also /- f r ɑː n ˈ -/ - frahn- ; Italian: [ˈpjɛːro della franˈtʃeska] ; né Piero di Benedetto ; c. 1415 – 12 October 1492)
2679-411: The town of Borgo Santo Sepolcro , modern-day Tuscany , to Benedetto de' Franceschi, a tradesman, and Romana di Perino da Monterchi , members of the Florentine and Tuscan Franceschi noble family. His father died before his birth, and he was called Piero della Francesca after his mother, who was referred to as "la Francesca" due to her marriage into the Franceschi family (similar to Lisa Gherardini who
2736-422: The treatise On Perspective in Painting in the mid-1470s to 1480s. By 1480, his vision began to deteriorate, but he continued writing treatises such as Short Book on the Five Regular Solids in 1485. It is documented that Piero rented a house in Rimini in 1482. Piero made his will in 1487 and he died five years later, on 12 October 1492, in his own house in Sansepolcro. He left his possessions to his family and
2793-406: The world. A few years later, summoned by Pope Nicholas V , he moved to Rome, where he executed frescoes in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore , of which only fragments remain. Two years later he was again in the Papal capital, painting frescoes in the Vatican Palace , which have since been destroyed. In 1452, Piero della Francesca was called to Arezzo to replace Bicci di Lorenzo in painting
2850-440: The years. Piero returned to his hometown in 1442 and was elected to the City Council of Sansepolcro. Three years later, he received his first commission, to paint the Madonna della Misericordia altarpiece for the church of the Misericordia in Sansepolcro, which was completed in the early 1460s. In 1449 he executed several frescoes in the Castello Estense and the church of Sant'Andrea of Ferrara , now also lost. His influence
2907-417: Was an Italian painter , mathematician and geometer of the Early Renaissance , nowadays chiefly appreciated for his art. His painting is characterized by its serene humanism , its use of geometric forms and perspective . His most famous work is the cycle of frescoes The History of the True Cross in the Basilica of San Francesco in the Tuscan town of Arezzo . Piero was born Piero di Benedetto in
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#17328695132522964-428: Was in Rimini , working for the condottiero Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta . In 1451, during that sojourn, he executed the famous fresco of St. Sigismund and Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta in the Tempio Malatestiano , as well as a portrait of Sigismondo . In Rimini, Piero may have met the famous Renaissance mathematician and architect Leon Battista Alberti , who had redesigned the Tempio Malatestiano , although it
3021-406: Was in fact Antonello da Messina as this would explain why he was one of the first Italians to master Eyckian oil painting, and why Petrus Christus was the first Netherlandish painter to learn Italian linear perspective . Antonello's paintings after that date show an observation of almost microscopic detail and of minute gradations of light on reflecting or light absorbent objects that is very close to
3078-650: Was known as Americanization and is considered a subset of Anglicization due to English being the dominant language in the United States. Linguistic anglicisation is the practice of modifying foreign words, names, and phrases to make them easier to spell, pronounce or understand in English . The term commonly refers to the respelling of foreign words, often to a more drastic degree than that implied in, for example, romanisation . Non-English words may be anglicised by changing their form and/or pronunciation to something more familiar to English speakers. Some foreign place names are commonly anglicised in English. Examples include
3135-551: Was known as "la Gioconda" through her marriage into the Giocondo family). Romana supported his education in mathematics and art. He was most probably apprenticed to the local painter Antonio di Giovanni d'Anghiari, because in documents about payments it is noted that he was working with Antonio in 1432 and May 1438. He certainly took notice of the work of some of the Sienese artists active in San Sepolcro during his youth; e.g. Sassetta . In 1439 Piero received, together with Domenico Veneziano , payments for his work on frescoes for
3192-429: Was particularly strong in the later Ferrarese allegorical works of Cosimo Tura . The Baptism of Christ , now in the National Gallery in London, was completed in about 1450 for the high altar of the church of the Priory of S. Giovanni Battista at Sansepolcro. Other notable works are the frescoes of The Resurrection in Sansepolcro, and the Madonna del parto in Monterchi , near Sansepolcro. Two years later he
3249-435: Was supported by the British government , and it was suggested that anglicisation would not only encourage loyalty and congeniality between the Channel Islands and Britain, but also provide economic prosperity and improved "general happiness". During the 19th century, there was concern over the practise of sending young Channel Islanders to France for education, as they might have brought back French culture and viewpoints back to
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